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GIFT  OF 


INSPECTION 

OF  THE 

MATERIALS  AND  WORKMANSHIP 

EMPLOYED  IN 

CONSTRUCTION. 


A  Reference  Boole  for  the  Use  of  Inspectors,  Superin- 
tendents, and  Others  Engaged  in  the  Construe' 
tion  of  Public  and  Private   Works. 

CONTAINING 

A  COLLECTION  OF  MEMORANDA  PERTAINING  TO  THE  DUTY  OB1 

INSPECTORS;  QUALITY  AND  DEFECTS  OF  MATERIALS; 

REQUISITES  FOR  GOOD  CONSTRUCTION;  METHODS 

OF  SLIGHTING  WORK: 

ETC.,  ETC. 


BY 

AUSTIN   T.    BYRNE, 

Civil  Engineer, 
Author  of  "  Highway  Construction.'' 


FIRST    EDITION. 
FIRST   THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK: 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS. 

LONDON  :    CHAPMAN  &   HALL,   LIMITED. 

1898. 


w 


Copyright,  1898, 

BY 

AUSTIN  T.  BYRNE. 


ROBERT   DRUMMOND,    PRINTER.    NEW   YORK, 


PKEFACE. 


DURING  a  long  acquaintance  with  inspectors  on  public  and  pri- 
vate works  I  have  been  frequently  asked  to  recommend  a  concise 
manual  defining  the  duties  of  inspectors  and  describing  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  materials  employed,  the  methods  of  preparing 
them,  and  the  manner  in  which  work  is  slighted  ;  but  I  have  felt 
myself  unable  to  make  a  satisfactory  selection,  chiefly  for  the 
reason  that  the  desired  information  is  contained  in  the  text-books 
of  civil  engineering  and  architecture  mixed  with  scientific  discus- 
sions that  are  of  but  little  interest  to  any  but  the  engineer  or 
architect. 

Therefore  I  have  set  myself  the  task  of  selecting  and  adapting 
the  desired  matter  to  the  wants  of  inspectors  and  others  engaged 
in  supervising  the  construction  of  civil  works. 

The  aim  of  this  publication  is  to  present  in  as  concise  a  form 
as  possible  (I)  the  duties  of  the  inspector;  (2)  the  character- 
istics and  defects  of  the  materials  used  in  construction  ;  (3)  a 
description  of  the  methods  employed  in  preparing  the  materials 
for  use  ;  (4)  the  manner  of  placing  the  prepared  materials  in 
the  structure  ;  and  (5)  to  indicate  the  points  to  which  the  inspec- 
tor must  direct  his  especial  attention  to  secure  a  faithful  compli- 
ance with  the  plans  and  specifications. 

While  presenting  the  generally  approved  methods  of  preparing 
materials,  etc.,  it  must  be  distinctly  understood  that  the  directions 
or  suggestions  set  forth  are  not  intended  to  run  counter  to,  or  be 
employed  in  opposition  to,  the  directions  and  instructions  given  in 
the  specifications  under  whicli  the  work  is  being  prosecuted. 

Reference  to  authorities  has  not  usually  been  given  in  the  text ; 
instead,  a  list  of  the  various  text-books  and  technical  dictionaries 
consulted  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  book.  To  the  authors  of 
these  works  the  writer  desires  to  give  his  thanks  and  acknowl- 
edge his  indebtedness  for  information  and  suggestions. 

50  I  R  Hi 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 


DUTIES  OF  INSPECTORS. 

PAGE 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  to  be  employed — Inspection  of  the 
Methods  used  in  PrepaYing  the  Materials — Inspection  of  the  Con- 
struction or  Placing  of  the  Materials  in  the  Structure — Marking  Re- 
jected Material— Removal  of  Rejected  Material — Right  to  require 
Special  Methods  of  Manufacture— Necessity  of  Constant  Vigilance — 
Removal  of  Incompetent  Workmen— Interpretation  of  Specifica- 
tions—Diary— Records— Reports— Failure  to  comply  with  Speci- 
fications—Complaints, how  made — Arguments  and  Disputes — Ad- 
justment of  Disagreements .,,, ....  1-3 

CHAPTER  II. 

STRUCTURAL   MATERIALS. 
SEC.  I.    NATURAL,  STONES. 

Classification  of  Stones: 

Geological  Classification 4 

Physical  Classification 4 

Chemical  Classification 5 

Requisites  for  Good  Building  Stone: 

Durability 5 

Strength 6 

Cheapness 6 

Appearance 6 

Tests  for  Stone: 

Porosity  or  Absorption 6 

Effect  of  Frost 6 

Effect  of  the  Atmosphere 7 

Preservation  of  Stone 7 

SEC.  II.    DESCRIPTION  OF  BUILDING  STONES. 
Silicious  Stones: 

Granite— Syenite— Gneiss— Mica-slate— Trap— Sandstones 8-10 

Argillaceous  Stones: 

Slate— Clay-slate 11 

V 


VI  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Calcareous  Stones: 

Limestones— Marble 11-12 

Inspection  of  Stone: 

Appearance  of  Fracture— Defects  of  Granite— Sandstone  and  Lime- 
stone— Test  for  Soundness — Quarrying — Seasoning 16-17 

SEC.  III.    ARTIFICIAL  STONES. 

Brick: 

Clay — Manufacture  of  Brick — Color  of  Brick — Classification  of  Brick 
—Rank  of  Bricks— Glazed  and  Enamelled  Bricks— Size  and  Weight  of 
Bricks 18-23 

Inspection  of  Brick: 

Soundness,  Hardness,  Shape,  and  Size — Strength — Porosity — Effect 
of  Frost 24-25 

Firebrick: 

Fire-clay— Quality— Size 25-26 

Terra-cotta: 

Manufacture — Shrinkage — Color — Quality — Strength — Porous  Terra- 
cotta   26-28 

Tiles: 

Common  Tiles— Encaustic  Tiles— Paving  Tiles— Roofing  Tiles— Flat 
Tiles— Pan  Tiles— Inspection  of  Tiles 28 

Stones  made  by  Patented  Processes 29 

SEC.  IV.    CEMENTING  MATERIALS. 

Limes: 

Rich  Lime— Poor  Lime— Hydraulic  Lime— Quality  of  Lime— Pres- 
ervation of  Lime— Slaking  Lime 30-32 

Memoranda  and  Definitions  of  Lime: 

Market  Form— Weight 33 

Portland  Cement: 

Definition— Quality— Color— Fineness  —  Weight  —  Specific  Gravity- 
Tensile  Strength— Setting— Expansion  and  Contraction— Overtimed— 
Blowing  and  Swelling 34-35 

Natural  Cements: 

Rosendale— Definitions— Characteristics— Color  —  Weight  —  Specific 
Gravity— Tensile  Strength 35-36 

Inspection  of  Cement: 

Sampling— Labelling— Marking  Rejected— Adulteration  of  Portland 
Cement — Tests  for  Cement — Setting — Expansion — Soundness — Ball 
Test-Preservation  of  Cement 36-38 

Cement  Memoranda  and  Definitions: 

Market  Form — Weight — Activity — Fineness — Freezing  of  Cement 
Mortar  —  Hydraulicity  —  Hydraulic  Activity  —  Hydraulic  Energy — 
Quick-  and  Slow-setting— Strength — Setting — Soundness 38-41 

Miscellaneous  Cements: 

Slag  Cement — Description — Tests — Pozzuolanas — Roman  Cement — 
Laf arge  Cement 42-43 

Asphalt  UMI: 

Description— Characteristics— Asphaltic  Cement 43-54 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS.  Vll 


SEC.  V.    TIMBER. 

PAGE 

Structure  of  Timber: 

Properties  of  Timber— Weight  and  Strength 55-61 

Seasoning  Timber: 

Natural  Seasoning— Water  Seasoning— Artificial  Seasoning 62 

Shrinkage  and  Expansion  of  Timber: 

Shrinkage  of  Different  Woods— Expansion  by  Water— Expansion  by 
Heat.....  .  63-64 

Durability  and  Decay  of  Timber: 

Dry  Rot— Detection  of  Dry  Rot— Wet  Rot— Common  Rot— Worms.  64-65 

Processes  for  Preserving  Timber: 

Burnett's— Wellshouse's— Thilmany's— Kyan's— Creosoting— Payne's 
—Seeley's— Vulcanizing 66-68 

Inspection  of  Treated  Timber: 

Testing  Timber  treated  with  Zinc  Chloride— Form  of  Report 69-71 

Measurement  of  Timber 73 

Inspection  of  Timber: 

Appearance  of  Good  Timber— Defects  of  Timber— Amount  of  Moist- 
ure in  Timber 73-75 

General  Rules  for  Classifying  Lumber: 

Recognized  Defects— Imperfect  Manufacture— Standard  Lengths..  76-77 

Rules  for  Grading  Finished  Lumber: 

Grades— First  and  Second  Clear  Finish— Third  Clear  Finish— Edge- 
grain  Flooring— Flat-grain  Flooring— Common  Flooring— Ceiling- 
Bevel  and  Drop  Siding— Partition— Moulded  Casings  and  Base 78-80 

Rules  for  Grading  Common  Boards  and  Rough  Lumber  : 

Common  Boards— Fencing -Dimension— Dressed  Timber— Rough 
Yellow  Pine  —  Flooring  and  Finishing  —  Common  Boards— Rough 
Timber 81-82 

Standard  Dimensions  of  the  Southern  Lumber  Manufacturers1  Associa- 
tion : 
Flooring— Ceiling— Finishing  Boards— Fencing — Dimension 83 

Inspection  of  Yellow-pine  Lumber 83-86 

Inspection  of  White  Pine,  Spruce,  etc 87 

Hardwood  Lumber  Grades 87 

Quartered  Oak,  Pine,  etc 88 


SEC.  VI.    METALS. 
Iron  : 

Pig  Iron— Composition— Impurities  in  Pig  Iron  and  Their  Effect- 
Materials  produced  from  Pig  Iron 90-93 

Cast  Iron : 

Varieties  of  Cast  Iron 94 

Properties  of  Cast  Iron  : 

Weight— Strength— Expansion  and  Contraction 95-96 

Notes  on  Founding  : 

Casting  with  a  Head— Pipe  and  Column  Casting 97 

Inspection  of  Cast  Iron 98 

Malleable  Cast  Iron 100 

Inspection  of  Malleable  Cast,  Iron * 100 


Vlll  TABLE   OP   CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Wrought  Iron  : 

Refining— Puddling— Shingling— Boiling— Composition  of  Wrought 
Iron 101-102 

Properties  of  Wrought  Iron  : 

Weight — Strength — Expansion  by  Heat — Contraction — Strength  of 
Welds— Tenacity  at  High  Temperatures 102-103 

Mill  Inspection  of  Wrought  Iron  : 

Appearance  of  Fracture— Defects  of  Iron  — 104 

Tests  for  Wrought  Iron 105 

Steel: 

Definition— Characteristics— Varieties— Blister  Steel— Shear  Steel- 
Puddled  Steel  —  Bessemer  Process — Basic  Process — Open-hearth 
Process— Siemens -Mar  tin  Process— Acid  and  Basic — Bessemer  and 
Open  Hearth— Cast  Steel 109-111 

Classification  of  Steel: 

Mild— Soft— Medium— Hard— Tank— Shell— Flange— Fire-box.. . .  111-112 

Properties  of  Steel: 

Specific  Gravity — Weight — Expansion  and  Contraction  — Strength — 
Tenacity  at  High  Temperatures— Strength  of  Welds 112-114 

Steel  Alloys: 

Manganese,  Nickel,  Chrome,  and  Tungsten  Steels— Compressed 
Steel 114-115 

Terms  used  in  Steel-working 115-116 

Mill  Inspection  of  Steel: 

Steel  Ingots  :  Defects — Appearance  of  Good  Steel — Marking  Ingots — 
Melt  Records.  Rolled  Steel :  Defects— Appearance  of  Fractured 
Surface— Steel  for  Boilers  -Steel  Castings:  Defects— Appearance  of 
Fracture— Shrinkage— Specifications 117-121 

Tests  for  Steel 122-124 

Shop  Inspection  of  Iron  and  Steel 125-128 

Notes  on  Working  Iron  and  Steel: 

Cold-rolling— Punching  and  Shearing— Annealing— Forging— Weld- 
ing —Hardening  —  Tempering  —  Upsetting  —  Calking  —  Blue-short- 
ness ... , 129-131 

Copper: 

Characteristics— Properties— Use-Tests— Weight 132-133 

Lead: 

Characteristics— Properties— Use— Weight  134-135 

Tin: 

Characteristics— Properties— Tin  Plate— Tin  Roofing-plates 136-140 

Zinc: 

Characteristics— Properties— Use 141 

Alloys: 

Brass -Bronze— Aluminum  Bronze— Phosphor  Bronze— Manganese 
Bronze 142 

Solders  : 

Composition— Soldering— Fluxes  for  Soldering 144 

Tests  for  Materials 145 

Testing  Strength  of  Materials  : 

Tensile  Tests— Examination  of  Machine— Speed— Specimens— Ten- 
sion— Compression — Transrerse  Impact  or  Drop  Tests 146-148 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


Contraction  or  Shrinkage  of  Metals  : 

To  Compute  Weight  of  Cast  Metals  by  Weight  of  Pattern 148-149 

SEC.  VII.    MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS. 

Sand : 

Description  —  Silicious — Argillaceous  — Calcareous — Pi  t-sand  —  River- 
sand—  Sea-sand— Use  of  Sand— Fineness  of  Sand— Weight— Testing 
Cleanness— Sharpness— Presence  of  Salt— Clay— Preparation  of 
Sand— Screening— Washing— Drying 150-152 

Gravel: 

Description— Use— Preparation— Weight 152 

Clay: 

Description— Varieties 153 

Gypsum : 

Plaster  of  Paris— Description— Use 154 

Mineral  Wool: 

Description— Use— Weight. 154-155 

Asbestos: 

Description — Varieties 156 

Tar 

Coal-tar— Paving  pitch— Wood- tar 156 

Creosote: 

Description— Requisites  for  Preserving  Wood — Wood  Creosote — 
Fernoline 157 

Sheathing  Felt  and  Papers 158 

Glue  159 

Rope: 

Materials  employed— Quality  of  Hemp — Adulterations  of  Hemp — 
Tests— Strength  160-161 

Wire: 

Gauges— Weight  and  Strength 162-167 

Wire  Rope: 

Manufacture— Varieties— Size— Strength 168-172 

SEC.  VIII.    FASTENINGS. 

Nails: 

Cast  Nails— Wrought  Nails— Cut  Nails— Wire  Nails— Copper— Com- 
position—Holding  Power  of  Nails— Length  of  Nails 174-175 

Screws: 

Variety  —  Dimensions  —  Lag  Screws  —  Holding  Power  of  Screws  — 
Screws  for  Metal 180-182 

Pins— Treenails— Wedges  and  Keys 182 

Bolts  and  Nuts: 

Varieties  —  Drift-bolts—  Nuts—  Inspection— Standard  Dimensions- 
Weight -Strength— Washers  183-184 

Rivets: 

Description — Size — Length  —  Form  —  Button —  Cup  —  Hammered  — 
Countersunk— Pitch -Styles  of  Riveting— Weight  of  Rivets— Field- 
rivets  —  Conventional  Rivet-signs  —  Riveting— Hand-riveting— Mach- 
ine-riveting—Calking— Cold-riveting  188 


X  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Inspection  of  Riveting: 

Test  for  Rivet-metal  —  Essentials  of  Good  Riveting  —  Heating 
Rivets— Loose  Rivets  -Marking  Rivets  to  be  Cut  Out 194 

CHAPTER    III. 
CONSTRUCTION. 

SEC.  I.    EARTHWORK. 

Definition: 

Classification— Prosecution  of  Earthwork— Duty  of  Inspector- 
Slopes  of  Earthwork — Increase  and  Shrinkage  of  Excavated  Ma- 
terial   198-200 

Excavation: 

Loosening — Removing — Amount  Moved — Length  of  Haul — Capac- 
ity of  Vehicles 201-202 

Rock  Excavation: 

Drilling— Hand-drilling— Machine-drilling— Blasting— Explosives.  203-205 

Precautions  to  be  observed  in  Blasting 206 

Dredging: 

Types  of  Dredges— Removing  Dredged  Material— Marking  Area- 
Duty  of  Inspector 207 

Embankments: 

Methods  employed  in  Constructing 208 

SEC.  II.    FOUNDATIONS. 

Definitions: 

Object— Duty  of  Inspector 209 

Natural  Foundations: 

Rock— Sand— Clay— Bearing  Power  of  Soils— Loads  on  Founda- 
tions   210-211 

Artificial  Foundations  : 

Caissons— Vacuum  Process— Plenum  Process— Coffer-dams— Cribs 
—Freezing  Process— Grillage— Piles 211-214 

Description  of  Piles 215-217 

Pile-driving: 

Pile-driving  Machines— Water-jet— Splicing  Piles 218-221 

Inspection  of  Piles 221 

Clay  Puddle: 

Quality  of  Clay— Tests— Puddling 222-223 

Concrete: 

Essentials  of— Materials— Strength— Weight— Proportions  of  Materi- 
als—Mixing— Inspection— Laying— Depositing  under  Water— Lait- 
ance— Asphaltic  Concrete 224-229 

SEC.  III.    MASONRY. 

Classification  of  Masonry 230 

Preparation  of  the  Stones: 

Classification  of  the  Stones 230-231 

Stone-cutting: 

Dressing  Granite-Sandstone— Limestone— Marble-Slate 231-236 

Methods  of  Finishing  the  Faces  of  Cut  Stone: 

Rough -pointed-  Fine-pointed— Craiu  lulled— Axed— Bush-hammered 

—Rubbed— Diamond  Panels 237-238 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS.  XI 


PAGE 

Tools  used  in  Stone-cutting 238-240 

Definitions  of  the  Terms  used  in  Stone-cutting 240-241 

Inspection  of  Cut  Stone 241-242 

Mortar: 

Mixing— Measuring  Materials— Amount  of  Cement  and  Sand  re- 
quired for  One  Cubic  Yard  of  Mortar— Quality  of  Sand— Water— Re- 
tempering  Mortar— Freezing  of  Mortar 243-248 

Ashlar  Masonry: 

Size  of  Stones — Thickness  of  Mortar-joint— Bond — Amount  of 
Mortar 248-249 

Squared -stone  Masonry 250 

Broken-ashlar   Masonry , 250 

Rubble  Masonry: 

Uncoursed— Coursed— Inspection 251-252 

Ashlar  Backed  with  Rubble *53 

General  Rules  to  be  observed  in  Laying  All  Classes  of  Stone  Masonry. .  253 

Brick  Masonry: 

General  Rules  to  be  observed  in  Building  with  Bricks — Wetting 
Bricks — Laying — Amount  of  Mortar — Pressed-brick  Work — Brick 
Masonry  Impervious  to  Water— Efflorescence 254-258 

Repair  of  Masonry 258 

Definitions  of  Terms  used  in  Masonry: 

Bond — Coping — Course — Footing — Grout — Header — Joints — Lintels — 
Pointing— Rip-rap— Stretcher— Walls— Thickness  of  Walls  — Safe 
Working  Loads  for  Masonry  . .  259-273 

Description  of  Arches  274-275 

Definitions  of  Parts  of  Arches 275-276 

Construction  of  Arches: 

Centring  for  Arches— Striking  the  Centre 276-278 


SEC.  IV.    CARPENTRY. 

Inspection  of  Carpentry 279 

Joints: 

Met  hods  of  Forming— Fishing— Lapping— Scarfing— Halving—  Dove- 
tail— xVotching— Mprtise  and  Tenon 280-281 

Flooring: 

Single  — Double  — Hardwood  — Parts  of  Floors  — Bridging— Trim - 
mi  n g 282-285 

Roofs: 

Framing— Parts  of  Roofs 286 

Stairs: 

Construction— Parts  of  Stairs  287-288 

Doors: 

Framing— Parts  of  Doors. 289 

Standing  Trim: 

Architraves— Base-board — Linings — Mouldings — Wainscoting 290-291 

Windows: 

Construction— Setting 292 

Terms  used  in  Carpentry '^93-29? 


Xll  TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

SEC.  V.    IRON  AND  STKEL  WORK. 

PAGE 

Erection  of  Iron  and  Steel  Structures: 

Column-bearings — Bed-  and  Cap-plates — Setting  Beams  Parallel — 
Setting  and  Connecting  Beams  —  Beam-connections  —  Anchoring 
Beams— Lintels  and  Girders 298-301 

Fire-proof  Floors: 

Brick  Arches— Hollow  Tile— Laying  Tile— Strength  of  Tile  Arches 
—Tests  for  Tile  Floors— Concrete  Floors 301-306 

SEC.  VI.    ROOFING. 

Inspection  of  Roofing: 

Tin— Tiles— Shingles— Slates— Galvanized  Iron— Copper— Weight  of 
Roof-coverings 307-314 

Flashing— Counter— Cap— Gutters— Valleys 315-316 

SEC.  VII.    PLUMBING. 

Inspection  of  Plumbing: 

Lead  Pipes— Cast-iron  Soil-pipes— Water  Test— Peppermint  Test- 
Smoke  Test 317-322 

SEC.  VIII.    PLASTERING. 

Definition  of  Plastering  323 

Materials  and  Terms  used  in  Plastering  : 

Brown  Coat— Coarse  Stuff— Fine  Stuff— Finishing  Coat— Gauge  Stuff 
Grounds  —  Hair— Laths— Lime  Mortar— Plaster  of  Paris— Sand— 
Scratch-coat— Stucco— Two-coat  Work— Three-coat  Work 824-333 

Tools  used  in  Plastering 333-335 

Inspection  of  Plastering 336-337 

SEC.  IX.    GLASS  AND  GLAZING. 
Glass: 

Defects— Varieties— Thickness  and  Weight 338 

Glazing 339 

SEC.  X.    PAINTING. 

Materials  employed  for  Paint : 

Bases— Vehicles— Solvents— Stainers— Driers— Properties  of  Ingre- 
dients   340-346 

Special  Paints 346-347 

Varnish 348-349 

Miscellaneous: 

Japanning— Staining— Whitewash— Kalsomine 350 

Inspection  of  Painting 351-353 

SEC.  XL    WATER-SUPPLY. 

Materials  employed 354 

Inspection  of  Cast-iron  Pipe: 

Testing  Quality  of  Metal— Coating  the  Pipes— Hydraulic  Proof— Lay- 
ing the  Pipe— Calking— Testing  the  Pipes— Back  Filling— Dimen- 
sions and  Weight  of  Cast-iron  Pipe— Weight  of  Standard  Specials- 
Weight  of  Lead  and  Gasket  per  Joint 354-303 

Inspection  of  Steel  Pipe 363-365 

Inspection  of  Valves  and  Hydrants 365 


TABLE   OF    CONTENTS.  Xlll 

SEC.  XII.    SEWERAGE. 

PAGE 

Materials  employed  for  Sewers: 

Vitrified  Pipe— Inspection  of  Pipe— Testing— Manholes— Lamp-holes 
—flush  Tanks 366-368 

Inspection  of  Sewer  Construction  : 

Pipe  Sewers— Brick  Sewers 368-369 

SEC.  XIII.    PAVING. 

Materials  employed  for  Paving 371 

Granite-block  Paving: 

Manufacture  of  Blocks 371 

Inspection  of  Granite-block  Paving 372 

Paving-pitch 373 

Wood  Pavements 374 

Asphalt  Pavements 374-382 

Broken-stone  Pavements: 

Telford— Macadam 383-384 

Brick  Pavements 385-386 

Artificial-stone  Pavements 387 

Flagging 388 

Curbstones 388 

CHAPTER  IV.    MISCELLANEOUS. 

Weights  and  Measures 389-394 

Specific  Gravity  and  Weight  of  Materials 395 

Mensuration 408 

of  Surfaces— Polygons— Solids— Properties  of  the  Circle 410 

of  Areas  and  Circumference  of  Circles 411 

Trigonometrical  Functions 461 

Definition  of  Terms  used  in  Construction. . .  . .  499 


LIST   OF  TABLES. 


1 .  Absorptive  Power  of  Stones 6 

2.  Specific  Gravity,  Weight,  and  Resistance  to  Crushing  of  Stones 13 

3.  Size  and  Weight  of  Brick 23 

4.  Specific  Gravity  and  Resistance  to  Crushing  of  Brick 23 

5.  Resistance  to  Crushing  of  Terra-cotta 27 

6.  Strength  of  Cement  Mortar  42 

r.  Description  and  Properties  of  Timber 56 

7a.  Board  Measure 72 

8.  Composition  of  Pig  Iron 91 

9.  Elongation  and  Elasticity  of  Cast  Iron 96 

10.  Weight  of  Cast-iron  Plates,  Round  and  Square  Bars 99 

11.  Composition  of  Wrought  Iron 102 

12.  Weight  of  Flat-bar  Iron 106 

13.  Weight  of  Iron  and  Steel  Plates,  Round  and  Square  Bars 106 

14.  Physical  Properties  of  Open-hearth  Basic  Steel 113 

15.  Weight  of  Round  Copper 132 

16.  Weight  of  Copper  and  Brass  Sheets  and  Wire 133 

17.  Thickness  and  Weight  of  Sheet  Lead 135 

18.  Size  and  Weight  of  Tin  Plate 139 

19.  Weight  of  Sheets  of  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel 140 

20    Composition  of  Alloys 143 

21.  Composition  of  Solders 144 

2-2.  Size  of  Sieves  for  Sifting  Sand 151 

23.  Coefficients  for  Computing  Strength  of  Ropes 161 

24.  Strength  of  Manila  Rope 162 

25.  Wire  and  Sheet-metal  Gauges 163 

26.  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge  for  Sheet  and  Plate  Iron  and  Steel 164 

27.  Weight  of  Iron,  Steel,  and  Copper  Wire 165 

28.  Size  and  Weight  of  Iron  and  Steel  Wire 166 

29.  Tensile  Strength  of  Wire 167 

30.  Number  of  Yards  of  Iron  Wire  to  the  Bundle 167 

31.  Strength  of  Iron  Ropes 169 

32.  Strength  of  Steel  Ropes 170 

33.  Strength  of  Galvanized  Wire  Rope 171 

34.  Strength  of  Flat  Wire  Rope    171 

35.  Strength  of  Galvanized  Steel  Cables 172 

3f>.  Strain  on  Hoisting  Chains  and  Cables 172 

37.  Strength  of  Cable  Chains 173 

38.  Wroiifjht-iron  or  Clinch  Nails,  Length  and  Number  to  the  Pound. . ..  175 

XV 


XVI  UST    OK    TABLKS. 


PA(1B 

89.  Out  Nails,  Length  and  Number  to  th«  Pound 176 

l<>.  Turks,  Si/.<- . and  N limber  per  Pound 176 

41.  Wire  Nails.  L»*iiglh  and  Numb«:i-  to  Mir  Pound 177 

42.  Wrought  Spikes,  Size  and  Number  to  the  Pound 178 

4:1.  Wire  Spikes,  Si/.'-  and  Number  to  the  Pound 178 

M.  Track  Spikes,  Si/o  and  Number  per  Keg 179 

45.  Street-railway  Spikes,  Size  and  Number  per  Keg 179 

46.  Dimensions  of  Wood  Screws 180 

47.  Lag  Screws,  Size  and  Weight 181 

48.  Holding  Power  of  Screws 181 

49.  Drift-bolts,  Holding  Power'of 184 

50.  Standard  Dimensions  of  Screws,  Heads,  and  Nuts 186 

51.  Weight  of  Bolts  and  Nuts 186 

52.  Weight  and  Strength  of  Bolts 187 

58.  Thickness  and  Weight  of  Washers 187 

54.  Length  of  Rivet-shank  required  to  Form  Head 189 

55.  Weight  of  Rivets 191 

56.  Natural  Slopes  of  Earth 199 

57.  Lengths  and  Angles  of  Slopes 199 

58.  Amount  of  Cement  and  Sand  required  for  One  Cubic  Yard  of  Mortar  245 

59.  Weight  of  Flat  Dense-tile  Arches 304 

60.  Weight  of  Porous  Tile  Arches 304 

61 .  Number  and  Weight  of  Shingles  per  Square 309 

62.  Dimensions  and  Number  of  Slates  per  Square 312 

63.  Galvanized  Iron,  Weight  per  Square  Foot. .  313 

64.  Weight  of  Roof. coverings 314 

65.  Weight  of  Lead  Waste-pipe 317 

66.  Weight  and  Thickness  of  Lead  Pipe ...  :518 

67.  Weight  of  Plain  and  Galvanized  Iron  Pipe 319 

68.  Weight  of  Block-tin  Pipe 320 

69.  Weight  of  Cast-iron  Koil-pipu :}i>0 

70.  Quantity  of  Materials  required  for  Plastering 335 

71.  Area  covered  with  Our  Cubic  Foot  of  Cement  and  Sand 335 

7£.  TbickpeM  £nd  Weight  of  Sheet  Qlasa 339 

73.  Thickness  and  Weight  of  Skylight  Glass 339 

74.  Dimensions  and  W«-i^)i I  of  Cast-iron  Pipes  360 

75.  Weight  of  Standard  Specials 362 

76.  Weight  of  Lead  and  Gasket  required  for  Each  Joint  of  Cast-iron 

Pipe 363 

77.  Length  of  Sewer-pipe  One  Barrel  of  Cement  will  lay 370 

78.  Weight  of  Salt-glazed  Sewer-pipe 370 

79.  Inches  in  Decimals  of  a  Foot 394 

80.  Specific  Gravity  and  Weight  of  Materials 396 

81.  Areas  and  Circumference  of  Circles 411 

82.  Square  and  Cube  Roots  of  Numbers 416 

83.  Logarithms  of  Numbers , 433 

84.  Natural  Sines,  Tangents,  and  Secants 468 

85.  Tangents  and  Cotangents 487 


INSPECTION  OF  THE  MATERIALS  AND  WORKMAN- 
SHU'  EMPLOYED  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 


CHAPTER  I. 
DUTIES  OF  INSPECTORS. 

THE  duty  of  the  inspector  is  to  see  that  the  work  on  which  he 
is  placed  is  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  plans  and  specifi- 
cations therefor  and  such  written  or  verbal  instructions  as  he 
may  from  time  to  time  receive  from  his  superior  officer. 

To  perform  his  duty  efficiently  he  must  make  himself  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  requirement*  of  the  specifications,  a  copy  of 
which  should  always  be  in  bis  possession. 

The  details  of  the  inspector's  duty  will  vary  with  the  character 
of  the  work.  In  a  general  way  it  may  be  divided  into  three  parts, 
as  • 

1.  Inspection  of  the  materials  to  be  employed. 

2.  Inspection  of  the  methods  used  in  preparing  the  materials. 

3  Inspection  of  the  construction,  or  placing  of  the  prepared 
materials  in  the  structure. 

To  efficiently  perform  each  of  these  functions  the  inspector 
must  be  familiar  with  the  characteristics  of  the  materials  with 
which  lie  has  to  deal,  the  methods  employed  in  preparing  and 
placing  them  in  the  work,  and  he  must  also  know  whether  the 
finish'*!  work  is  what  is  required  or  expected. 

In  performing  the  first  section  of  his  duty  the  inspector  is  re 
quired  to  pass  upon  the  quality  of  the  materials  delivered,  and 
dKerrnine  whether  they  meet  the  requirements  of  the  specifications 
or  not,  rejecting  all  that  are  defective. 

In  marking  rejected  material  he  must  be  vareful  to  so  place  the 


•2  •  DUTIES   OF    INSPECTORS. 

marks  that  they  cannot  be  readily  erased.     As  a  distinguishing 
mark,  the  letter  "  R  "  or  "  C  "  may  be  used. 

It  will  not  be  sufficient  only  to  mark  the  rejected  material  and 
rely  upon  its  being  removed  by  the  contractor.  He  must  see  that 
it  is  removed.  If  this  precaution  is  not  taken,  the  chances  are  that 
part  if  not  all  of  it  will  find  its  way  into  the  work. 

A  careful  record  of  all  material  rejected  should  be  kept,  stating 
the  kind,  character  of  the  defects,  and  amount. 

Under  the  second  division  of  his  duty  the  inspector  has  to  watch 
the  methods  employed  in  preparing  the  materials,  to  see  that  the 
quantities  called  for  are  used,  and  that  the  dimensions  of  all  manu- 
factured pieces  correspond  to  those  marked  on  the  plans. 

The  right  of  the  inspector  to  require  special  methods  of  manu- 
facture to  be  followed  is  not  always  clearly  defined  It  is 
customary  to  allow  the  contractor  to  follow  his  own  methods,  so 
long  as  such  methods  cause  no  injury  to  the  material  and  produce 
the  required  results.  But  when  such  methods  cause  injury  or  fail 
to  produce  the  required  results  the  inspector  should  have  them 
stopped. 

To  efficiently  perform  his  duty  under  the  third  section  the  in- 
spector must  be  familiar  with  the  methods  employed  by  the  vari- 
ous craftsmen  in  executing  their  work. 

To  provide  against  slighting  by  careless  and  indifferent  work- 
men constant  vigilance  is  necessary,  especially  in  such  parts  of 
the  work  which  are  difficult  of  access  or  will  be  covered  up. 

A  close  scrutiny  of  each  workman's  manner  of  doing  his  work 
will  be  a  great  aid  in  directing  attention  to  defective  workmanship 
Every  craftsman  whose  workmanship  is  once  found  defect :ve 
should  be  closely  watched,  and  if  found  to  persist  in  doing  defec- 
tive work  his  removal  should  be  ordered. 

The  specifications  and  plans  for  each  particular  work  must  be 
the  inspector's  guide  as  to  the  character  of  the  materials  and  work- 
manship required,  and  in  case  of  any  discrepancy  between  them, 
or  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  any  of  the  clauses,  the  matter  must 
be  submitted  without  delay  to  the  engineer  or  architect  for  an 
explanation. 

The  inspector  should  keep  a  diary  recording  the  state  of  the 
weather,  the  number  and  trade  of  the  workmen  employed,  the 
orders  received  and  given,  the  amount  and  kind  of  material 
delivered,  accepted,  and  rejected,  the  progress  made,  accidents, 
and  any  other  incident  which  circumstances  may  suggest. 

At  the  periods  directed  by  his  chief  he  will  send  in  his  report. 


DUTIES    OF    INSPECTORS. 

This  report  is  made  up  from  the  record  of  daily  events,  and  should 
give  such  full  derails,  figures,  and  descriptions  as  will  enable  the 
chief  to  judge  of  the  progress  of  the  work. 

The  inspector  should  so  arrange  his  work  as  to  inconvenience 
the  contractor  as  little  as  possible.  He  should  be  on  hand  at  all 
times  so  that  workmen  can  consult  him  about  any  questionable 
points  as  they  arise,  and  in  this  way  avoid  a  great  deal  of  friction 
which  might  occur  if  they  proceeded  in  the  way  that  seemed  best 
to  them. 

On  the  failure  of  the  contractor  or  any  of  his  workmen  to 
comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  specifications,  the  inspector 
should  notify  him  or  his  representative  of  the  defective  work  and 
allow  him  a  reasonable  time  in  which  to  make  it  good.  If  at  the 
end  of  this  time  the  rectification  is  not  made,  or  if  he  refuses  to 
comply  with  the  notice,  the  inspector  must  immediately  acquaint 
his  chief  with  the  full  particulars  of  the  case,  description  of  tlie 
defective  work,  character  of  the  order  given,  and  reasons  advanced 
by  the  contractor  for  refusing  to  conform  to  it. 

The  inspector  should  avoid  arguments  and  disputes,  and  before 
raising  objections  or  making  complaints  he  should  be  quite  sure 
of  his  case,  then  in  as  few  words  as  possible  make  the  complaint 
known.  When  complaint  is  necessary  it  should  be  promptly 
made;  the  longer  it  is  put  off  the  more  difficult  will  be  the 
rectification. 

The  disagreements  most  frequent  between  inspectors  and  con- 
tractors and  their  agents  are  caused  chiefly  by  complaints  of  the 
former  of  non-performance  of  the  work  in  accordance  with  the 
.specifications,  and,  on  the  part  of  the  latter,  complaints  of  undue 
severity  This  complaint  is  to  be  expected;  the  best  of  men  are 
reluctant  to  change  what  has  already  been  done,  and  if  inadver- 
tence or  temporary  convenience  has  led  them  into  an  obvious 
violation  of  the  specifications,  they  will  mince  the  truth  in  their 
explanations  and  excuses. 

The  adjusting  of  these  disagreements  the  inspector,  unless  he  be 
possessed  of  a  large  fund  of  amiability  and  common  sense,  will 
find  a  very  trying  and  unpleasant  task.  He  who  can  distinguish 
between  a  mere  blemish  and  a  real  defect,  and  thoroughly  under- 
stands his  position  and  can  maintain  it  with  firmness,  will  be  less 
likely  to  have  bad  work  thrust  at  him  than  one  who  errs  in  his 
decisions  or  is  irresolute  in  his  position. 


CLASSIFICATION   OF   STONES. 


CHAPTER   II. 
STRUCTURAL   MATERIALS. 

I.    NATURAL  STONES. 
Classification  of  Stones. 

The  rocks  from  which  the  stones  for  building  are  selected  are 
classified  according  to  (1)  their  geological  position,  (2)  their 
physical  structure,  and  (3)  their  chemical  composition. 

GEOLOGICAL  CLASSIFICATION. —  The  geological  position  of 
rocks  has  but  little  connection  with  their  properties  as  building 
materia's.  As  a  general  rule,  the  more  ancient  rocks  are  the 
stronger  and  more  durable  ;  but  to  this  there  are  many  notable 
exceptions.  According  to  the  usual  geological  classification  rocks 
are  divided  into  three  classes,  viz. : 

Igneous,  of  which  greenstone  (trap),  basalt,  and  lava  are  ex- 
amples. 

Metamorphic,  comprising  granite,  slate,  marble,  etc. 

Sedimentary,  represented  by  sandstones,  limestones,  and  clay. 

PHYSICAL  CLASSIFICATION.— With  respect  to  the  structural 
character  of  their  large  masses,  rocks  tire  divided  into  two  great 
classes  :  (1)  the  unstratified,  (2)  the  stratified,  according  as  they 
do  or  do  not  consist  of  flat  layers. 

The  unstratified  rocks  are  for  the  most  part  composed  of  an 
aggregation  of  crystalline  grains  firmly  cemented  together.  Granite, 
trap,  basalt,  and  lava  are  examples  of  this  class.  All  the  unstrati- 
fied rocks  are  composed  as  it  were  of  blocks  which  separate  from 
each  other  when  the  rock  decays  or  when  struck  violent  blows. 
These  natural  joints  are  termed  the  line  of  cleavage  or  rift,  and  in 
all  cutting  or  quarrying  of  unstratified  rocks  the  work  is  much 
facilitated  by  taking  advantage  of  them. 

The  stratified  rocks  consist  of  a  series  of  parallel  layers, 
evidently  deposited  from  water,  and  originally  horizontal,  al- 
though in  most  cases  they  have  become  more  or  less  inclined  and 
curved  by  the  action  of  disturbing  forces.  It  is  easier  to  divide 


REQUISITES    FOR    GOOD    BUILDING    STONE.  5 

them  at  the  planes  of  division  between  these  layers  than  else 
where.  They  are  traversed  by  veins  or  cracks,  sometimes  empty, 
sometimes  containing  crystals,  sometimes  filled  with  "  dikes,"  or 
masses  of  unstratified  rock.  These  veins  or  dikes  are  often  ac- 
companied by  a  "fault"  or  abrupt  alteration  of  the  level  of  the 
strata.  Besides  its  principal  layers  or  strata,  a  mass  of  stratified 
rock  is  in  general  capable  of  division  into  thinner  layers ;  and, 
although  the  surfaces  of  division  of  the  thinner  layers  are  often 
parallel  to  those  of  the  strata,  they  are  also  often  oblique  or  even 
perpendicular  to  them.  This  constitutes  a  laminated  structure. 

Laminated  stones  resist  pressure  more  strongly  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  their  laminae  than  parallel  to  them;  they  are 
more  tenacious  in  a  direction  parallel  to  their  laminae  than  per- 
pendicular to  them  ;  and  they  are.  more  durable  with  the  edges 
than  with  the  sides  of  their  laminre  exposed  to  the  weather. 
Therefore  in  building  they  should  be  placed  with  their  laminae  or 
"  beds  "  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  greatest  pressure,  and 
with  the  edges  of  these  laminae  at  the  face  of  the  wall. 

CHEMICAL  CLASSIFICATION. — The  stones  used  in  building 
are  divided  into  three  classes,  each  distinguished  by  the  pre- 
dominant mineral  which  forms  the  chief  constituent,  viz. : 

Silicious  stones,  of  which  granite,  gneiss,  and  trap  are  examples. 

Argillaceous  stones,  of  which  clay,  slate,  and  porphyry  are 
examples. 

Calcareous  stones,  represented  by  limestones  and  marbles. 

Requisites  for  Good  Building  Stone. 

The  requisites  for  good  building  stone  are  durability,  strength^ 
cheapness,  and  beauty. 

DURABILITY — The  durability  of  stone  is  a  subject  upon  which 
there  is  very  little  reliable  knowledge.  The  durability  will  de- 
pend upon  the  chemical  composition,  physical  structure,  and  the 
position  in  which  the  stone  is  placed  in  the  work.  The  same  stone 
will  vary  greatly  in  its  durability  according  to  the  nature  and  ex- 
tent of  the  atmospheric  influences  to  which  it  is  subjected. 

The  sulphur  acids,  carbonic  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  traces 
of  nitric  acid,  in  the  smoky  air  of  cities  and  towns,  and  the  carbonic 
acid  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  country  ultimately  decompose  any 
stone  of  which  either  carbonate  of  lime  or  carbonate  of  magnesia 
forms  a  considerable  part. 

Wind  has  a  considerable  effect  upon  the  durability  of  stone. 


6  TESTS   FOR   STOKE. 

Pligh  winds  blow  sharp  particles  against  the  face  of  the  stone  and 
thus  grind  it  away.  Moreover,  it  forces  the  rain  into  the  pores 
of  the  stone,  and  may  thus  cause  a  considerable  depth  to  be  sub- 
ject to  the  effects  of  acids  and  frost. 

In  winter  water  penetrates  porous  stones,  freezes,  expands,  and 
disintegrates  the  surface,  leaving  a  fresli  surface  to  be  similatly 
acted  upon. 

STRENGTH  is  generally  an  indispensable  attribute,  especially 
under  compression  and  cross -strain. 

CHEAPNESS  is  influenced  by  the  ease  with  which  the  stone  can 
be  quarried  and  worked  into  the  various  forms  required.  Cheap- 
ness is  also  affected  by  abundance,  facility  of  transportation,  and 
proximity  to  the  place  of  use. 

APPEARANCE. — The  requirement  of  beauty  is  that  it  should 
have  a  pleasing  appearance.  For  this  purpose  all  varieties  contain- 
ing much,  iron  should  be  rejected  as  they  are  liable  to  disfigure- 
ment from  rust-stains  caused  by  the  oxidation  of  the  iron  under 
the  influence  of  the  atmosphere. 

Tests  for  Stone. 

The  relative  enduring  qualities  of  different  stones  are  usually 
ascertained  by  noting  the  weight  of  water  they  absorb  in  a  given 
time.  The  best  stones  as  a  rule  absorb  the  smallest  amount  of 
water. 

To  determine  the  absorptive  power,  dry  a  specimen  and  weigh 
it  carefully,  then  immerse  it  in  water  for  24  hours  and  weigh 
again.  The  increase  in  weight  will  be  the  amount  of  absorption. 

TABLE  1. 

ABSORPTIVE  POWER  OF  STONES. 

Percentage  of 
Water  absorbed. 

Granites 0.06  to  0.15 

Sandstones 0.41  "    5.48 

Limestones 0.20  "    5.00 

Marbles 0.08  "    0.16 

EFFECT  OF  FROST  (Brard's  Test}. — To  ascertain  the  effect  ot 
frost,  small  pieces  of  the  stone  are  immersed  in  a  concentrated 
boiling  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda  (Glauber's  salts),  and  then 
hung  up  for  a  few  days  in  the  air. 

The  salt  crystallizes  in  the  pores  of  the  stone,  sometimes  forcing 


PRESERVATION    OF    STONE.  7 

off  bits  from  the  corners  and  arrises,  and  occasionally  detaching 
larger  fragments. 

The  stone  is  weighed  before  and  after  submitting  it  to  the  test. 
The  difference  of  weight  gives  the  amount  detached  by  disintegra- 
tion. The  greater  this  is,  the  worse  is  the  quality  of  the  stone. 

EFFECT  OF  THE  ATMOSPHERE  (Acid  Test).— Soaking  a  stone 
for  several  days  in  water  containing  1  per  cent  of  sulphuric  and 
hydrochloric  acids  will  afford  an  idea  as  to  whether  it  will  stand 
the  atmosphere  of  a  large  city.  If  the  stone  contains  any  matter 
likely  to  be  dissolved  by  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  the  water 
will  be  more  or  less  cloudy  or  muddy. 

A  drop  or  two  of  acid  on  the  surface  of  a  stone  will  create  an  in- 
tense effervescence  if  there  is  a  larje  proportion  present  of  carbon- 
ate of  lime  or  magnesia. 

Preservation  of  Stone. 

There  are  a  great  many  preparations  that  have  been  used  for 
the  prevention  of  the  decay  of  building  stones,  as  paint,  coal-tar, 
oil,  beeswax,  rosin,  paraffine,  soft-soap,  soda,  etc.  All  of  the 
methods  are  expensive,  and  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  that  they 
afford  permanent  protection  to  the  stone. 

RANSOME'S  PROCESS  consists  in  coating  the  surface  of  the 
stone  first  with  a  solution  of  silicate  of  soda  or  potash,  and  then 
with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  or  barium.  The  chemical 
reaction  produces  insoluble  silicate  of  lime  and  chloride  of  sodium, 
which  washes  out. 

The  surface  of  the  stone  to  be  coated  is  made  thoroughly  clean 
and  dry,  all  decayed  parts  being  cut  out  and  replaced  by  good. 

The  silicate  is  diluted  with  from  1  to  3  parts  of  soft  water  until 
it  is  thin  enough  to  be  absorbed  by  the  stone  freely.  The  less 
water  that  is  used  the  better,  so  long  as  the  stone  Is  thoroughly 
penetrated  by  the  solution. 

The  solution  is  applied  with  an  ordinary  whitewash  brush. 
After  about  a  dozen  brushings  over,  the  silicate  will  be  found  to 
enter  very  slowly.  When  it  ceases  to  go  in,  but  remains  on  the 
surface  glistening,  although  dry  to  the  touch,  it  is  a  sign  that  the 
stone  is  sufficiently  charged  ;  the  brushing  on  should  stop  just  short 
of  this  appearance.  No  excess  must  on  any  account  be  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  face.  After  the  silicate  has  become  perfectly  dry 
the  solution  of  chloride  of  calcium  is  applied  freely  (but  brushed  on 
lightly,  without  making  it  froth)  so  as  to  be  absorbed  with  the  sili- 
cate into  the  structure  of  the  stone. 


8  STLICIOUS   STONES. 

Special  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  either  of  the  solutions 
to  be  splashed  upon  windows  or  painted  work,  as  the  stains  can- 
not be  removed. 

The  brushes  or  jets  used  for  the  silicate  must  not  be  used  for 
the  chloride,  or  vice  versa. 

About  four  gallons  of  each  solution  is  required  for  every  hun- 
dred square  yards  of  surface,  but  this  will  depend  upon  the 
porosity  of  the  stone  treated. 


II.    DESCRIPTION  OF  BUILDING  STONES. 

Silicious  Stones. 

GRANITE  is  an  unstratified  rock  composed  of  silica  or  quartz, 
feldspar,  and  mica.  In  addition  to  these  essential  constituents 
one  or  more  accessory  minerals  may  be  present ;  the  more  com- 
monly occurring  are  hornblende,  pyroxene,  epidote,  garnet,  tour- 
maline, magnetite,  pyrite,  and  graphite.  The  character  of  the 
rock  is  often  determined  by  the  presence  of  these  accessory  con- 
stituents in  quantity. 

Granite  varies  in  texture  from  very  fine  and  homogeneous  to 
coarse  porpliyritic  rocks  in  which  the  individual  grains  are  an 
inch  or  more  in  length.  The  color  is  also  dependent  upon  the 
minerals  present ;  if  the  feldspar  is  the  orthoclase  (potash  spar), 
it  communicates  a  red  color;  the  soda-spar  produces  gray.  The 
mica  also  plays  an  important  part  in  the  modification  of  color  ;  if 
it  is  the  white  muscovite,  it  produces  no  change,  but  if  the  black 
biotite  mica  be  present,  it  modifies  the  color  accordingly.  Horn- 
blende gives  a  dark  mottled  appearance  ;  pyroxene  also  gives  a 
dark  appearance  ;  epidote  communicates  a  green  color. 

The  durability  of  the  granites  is  closely  related  to  their  miner- 
alogical  composition.  The  presence  or  absence  of  certain  species 
influences  the  hardness  and  homogeneous  nature  of  the  stone. 
Although  popularly  regarded  as  the  most  durable  stone,  there  are 
some  notable  exceptions.  The  quartzose  varieties  are  brittle,  the 
feldspathic  are  easily  decomposed;  feldspar  in  excess  causes 
rapid  decay  and  disintegration  in  consequence  of  the  action  of  air 
and  water  on  the  potasli  which  seems  to  be  removed,  and  the 
residue  falls  into  a  white  powder  composed  chiefly  of  silica  and 
alumina.  The  micaceous  varieties  are  easily  laminated. 

The  durability  and  hardness  of  granites  are  greater  the  more 


SILICIOUS   STONES.  9 

quartz  and  hornblende  predominate,  and  the  less  the  quantity  of 
feldspar  and  mica,  which  are  the  more  weak  and  perishable  in- 
gredients. Smallness  and  lustre  in  the  crystals  of  feldspar  in- 
dicate durability,  largeness  and  dulness  the  reverse. 

If  the  mica  or  feldspar  contains  an  excess  of  lime,  iron,  or 
soda,  the  granite  is  liable  to  decay. 

The  quantity  of  iron  either  as  the  oxide  or  in  combination  with 
sulphur  will  affect  the  durability. 

The  iron  can  generally  be  seen  with  a  good  glass;  and  a  very 
short  exposure  to  air,  especially  if  assisted  in  dry  weather  by 
sprinkling  with  water  to  which  has  been  added  1  per  cent  of 
nitric  acid,  will  reveal  it. 

The  name  "  granite  "  as  popularly  used  is  not  restricted  to  rock 
species  of  this  name  in  geological  nomenclature,  but  includes 
what  are  known  as  gneisses  (foliated  and  bedded  granites),  syenite, 
gabbro,  and  other  crystalline  rocks  whose  uses  are  the  same;  in 
fact,  the  similar  adaptability  and  use  have  brought  these  latter 
species  into  the  class  of  granites.  The  name  is  also  often  im- 
properly applied  to  the  diabase  and  trap  rocks. 

The  term  "syenite"  is  usually  restricted  by  modern  petrog- 
raphers  to  a  rock  which  is  an  aggregate  of  orthoclase  and  horn- 
blende; in  other  words,  a  granite  in  which  the  quartz  has  dis- 
appeared, while  the  mica  has  been  superseded  by  hornblende. 

GNEISS  AND  MIC  A- SLATE  consist  of  the  same  materials  as 
granite,  but  in  a  stratified  form.  They  are  found  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  granite,  in  strata  much  inclined,  bent,  and  distorted,  and 
often  form  great  mountain  masses.  Gneiss  resembles  granite  in 
its  appearance  and  properties,  but  is  less  strong  and  durable. 
Mica-slate  is  distinguished  by  containing  little  or  no  feldspar 
so  that  it  consists  chiefly  of  quartz  and  mica. 

TRAP  (GREENSTONE)  AND  BASALT. — These  are  unstratified 
metamorphic  rocks,  and  consist  of  granular  crystals  of  hornblende 
or  augite  with  feldspar.  In  trap  the  grains  are  considerably 
finer  than  in  granite;  in  basalt  they  are  scarcely  distinguishable. 
Trap  breaks  up  into  small  blocks,  basalt  into  regular  prismatic 
columns  Both  these  rocks  are  very  compact,  hard,  tough,  and 
durable;  being  generally  without  cleavage  or  bedding  they  are 
exceedingly  intractable  under  the  hammer  or  chisel,  and  conse- 
quently their  use  in  masonry  is  very  limited. 

The  "  Palisades "  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Hudson  River, 
opposite  and  above  New  York,  are  composed  of  trap  rock,  which 


10  SILICIOUS   STONES. 

splits  easily  into  small  blocks  much  used  for  paving  under 
the  naiue  of  "Belgian  block."  Crushed  trap  rock  is  also  exten- 
sively used  for  making  macadam  pavements. 

SANDSTONES  are  stratified  rocks  consisting  of  grains  of  sand, 
that  is,  small  crystals  of  quartz  cemented  together  by  silicious, 
ferruginous,  calcareous,  or  argillaceous  material.  From  the 
nature  of  the  cementing  material  the  rocks  are  variously 
designated  as  ferruginous,  calcareous,  etc. 

The  hardness,  strength,  and  durability  depend  upon  the  nature 
of  the  cementing  material;  if  it  be  one  which  decomposes  readily, 
as  in  the  argillaceous  and  calcareous  varieties,  the  whole  mass  is 
soon  reduced  to  sand.  When  composed  of  m-arly  pure  silica  and 
well  cemented,  sandstones  are  as  resistant  to  weather  as  granite, 
and  very  much  less  affected  by  the  action  of  fire.  When  quarried 
they  are  usually  saturated  with  quarry-water  (a  weak  solution  of 
silica)  and  are  very  soft,  but  on  exposure  to  the  air  (called 
"seasoning")  they  become  harder  by  the  precipitation  of  the 
soluble  silica. 

The  COLOR  of  sandstone  is  determined  by  the  cementing  material. 
A  stone  composed  exclusively  of  grains  of  quartz,  without  foreign 
matter,  is  snow-white.  The  various  shades  of  red  and  yellow  are 
produced  by  the  iron  oxides;  the  purple  tints  a:e  due  to  oxide  of 
manganese;  the  gray,  blue,  and  green  tints  are  produced  by  iron 
in  the  form  of  ferrous  oxide,  carbonate,  or  silicate  ;  the  brown 
color  is  produced  by  the  hydrated  oxide  of  iron. 

Sandstones  are  in  general  porous  and  capable  cf  absorbing  much 
water,  but  they  are  comparatively  little  injured  by  moisture, 
except  when  built  with  the  layers  set  on  edge,  in  which  case  the 
expansion  of  water  in  freezing  between  the  layers  makes  them 
split  or  "  scale  "  off  from  the  face  of  the  stone;  when  built  on  the 
natural  bed  any  water  which  may  penetrate  between  the  edges  of 
the  layers  has  room  readily  to  expand  or  escape. 

When  there  is  much  lime  in  the  cementing  matter  of  the  sand- 
stone it  decays  rapidly  in  the  atmosphere  of  the  seacoast,  and  in 
that  of  towns  where  much  coal  is  burned;  in  the  former  case  the 
lime  is  dissolved  by  muriatic  acid,  in  the  latter  by  sulphuric  acid. 
Crystals  of  sulphuret  of  iron  are  sometimes  embedded  in  the  stone, 
which,  when  exposed  to  air  and  moisture,  decompose  and  cause 
disintegration.  These  crystals  are  easily  recognized  by  their 
yellow  or  yellowish-gray  color  and  metallic  lustre. 

On  account  of  its  easy  working  qualities  it  has  been   named 


ARGILLACEOUS   STONES.  11 

"  freestone  "  by  stone-cutters.  A  great  variety  of  other  names  are 
applied,  derived  from  the  appearance  of  the  stone  and  the  uses  to 
which  it  is  put. 

Argillaceous  Stones. 

SLATE. — CLAY-SLATE  is  a  primary  stratified  rock  of  great  hard- 
ness and  density,  with  a  laminated  structure  making  in  general  a 
great  angle  with  the  planes  of  its  stratification.  It  splits  readily 
along  planes  called  "planes  of  slaty  cleavage."  This  facility  of 
cleavage  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  characteristics,  as  it  enables 
masses  to  be  split  into  slabs  and  -plates  of  small  thickness  ard 
great  area. 

The  color  of  slates  varies  greatly;  tho--e  most  frequently  met 
with  are  dark  blue,  bluish  black,  purple,  gray,  bluish  gray,  and 
green.  Red  and  cream-colored  slates  are  also  occasionally  found. 

Some  slates  are  marked  with  bands  or  patches  of  a  different 
color;  e.g.,  dark  purple  slates  often  have  large  spots  of  light  green 
upon  them.  These  are  generally  considered  not  to  injure  the 
durability  of  the  slate,  but  they  lower  its  quality  by  spoiling  its 
appearance. 

Ribs  or  veins  are  dark  marks  running  through  some  slates. 
They  are  always  objectionable,  but  particularly  when  they  run  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  slate,  for  it  will  be  very  liable 
to  split  along  the  vein.  These  veins  arid  ribbons  are  frequently 
soft  and  of  inferior  quality  to  the  slate  proper.  On  exposure  to  the 
weather  they  effloresce  and  show  signs  of  decomposition  due  to 
the  sulphate  of  iron  contained  in  them.  Such  slates  should  not 
be  allowed  in  good  work. 

Calcareous  Stones. 

LIMESTONES  are  composed  of  carbonate  of  lime  combined 
with  various  minerals.  There  are  many  varieties,  which  differ 
in  color,  composition,  and  value  for  engineering  and  building 
purposes.  The  several  kind4*  are  usually  designated  by  the  name 
of  the  principal  combined  minerals.  Thus,  if  it  contains  much 
sand  it  is  called  sUicious  limestone;  if  the  silica  is  very  fine 
grained  it  is  called  hor n stone ;  if  the  silica  is  distributed  in 
nodules  or  flakes,  either  in  seams  or  throughout  the  mass,  it 
is  cherty  limestone  ;  if  it  contains  silica  and  clay  in  about 


12  CALCAREOUS   STONES. 

equal  proportions  it  is  hydraulic  limestone  ;  if  clay  alone  is  the 
principal  ingredient  it  is  argillaceous  limestone  ;  if  iron  is  the 
principal  impurity  it  is  ferruginous  limestone  ;  if  iron  und  clay 
exceed  the  lime  it  is  ironstone;  if  the  ironstone  is  decomposed  and 
the  iron  hydrated  it  is  rottei  intone;  if  carbonate  of  magnesia  forms 
one  third  or  less  it  is  magnesian  limestone;  if  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia forms  more  than  one  third  it  u  dolomitic  limestone. 

GhiANULAii  LIMESTONE  consists  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  grains, 
which  are  in  general  shells  or  fragments  of  shells,  cemented 
together  by  some  compound  of  lime,  silica,  and  alumina,  and 
often  mixed  with  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of  sand.  It  is  always 
more  or  less  porous.  It  is  found  in  various  colors,  especially 
white  and  light  yellowish  brown.  In  many  cases  it  is  so  soft 
when  first  quarried  that  it  can  be  cut  with  a  knife,  and  hardens 
by  exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  found  in  various  strata,  especially 
the  oolitic  formation. 

COMPACT  LIMESTONE  consists  of  carbonate  of  lime,  either  pure, 
or  mixed  with  sand  and  clay.  It  is  generally  devoid  of  crystalline 
structure,  of  a  dull  earthy  appearance,  and  of  a  dark  blue,  gray, 
black,  or  mottled  color.  In  some  cases,  however,  it  is  crystalline 
and  full  of  organic  remains.  It  is  then  known  as  crystalline 
limestone. 

MAGNESIAN  AND  DOLOMITIC  LIMESTONES.— Whei  the  carbon- 
ate of  magnesia  is  present  in  limestone  to  the  amount  of  one  third 
or  less  it  is  called  magnesian  limestone;  when  the  carbonate  of 
magnesia  forms  one  third  or  more  it  is  call*  d  dolomitic  lime- 
stone. Both  kinds  are  found  in  various  conditions,  from  the  com- 
pact crystalline  to  the  porous  granular  condition.  The  durability 
depends  mainly  on  the  texture;  when  that  is  compact  they  are 
extremely  durable.  When  sand  is  present  in  the  magnesian 
variety  the  weathering  qualities  are  greatly  injured.  Some 
varieties  are  peculiarly  subject  to  the  attacks  of  sulphuric  acid, 
which  forms  a  soluble  sulphate  of  magnesia  easily  washed  away. 

MARBLE  is  the  purest  form  of  carbonate  of  lime  (except  stalac- 
tites), and  is  an  earlier  formation  of  limestone,  with  a  pressure 
which  retained  the  carbonic  acid.  The  name  marble  is  generally 
applied  to  any  limestone  which  will  take  a  good  polish.  Marbles 
exhibit  great  diversity  of  color  and  texture;  they  are  chiefly  used 
for  ornamentation  and  interior  decorations. 


NATURAL   STONE. 


13 


TABLE  2. 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  RESISTANCE  TO  CRUSHING  OF 

VARIOUS  STONES. 
Granites. 


Localities. 

Min. 
Max. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

2.60 

2.80 

Average 
Weight. 
Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot. 
163 
176 

Resistance  to 
Crushing. 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 
12,000 
35,000 

2  66 

166 

Q5  nnn 

Lord's  Island            '     

24  000 

2  63 

164 

22  250 

New  Haveii               '           

q  7*0 

Millstone  Point         ' 

2  70 

169 

1fi  187 

Milford                       '     

22  600 

New  London,            '     
Sharkey's  Quarry,  Me  

2.66 
2.72 

166 

170 

12,500 
22  1^5 

Hurricane  Island       "  

2  67 

167 

15  000 

Fox  Island  (blue)      "   

14  875 

13  000  to  18  000 

Huron  Island   Micli  ...         .  .  .  . 

20  650 

Duluth  (dark)    Minn  

17  750 

(light),      "    

19,000 

East  St   Cloud       "             .... 

28  000 

Quincy   (dark)     Mass          ..    .. 

2  66 

166 

19  500 

"        (light)        "     

14  750 

Fall  River  (gray),    "    

15,937 

Cape  Ann                 "     

j  12,  423 

Port  Deposit   Md  

1  19,500 
19  750 

2.64 

163 

5,340 

Jersey  City  N   J     . 

3  03 

189 

20  750 

Passaic  Co  (gray)  N  J      

24  040 

Chaumont  Bay,      N   Y  

2  65 

162 

22  700 

\Vestchester  Co          " 

2  65 

166 

18  250 

Gflrrison's  (gray)        "   

2  58 

161 

13  370 

Staten  Island  (blue)  "   

2  86 

179 

22,250 

Keene  (bluish  gray),   N.  H  

2.65 

166 

12,875 

CJunnison  Colo      ....        ...    . 

13  000 

Platte  Canon  (red),  Colo  

164 

14  600 

J2.72 

170 

14,100 

Westerly  (gray)  HI... 

(2.63 
2  67 

164 

167 

21,250 
14937 

Burnet   Co.,  Tex  

2.82 

176 

11,891 

Aberdeen,  Scotland  (gray)  

2  62 

163 

10,900 

"                 "          (red) 

2  62 

165 

10  760 

Gneiss    Conn     

2  70 

168 

19  600 

Syenite,  Fourth  Mountain,  Ark.. 
Trap,  Jersey  City,  N.  J  
"      Palisades            "   

2.64 
3.03 

167 

{178 
(189 

30,740 
20,000 
24,000 
19  700 

'  '      Staten  Island,  N.  Y  

2.86 

178 

22,250 

14 


NATURAL   STONE. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  RESISTANCE  TO  CRUSHING  OF 

VARIOUS  STONES.     (Continued.) 

Sandstones. 


Localities. 

Miu. 
Max. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

2.23 
2.75 

Average 
Weight. 
Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot. 

137       • 
170 

Resistance  to 
Crushing. 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

5,000 
18,000 

Potsdam  (red)         NY... 

2.60 

2.75 
2.41 
2.68 
2.42 
2.25 
2.71 
2.13 
2.26 

2.57 
2.16 

2.24 

2.14 
2.39 
j  2.36 
\  2.62 

2.63 
2.32 

2.22 
2.53 
2.61 

162 
171 
151 
167 
151 
141 
169 
133 
147 
148 

160 
135 

140 

134 
149 
147 
163 

164 
145 

138 

158 
157 

140 
173 

42,804 
17,725 

13,500 
9,850 
13,472 
4,350 
11,700 
13,310 
j    7,250 
"j  10,250 
8,850 
8,750 
6,800 
6,650 
5,000 
9,687 
6,950 
13,000 

9,150 
10,700 
6,250 
8,750 
6,250 
7,450 
5,714 
j    7,000 
\  14,000 
12,810 
j    6,000 
\  11,000 
11,505 
11,707 

Maiden  (bluestone)        

Medina  (pink)                 

\Varsaw  (bluestone) 

Albion  (brown)                          . 

Little  Falls  (brown),       

Oxford  (bluestone) 

Haverstraw  (red)             .... 

Belleville  (gray)      N.  J  .  .  .      . 

"          (brown),     " 

Berea  (drab),                     Ohio  

Vermilllou  (drab),                     
Massillon  (yellow  drab), 
Cleveland  (olive-green),          .... 
North  Amherst,                         .... 
Seneca  (red  brown), 
Warrensburg  (bluish  drab),  Mo.. 

Middletown  (Portland),  Conn..  .  . 

Dorchester  (brown),  New  Bruns- 
wick 

Kasota  (pink)                 Minn 

Frontenac  (light  buff)      "     .... 

Fond  du  Lac                     "     

Fond  du  Lac  (purple)   Wis 

Marquette    Mich  

Bristow   Va 

Long  Meadow  (reddish    brown), 
Mass    

Manitou  (light  red)   Colo  . 

St.  Vrain,                       "    

Fort  Collins  (gray)       " 

SLATE. 

Northampton  Co.,  Pa  

NATURAL    STONE. 


15 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  WEIGHT,  AND  RESISTANCE  TO  CRUSHING   OF 

VARIOUS  STONES.     (Continued.) 

Limestones. 


Localities. 
Min. 
Max. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

1  90 
2.75 

Average 
Weight, 
Pounds  per 
Cubic  Foot. 
118 
175 

Resistance  to 
Crushing. 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 
7.000 
20,000 

Glens  Falls          N   Y.  

2  70 

169 

11  475 

North  lliver            "                 .  . 

2  71 

169 

13425 

Lake  Cli  am  plain      '    

2  75 

172 

25  000 

Canajoharie,             '    
Erie  Co   (blue)         '      . 

2.68 
2  64 

168 
165 

20,700 
12  250 

Kingston                    '     ....      •  . 

2  69 

108 

13  900 

Garrison's                 '      

2  63 

165 

18503 

Joliet  (white)  111       

2  54 

159 

16  900 

Grafton  (magnesian),  111  

17  000 

Marblehead   (white)    Ohio 

2  40 

150 

12  600 

Marquette  (drab)   Mich  

2  34 

146 

8  050 

2  50 

156 

j  18,000 

Billingsville    Mo  

/  25,000 
7,250 

Cooper  Co    (dark  drab)   Mo 

2  32 

141 

6  650 

Bardstown  (dark)   K.y     

2  69 

168 

16,250 

Sturgeon  Bay  (bluish  drab),  Wis.. 
Bedford    Ind 

2.78 

174 

21,500 
i   6,000 

]  10,  000 

8,625 

Ked  \Ving  Minn     .  .          

23,000 

Stillwater       "      

10,750 

A  von  dale  (gray)    Pa 

18,000 

"          Hiffht)    "  . 

12,112 

j  14.090 

\  16,340 

Marbles. 


Min 
Max. 

East  Chester   NY         

2.62 
2.95 

2  87 

165 

ITU 
179 

8,000 
20,000 

13  504 

Hastings               "     

18  941 

Dorset      Vt  

2  63 

165 

7  612 

Kutland    "                                . 

10  746 

Mill  Creek   111               

2  57 

172 

9  687 

Montgomery  (blue)    Pa  

j    9,590 

North  Bay    Wis 

2  80 

175 

(  13,7§0 

20  02o 

Montgomery   Va         

8  950 

Lee  Mass         

(20,504 

Stockbridge    Mass 

{  22,  700 

10  382 

Colton    Cal           

17,783 

Italy  

2.69 

168 

13,425 

16  NATURAL   STONE. 


Inspection  of  Stone. 

The  fitness  of  stone  for  structural  purposes  may  be  determined 
approximately  by  examining  a  fresh  fracture,  the  appearance  and 
characteristics  of  which  are  as  follows  : 

The  even  fracture  occurs  when  the  surfaces  of  division  are 
planes  in  definite  positions,  and  indicates  a  crystalline  structure. 

The  uneven  fracture  presents  sharp  projections,  and  is  character- 
istic of  a  granular  structure. 

The  slaty  fracture  occurs  when  the  planes  of  division  are  par- 
allel to  the  lamination  and  are  uneven  for  other  directions  of 
division. 

The  conchoidal  fracture  presents  smooth  concave  and  convex 
surfaces,  and  is  characteristic  of  a  hard  and  compact  structure. 

The  earthy  fracture  leaves  a  rough  dull  surface,  and  indicates 
softness  and  brittleness. 

Stones  which  contain  "drys,"  i.e.,  seams  containing  material 
not  thoroughly  cemented  together,  or  "  crowfoots  "  i.e.,  veins 
containing  dark-colored  uncemented  material,  should  be  rejected. 

To  test  the  soundness  of  any  stone,  strike  it  smart  blows  with  a 
light  hammer  on  both  beds  ;  if  it  rings  clearly,  it  is  sound  ;  if  the 
sound  is  dull,  it  is  seamy  and  should  be  rejected. 

Stones  to  be  used  for  face  work  should  be  closely  examined  for 
seams,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  allow  rain-water  to  penetrate  to 
the  interior  of  the  stone  and,  under  the  action  of  frost,  to  split  and 
crack  it. 

THE  DEFECTS  OF  GRANITE  are  termed  knots,  sap,  shakes  and 
rot.  Knots  are  lumps  of  different  color  from  the  main  body  they 
are  usually  black  or  white.  Sap  is  the  name  given  to  discolorations 
or  stains.  Shakes  are  seams  which  usually  have  discolored  edges 

the  name  given  to  stone  which  crumbles  easily. 
SANDSTONES  AND  LIMESTONES  must  be  closely  examined   for 

' 


The  appearance  of  good  sandstone  is  characterized  by  tie  sharp 
of  the  grains,  smallness  of  the  cementing  material,  and  acle-.r 
shining,    translucent   appearance  on    a   newly    broken    surface 
Rounded  grains  and  a  dull  mealy  surface  indicate  soft  and  perish' 
able  stone. 


NATUKAL   STONE.  17 

QUARRYING. 

In  quarrying  stone  for  building  purposes  there  should  be  as 
little  blasting  as  possible,  as  it  shakes  the  stone.  Stone  showing 
powder- cracks  should  be  rejected. 

Weather-worn  stone  and  stone  from  the  outcrop  or  capping  of 
a  quarry  should  not  l,e  used  in  good  work.  Stone  should  if  pos- 
sible be  worked  at  once  aftt-r  being  quarried,  for  it  is  then  easier 
to  cut. 

The  quarrying  of  limestone,  marble,  and  sandstone  during  winter 
is  not  advisable,  as  they  are  liable  to  be  injured  by  the  freezing  of 
the  contained  water. 

SEASONING. 

Stones  of  a  porous  nature  which  contain  water  when  quarried 
are  said  to  be  green  or  sappy.  Such  stones  must  be  exposed  to 
the  drying  action  of  the  air  before  using  them,  otherwise  they 
will  be  split  and  fractured  by  the  action  of  frost  upon  the  con- 
tained water. 


1£  ARTIFICIAL   STORES. 

in.    ARTIFICIAL  STONES. 
Brick. 

Brick  is  an  artificial  stone  made  by  submitting  clay,  which  has 
been  suitably  prepared  and  moulded  into  shape,  to  a  temperature 
of  sufficient  intensity  to  convert  it  into  a  semi-vitrified  state. 

The  quality  of  the  brick  depends  upon  the  kind  of  clay  used 
and  upon  the  care  bestowed  on  its  preparation. 

The  clays  of  which  brick  is  made  are  chemical  compounds  con- 
sisting of  silicates  of  alumina,  either  alone  or  combined  with 
other  substances,  such  as  iron,  lime,  soda,  potash,  magnesia,  etc., 
all  of  which  influence  the  character  and  quality  of  the  brick,  ac- 
cording as  one  or  the  other  of  those  substances  predominates. 

Iron  gives  hardness  and  strength  ;  hence  the  red  brick  of  the 
Eastern  States  is  often  of  better  quality  than  the  white  and 
yellow  brick  made  in  the  West.  Silicate  of  lime  renders  the  clay 
too  fusible  and  causes  the  bricks  to  soften  and  to  become  distorted 
in  the  process  of  burning.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  at  high  tempera- 
tures changed  into  caustic  lime,  renders  the  clay  fusible,  and 
when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  weather  absorbs  moisture, 
promotes  disintegration,  and  prevents  the  adherence  of  the  mor- 
tar. Magnesia  exerts  but  little  influence  on  the  quality  ;  in  small 
quantities  it  renders  the  clay  fusible  ;  at  60°  Fahr.  its  crystals  lose 
their  water  of  crystallization,  and  cold  water  decomposes  them, 
forming  an  insoluble  hydrate  in  the  form  of  a  white  powder.  In 
air-dried  brick  this  action  causes  cracking.  The  alkalies  are 
found  in  small  quantities  in  the  best  of  clays;  their  presence  tends 
to  promote  softening,  and  this  goes  on  the  more  rapidly  if  it  has 
been  burned  at  too  low  a  temperature.  Sand  mixed  with  the  clay 
in  moderate  quantity  (one  part  of  sand  to  four  of  clay  is  about  the 
best  proportion)  is  beneficial,  as  tending  to  prevent  excessive 
shrinking  in  the  fire.  Excess  of  sand  destroys  the  cohesion  and 
renders  the  brick  brittle  and  weak. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  BRICK. 

The  manufacture  of  brick  may  be  classified  under  the  following 
heads  : 

Excavation  of  the  clay,  either  by  manual  or  mechanical  power. 

Preparation  of  the  day  consists  in  (a)  removing  stones  and  me- 
chanical impurities ;  (&)  tempering  and  moulding,  which  is  now 


BRICK.  19 

done  almost  wholly  by  machinery.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
machines  for  tempering  and  moulding  the  clay,  which,  however, 
may  be  grouped  into  three  classes,  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  clay  when  moulded  :  (1)  soft-mud  machines,  for  which  the 
clay  is  reduced  to  a  soft  mud  by  adding  about  one  quarter  of  its 
volume  of  water  ;  (2)  stiff-mud  machines,  for  whicli  the  clay  is 
reduced  to  a  stiff  mud  ;  (3)  dry-clay  machines,  with  which  the  dry 
or  nearly  dry  clay  is  forced  into  the  moulds  by  a  heavy  pressure 
without  having  been  reduced  to  a  plastic  mass.  These  machines 
may  also  be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  to  the  method  of 
filling  the  moulds  ;  (1)  those  in  which  a  continuous  stream  of 
clay  is  forced  from  the  pug-mill  through  a  die  and  is  afterwards 
cut  up  into  bricks  ;  and  (2)  those  in  which  the  clay  is  forced  into 
moulds  moving  under  the  nozzle  of  the  pug-mill. 

Drying  and  Burning. — TLie  bricks,  having  been  dried  in  the 
open  air  or  in  a  drying-house,  are  burned  in  kilns  ;  the  time  of 
burning  varies  with  the  character  of  the  clay,  the  form  and  size 
of  the  kiln,  and  the  kind  of  fuel,  from  six  to  fifteen  days. 

COLOR  OF  BRICKS. 

The  color  of  bricks  depends  upon  the  composition  of  the 
clay,  the  moulding  sand,  temperature  of  burning,  and  volume  of 
air  admitted  to  the  kiln.  Pure  clay  free  of  iron  will  burn  white, 
and  mixing  of  chalk  with  the  clay  will  produce  a  like  effect. 
Iron  produces  a  tint  ranging  from  red  and  orange  to  light  yellow, 
according  to  the  proportion  of  the  iron. 

A  large  proportion  of  oxide  of  iron  mixed  with  pure  clay  will 
produce  a  bright  red,  and  where  there  is  from  8  to  10  per  cent, 
and  the  brick  is  exposed  t  >  an  intense  heat,  the  oxide  fuses  and 
produces  a  dark  blue  or  purple,  and  with  a  small  volume  of  man- 
ganese and  an  increased  proportion  of  the  oxide  the  color  is 
darkened  even  to  a  black. 

A  small  volume  of  lime  and  iron  produces  a  cream  color,  an  in- 
crease of  iron  produces  red,  and  an  increase  of  lime  brown. 

Magnesia  in  presence  of  iron  produces  yellow. 

Clay  containing  alkalies  and  burned  at  a  high  temperature  pro- 
duces a  bluish  green. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  BRICK. 

Bricks  are  classified  according  to  (1)  the  way  in  whicli  they  are 
moulded  ;  (2)  their  position  in  the  kiln  while  being  burned  ;  and 
(3)  their  form  or  use. 


20  ARTIFICIAL    STOKES. 

I.  The  method  of  moulding  gives  rise  to  the  following  terms  : 
SOFT- MUD  BRICK.— One   moulded  from   clay  which  has   been 

reduced  to  a  soft  mud  by  add  ng  water.  It  may  be  either  hand- 
moulded  or  machine-moulded. 

STIFF-MUD  BRICK, — One  moulded  from  clay  in  the  condition  of 
stiff  mud.  It  is  always  machine- moulded. 

PRESSED  BRICK. — One  moulded  from  dry  or  semi-dry  clay. 

RE-PRESSED  BRICK.— A  soft-mud  brick  which,  after  being  par- 
tially dried,  has  been  subjected  to  an  enormous  pressure.  It  is  also 
called,  but  less  appropriately,  pressed  brick.  The  object  of  the 
re-pressing  is  to  render  the  form  more  regular  and  to  increase  the 
strength  and  density. 

SLOP  BRICK. — In  moulding  brick  by  hand,  the  moulds  are  some- 
times dipped  into  water  just  before  being  filled  with  clay,  to  pre- 
vent the  mud  from  sticking  to  them.  Brick  moulded  by  this 
process  is  known  as  slop  brick.  It  is  deficient  in  color  and  has  a 
comparatively  smooth  surface,  with  rounded  edges  and  corners. 
This  kind  of  brick  is  now  seldom  made. 

SANDED  BRICK. — Ordinarily,  in  making  soft-mud  brick,  sand 
is  sprinkled  into  the  moulds  to  prevent  the  clay  from  sticking  ;  the 
brick  is  then  called  sanded  brick.  The  sand  on  the  surface  is  of 
no  advantage  or  disadvantage.  In  hand-moulding,  when  sand  is 
used  for  this  purpose,  it  is  certain  to  become  mixed  with  the  clay 
and  occur  in  streaks  in  the  finished  brick,  which  is  very  undesir- 
able. 

MACHINE-MADE  BRICK — Brick  is  frequently  described  as 
"  machine-made  "  ;  but  this  is  very  indefinite,  since  all  grades 
and  kinds  are  made  by  machinery. 

II.  When    brick   was   generally    burned    in    the   old-style    up- 
draught  kiln,  the  classification  according  to  position  was  important; 
but  with  the  new  styles  of  kilns  and  improved  methods  of  burning, 
the  quality  is  so  nearly   uniform  throughout   the  kiln  that  the 
classification  is  less  important.     Three  grades  of  brick  are  taken 
from  the  old-siyle  kiln  : 

ARCH  OR  CLINKER  BRICKS.— Those  which  form  the  tops  and 
sides  of  the  arches  in  which  the  fire  is  built.  Being  overburned 
and  partially  vitrified,  they  are  hard,  brittle,  and  weak. 

BODY,  CHERRY,  OR  HARD  BRICKS. — Those  taken  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  pile.  The  best  bricks  in  the  kiln. 

SALMON,  PALE,  OR  SOFT  BRICKS.— Those  which  form  the  ex- 
terior of  the  mass.  Being  underburned,  they  are  too  soft  for 
ordinary  work,  unless  it  be  for  filling.  The  terms  salmon  and  pale. 


BRICK.  21 

refer  to  the  color  of  the  brick,  and  hence  are  not  applicable  to  a 
brick  made  of  a  clay  that  does  not  burn  red.  Although  nearly  all 
brick-clays  burn  red,  yet  the  localities  where  the  contrary  is  true 
are  sufficiently  numerous  to  make  it  desirable  to  use  a  different  term 
in  d  signating  the  quality.  There  is  not  necessarily  any  relation 
between  color,  Mid  strength  and  density.  Brick-makers  naturally 
have  a  prejudice  against  the  term  soft  brick,  which  doubtless  ex- 
plains the  nearly  universal  prevalence  of  the  less  appropriate 
term  salmon. 

III.  The  form  or  use  of  bricks  gives  rise  to  the  following  classi- 
fication : 

COMPASS  BRICK. — Those  having  one  edge  shorter  than  the 
other.  Used  in  lining  shafts,  etc. 

FEATHER-EDGE  BRICK — Those  of  which  one  edge  is  thinner 
than  the  other.  Used  in  arches  ;  and  more  properly,  but  less 
frequently,  called  voussoir  brick. 

FRONT  OR  FACE  BRICK.— Those  which,  owing  to  uniformity 
of  size  and  color,  are  suitable  for  the  face  of  the  walls  of  buildings. 
Sometimes  face  bricks  are  simply  the  best  ordinary  brick  ;  but  gen- 
erally the  term  is  applied  only  to  re-pressed  or  pressed  brick  made 
especially  for  this  purpose.  They  are  a  little  larger  than  ordinary 
bricks. 

SEWER  BRICK. — Ordinary  hard  brick,  smooth,  and  regular  in 
form. 

KILN-RUN  BRICK. — All  the  brick  that  are  set  in  the  kiln  when 
burned. 

HARD  KILN-RUN  BRICK. — Brick  burned  hard  enough  for  the 
face  of  outside  walls,  but  taken  from  the  kiln  unselected. 

RANK  OF  BRICKS. 

In  regularity  of  form  re-pressed  brick  ranks  first,  dry-clay  brick 
next,  then  stiff-mud  brick,  and  soft-mud  brick  last.  Regularity  of 
form  depends  largely  upon  the  method  of  burning. 

The  compactness  and  uniformity  of  texture,  which  greatly  in- 
fluence the  durability  of  brick,  depend  mainly  upon  the  method 
of  moulding.  As€a  general  rule,  hand-moulded  bricks  are  best  in 
this  respect,  since  the  clay  in  them  is  more  uniformly  tempered 
before  being  moulded;  but  this  advantage  is  partially  neutralized 
by  the  presence  of  sand-seams.  Machine-moulded  soft-mud  bricks 
rank  next  in 'Compactness  and  uniformity  of  texture.  Then  come 
machine-moulded  stiff-mud  bricks,  which  vary  greatly  in  dura- 
bility with  the  kind  of  machine  used  in  their  manufacture.  By 


VI  ARTIFICIAL   STOKES. 

some  of  the  machines  the  brick  is  moulded  in  layers  (parallel  to 
any  face,  according  to  the  kind  of  machine)  which  are  not 
thoroughly  cemented,  and  which  separate  under  the  action  of 
frost.  The  dry-clay  brick  come  last.  However,  the  relative  value 
of  the  products  made  by  different  processes  varies  with  the  nature 
of  the  clay  used. 

GLAZED  AND  ENAMELLED  BRICKS. 

GLAZED  BRICKS  — Bricks  are  glazed  by  means  of  a  composition 
of  porcelain  or  glass  which  fuses  and  renders  the  surface  vitreous. 
This  may  be  done  by  applying  a  flux  or  a  chemical  solution  to  the 
surface  Pigments  of  metallic  oxides  are  added  to  the  composition, 
which  give  it  any  desired  color  or  shade.  The  coloring  is  done 
either  under  the  glaze  or  in  the  glaze.  When  the  application  is  to 
be  made  under  the  glaze  it  is  customary  to  dip  the  bricks  previ- 
ously burned  into  a  "  slip"  of  colored  clay  composed,  in  most  in- 
stances, of  one  part  colored  glass,  ground,  and  two  parts  clay,  the 
latter  causing  adhesion  of  the  slip;  the  brick  is  then  fired,  or, 
after  being  allowed  to  dry,  is  coated  with  a  transparent  glaze  and 
then  fired.  When  the  color  is  to  be  applied  in  the  glaze  the  brick 
is  dipped  into  a  transparent  colored  glaze  made  of  silicious  sand, 
salt,  and  oxide  of  lead  combined  with  the  required  coloring  pig- 
ment. The  composition  is  prepared  by  pulverization  to  a  homo- 
geneous mass,  then  calcined,  pulverized  again,  and  made  appli- 
cable by  dissolving  in  water  to  the  consistency  of  cream.  The 
faces  of  the  brick  to  be  glazed  are  dipped  in  this  solution  or  are 
coated  with  it  by  brushes,  after  which  the  brick  is  subjected  to  a 
temperature  sufficient  to  fuse  the  glaze  on  the  surface. 

ENAMELLED  BRICKS  are  generally  made  of  a  particular  quality 
of  clay,  containing  a  considerable  proportion  of  fire  clay.  The 
enamel  may  either  be  applied  to  the  unburnt  brick  or  to  the  brick 
after  it  is  burnt.  In  burning  the  enamel  fuses  and  unites  with 
the  body  of  the  brick,  but  does  not  become  transparent,  ?md  there- 
fore shows  its  own  color.  It  is  claimed  that  an  enamelled  brick  is 
more  durable  than  a  glazed  brick,  and  will  not  so  readily  chip  or 
peel.  The  enamel  is  also  the  purest  white. 

An  enamelled  surface  may  be  distinguished  from  a  glazed  sur- 
face by  chipping  off  a  piece  of  the  brick.  The  glazed  brick  will 
show  the  layer  of  slip  between  the  glaze  and  the  brick  ;  the 
enamelled  brick  will  show  no  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
body  of  the  brick  and  the  enamel. 


BRICK. 


23 


TABLE  3. 
SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  BRICKS. 

The  variations  in  the  dimensions  of  brick  render  a  table  of 
exact  dimensions  impracticable. 

As  an  exponent,  however,  of  the  ranges  of  their  dimensions, 
the  following  averages  are  given : 

Baltimore  front    \ 

Wilmington    "    j-  8£"  X  4|"  X  2f " 

Washington   "    , ) 

Croton  "    8£"  X  4"     X  2£" 

Maine  ordinary 7|"  X  3f"  X  2|" 

Milwaukee"     8f  X  4£"  X  2|" 

North  River,  N.  Y 8"    X  3£"  X  2J" 

English 9"     X  4|"  X  2£" 

The  Standard  Size  as  adopted  by  the  National  Brickmakers' 
Association  and  the  National  Traders  and  Builders'  Association  is 
£or  common  brick  8£  X  4  X  2£  inches,  and  for  face  brick 
$|  x  4£  X  2£  inches. 

He-pressed  Brick  weighs  about  150  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  common 
brick  125,  inferior  soft  100.  Common  bricks  will  average  about 
4^  Ibs.  each. 

Hollow  Brick,  used  for  interior  walls  and  furring,  are  usually 
of  the  following  dimensions  : 

Single,    8  in.  long,  3f  in.  wide,  2f  in.  thick. 
Double,  8  "       "      7*  "       "      4*  "       " 
Treble,   8  "       "      7j  "       "      7^  "       " 

Roman  Brick,  12  in.  long,  4  to  4£  in.  wide,  l£  in.  thick. 
TABLE  4. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY,    WEIGHT,    AND    RESISTANCE    TO    CRUSHING 
OF    BRICK. 


Designation  of  Brick. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  per 
Cubic  Foot. 
Pounds. 

Resistance 
to  Crushing. 
Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Best  pressed  . 

2  4 

1*>0 

*>  000  to  14  97° 

Common  hard  
Soft  

1.6  to  2.0 
1  4 

125 
100 

5.000  to    8,000 
450  to       600 

24  ARTIFICIAL    STONES. — BRICK. 

Inspection  of  Brick. 

The  characteristics  of  good  brick  are  : 

1.  Soundness  ;  that  is,  freedom  from  cracks  and  flaws. 

2.  Hardness,  to  enable  it  to  withstand  pressure  and  strain. 

3.  Regularity  of  shape  and  size;    it  should  have  plane  faces, 
parallel  sides,  and  sharp  right  angled  edges. 

4.  Should  show  when  broken   a   compact  uniform  structure, 
hard  and  somewhat  glassy,  and  free  from  air-bubbles,   cracks, 
cavities,  and  lumps. 

5.  Should  emit  a  clear  ringing   sound  when  struck  a   sharp 
blow. 

6.  Should  not  absorb  more  than  about  -^  of  its  weight  of  water. 

7.  The  specific  gravity  should  be  2  or  more. 

8.  The  crushing  strength  of  a  half  brick,  when  ground  flat  and 
pressed  between  thick  metal  plates,  should  be  at  least  7000  Ibs. 
per  square  inch. 

9.  The  modulus  of  rupture  should  be  at  least  1000  Ibs.  per  square 
inch. 

Good  bricks  are  generally  of  a  dark  reddish-brown  color,  and 
sometimes  show  vitrified  spots  on  the  surface;  it  is  not  well,  how- 
ever, to  depend  upon  this  fact,  for  it  is  only  an  indication  of  the 
amount  of  heat  to  which  the  brick  has  been  subjected,  while  the 
clay  of  which  the  brick  is  made  may  be  impure  and  ill  prepared. 

Bad  bricks  are  generally  recognized  by  their  reddish-yellow 
color,  but  still  more  by  the  dull  sound  which  they  emit  when 
struck.  Their  grain  being  soft  they  crumble  easily  and  absorb 
water  with  avidity. 

All  brick  intended  for  building  that  does  not  take  up  a  small 
percentage  of  water  is  too  much  burned,  and  the  mortar  will 
adhere  to  it  imperfectly. 

When  a  brick  left  in  water  either  scales  or  swells,  it  is  of  bad 
quality  and  contains  caustic  lime. 

A  brick  which  being  made  red  hot  and  then  having  water 
poured  over  it  does  not  crack  is  of  excellent  quality. 

The  strength  of  building  brick,  both  transverse  and  crushing, 
varies  in  tolerably  close  inverse  ratio  with  the  quantity  of  water 
absorbed  in  24  hours.  The  strongest  bricks  absorb  least  water. 

Good  building  brick  absorb  from  6  to  12  per  cent  of  water  in  24 
hours,  and  with  no  greater  absorption  than  12  per  cent  will  ordi- 
narily show  from  7000  to  10,000  or  more  pounds  per  square  inch 
of  ultimate  crushing  strength,  and  a  transverse  modulus  of  700 
to  1200  Ibs.  or  more. 


ARTIFICIAL   STOCKS.  -Fl  HE-BRICK.  25 

Poor  building  brick  will  absorb  from  i  to  £  of  their  weight  of 
water  in  24  hours,  and  average  a  little  more  than  half  the  trans- 
verse'and  crushing  strength  of  good  brick. 

An  immersed  brick  is  neaily  saturated  in  the  first  hour  of 
immersion  ;  in  the  remaining  24  hours  the  absorption  is  only  0.5 
to  0.8  per  cent  of  its  weight,  as  a  rule. 

The  strength  of  bricks  in  the  kiln  is  least  in  the  top  courses, 
and  increases  quite  rapidly  for  the  first  10  or  12  courses  and 
afterwards  more  slowly  down  to  the  arch  bricks. 

Bricks  made  by  the  dry  process  are,  as  a  rule,  notably  less 
porous  and  stronger  than  those  iiiade  by  the  wet  mud  process.  To 
this  rule,  however,  there  are  some  exceptions. 

EFFECT  OF  FHOST. — To  ascertain  if  bricks  will  withstand  the 
action  of  frost,  boil  one  for  half  an  hour  in  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  soda,  allow  to  remain  in  the  solution  until  cold,  then  suspend  it 
by  a  string  over  the  vessel  in  which  it  has  been  boiled.  In  24 
hours  the  surface  of  the  brick  will  be  covered  with  small  crystals; 
the  brick  is  then  to  be  immersed  in  the  solution  until  the  crystals 
disappear,  and  again  suspended.  Repeat  this  operation  for  five 
days.  If  after  this  treatment  a  number  of  particles  of  brick  are 
found  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  bricks  are  incapable  of  re- 
sisting the  effects  of  frost. 

Fire-brick. 

Fire-brick  is  used  wherever  high  temperatures  are  to  be  resisted. 
They  are  made  from  fire-clay  by  processes  very  similar  to  those 
adopted  in  making  ordinary  brick. 

Fire-clay  may  be  defined  as  native  combinations  of  hydrated 
silicates  of  alumina,  mechanically  associated  with  silica  and 
alumina  in  various  states  of  subdivision,  and  sufficiently  free 
from  silicates  of  the  alkalies  and  from  iron  and  lime  to  resist 
vitrification  at  high  temperatures.  The  presence  of  oxide  of  iron 
is  very  injurious,  and,  as  a  rule,  the  presence  of  6  per  cent  justi- 
fies the  rejection  of  the  brick.  The  presence  of  3  per  cent  of  com- 
bined lime,  soda,  potash,  and  magnesia  should  be  a  cause  for 
rejection.  The  sulphide  of  iron — pyrites — is  even  worse  than 
the  substances  first  named. 

A  good  fire-clay  should  contain  from  52  to  80  per  cent  of  silica 
and  18  to  35  per  cent  of  alumina  and  have  an  uniform  texture, 
a  somewhat  greasy  feel,  and  be  free  from  any  of  the  alkaline 
earths. 


26  ARTIFICIAL    STONES.  —  TKIIKA-COTTA. 

Good  fire  brick  should  be  uniform  in  size,  regular  in  shape, 
homogeneous  in  textuie  and  composition,  easily  cut,  strong,  *uid 
infusible. 

A  properly  burnt  fire-brick  is  of  an  uniform  color  throughout  its 
mass.  A  dark  central  patch  and  concentric  rings  of  various  shades 
of  color  is  due  mainly  to  the  different  states  of  oxidation  of  the 
iron  and  partly  to  the  presence  of  unconsumed  carbonaceous  mat- 
ter, and  indicates  that  the  brick  was  burned  too  rapidly. 

Fire-brick  are  made  in  various  forms  to  suit  the  required  work. 
A  straight  brick  measures  9  X  4£  X  2|  inches  and  weighs  about  7 
Ibs.,  or  120  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot  ;  specific  gravity  1.93.  One  cubic 
foot  of  wall  requires  17  9-inch  bricks  ;  one  cubic  yard  requires 
460.  One  ton  of  fire-clay  should  be  sufficient  to  lay  3000  ordinary 
bricks. 

English  fire-bricks  measure  9  X  4^  X  2f  inches. 

To  secure  the  best  results  fire-brick  should  be  laid  in  the  same 
clay  from  which  they  are  manufactured.  It  should  be  used  as  a 
thin  paste,  and  not  as  mortar:  the  thinner  the  joint  the  better  the 
furnace  wall.  The  brick  should  be  dipped  in  water  as  they  are 
used,  so  that  when  laid  they  will  not  absorb  the  water  from  the 
clay  paste.  They  should  then  receive  a  thin  coating  of  the  prepared 
fire-clay,  and  be  carefully  placed  in  position  with  as  little  of  the 
fire-clay  as  possible. 

Terra-cotta. 

Terra-cotta  is  largely  used  as  a  substitute  for  stone  in  the 
ornamental  part  of  buildings.  It  is  composed  of  mixed  clays,  to 
which  sometimes  is  added  a  large  proportion  of  ground  glass, 
pottery,  and  sand.  After  being  properly  kneaded  it  is  forced  into 
moulds  smeared  with  soft  soap;  it  is  then  carefully  dried,  and 
gradually  baked  in  a  pottery-kiln,  and  then  slowly  cooled. 

When  properly  prepared  and  burnt  it  is  not  affected  by  the 
atmosphere  or  acid  fumes. 

Terra-cotta  is  subject  to  unequal  shrinkage  in  baking,  which 
sometimes  causes  the  pieces  to  be  twisted.  When  this  is  the  case 
great  care  must  be  taken  in  laying  the  blocks;  otherwise  the  long 
lines  of  a  building,  such  as  those  of  string-courses  or  cornices, 
which  are  intended  to  be  straight,  are  apt  to  be  uneven,  and  the 
faces  of  the  blocks  are  often  in  winding. 

Twisted  and  warped  blocks  are  sometimes  set  right  by  chiselling, 
but  this  should  be  avoided,  for  if  the  vitrified  skin  on  the  surface 


ARTIFICIAL   STONES. — TERRA-COTTA.  27 

be  removed  the  material  will  not  be  able  to  withstand  the  attacks 
of  the  atmosphere,  etc. 

Terra-cotta  is  made  in  several  colors,  depending  chiefly  upon  the 
amount  of  heat  it  has  gone  through,  White,  pale  gray,  pale 
yellow  or  straw  color  indicate  a  want  of  firing.  Rich  yellow,  pink, 
and  red  varieties  are  generally  well  burned.  A  green  hue  is  a 
sign  of  absorption  of  moisture  and  of  bad  material. 

Inferior  terra-cotta  is  sometimes  made  by  overlaying  a  coarsely 
prepared  body  with  a  thin  coating  of  a  finer  and  more  expensive 
clay  Unless  these  bodies  have  been  most  carefully  tested  and 
assimilated  in  their  contraction  and  expansion,  they  will  in  the 
course  of  time  destroy  one  another;  that  is,  the  inequality  in  their 
shrinkage  will  cause  hair  cracks  in  the  outer  skin,  which  will 
retain  moisture,  and  cause  the  surface  layer  to  fall  off  in  scales 
after  winter  frosts. 

Another  very  reprehensible  custom  is  that  of  coating  over  the 
clay,  just  before  it  goes  into  the  kiln,  with  a  thin  film  of  some 
ochreish  paint  mixed  with  a  finely  ground  clay,  which  produces  a 
sort  of  artificial  bloom  which  speedily  wears  off  after  exposure  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere. 

Terra-cotta,  whether  plain  or  ornamental,  is  generally  made  of 
hollow  blocks  formed  with  webs  inside,  so  as  to  give  extra 
strength  and  keep  it  true  while  drying.  This  is  necessitated 
because  good,  well- burned  terra-cotta  cannot  safely  be  made  of 
more  than  about  l£  inches  in  thickness,  whereas  when  required 
to  bond  with  brickwork  it  must  be  at  least  four  inches  thick. 
When  extra  strength  is  needed  these  hollow  spaces  are  filled  with 
concrete  or  brickwork,  which  greatly  increases  the  crushing 
strength  of  the  terra-cotta,  although  alone  it  is  able  to  bear  a  very 
heavy  weight.  A  solid  block  of  terra-cotta  of  one  foot  cube  has 
borne  a  crushing  strain  of  500  tons  and  over. 

TABLE  5. 

RESISTANCE    TO    CRUSHING   OF   TERRA-COTTA. 

Tons  per 
Cubic  Foot 

Solid  block 523 

Hollow  block  (unfilled) 186 

"      (slightly  made  and  unfilled) 80 

Solid          "      2-inch  square,  red 492 

buff 449 

«•              "         "            "         gray 369 


28  ARTIFICIAL    STONES.— TILES. 

The  safe  working  strength  of  unfilled  blocks  may  be  taken  at  5 
tons  per  square  foot,  and  for  blocks  filled  solid  with  concrete  or 
brickwork  at  10  tons  per  square  foot. 

The  weight  of  terra- cotta  in  solid  blocks  is  122  pounds  per 
cubic  foot;  the  weight  of  hollow  blocks  1^  inches  thick  varies 
from  65  to  85  pounds  per  cubic  foot.  Porous  terra-cotta  roofing  3 
inches  thick  weighs  16  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  2  inches  thick 
12  pounds. 

POROUS  TERKA-COTTA  is  made  of  a  mixture  of  clay  and  some 
combustible  material,  such  as  sawdust,  charcoal,  cut  straw,  etc. 
When  baked  the  combustible  material  is  consumed,  leaving  the 
terra-cotta  full  of  small  holes.  It  is  fireproof,  of  light  weight, 
great  tenacity,  strong,  can  be  cut  with  edge-tools,  will  hold  nails 
driven  in,  and  gives  a  good  surface  for  plastering. 


Tiles, 

COMMON  TILES  are  made  of  the  same  materials  as  bricks;  they 
are  used  for  paving  and  roofing. 

ENCAUSTIC  TILES  are  those  in  which  the  colors  are  produced  by 
substances  mixed  with  the  clay. 

PAVING  TILES  are  of  many  shapes  and  sizes,  and  about  one 
inch  thick. 

ROOFING  TILES  are  of  many  forms  and  sections,  such  as  plain, 
corrugated,  Venetian,  ridge,  etc. 

FLAT  TILES  6|"  X  10|"  X  I"  weigh  from  15  to  18  Ibs.  per 
square  foot  of  roof,  the  lap  being  one  half  the  length  of  the  tile. 
Tiles  with  grooves  and  fillets  weigh  from  7  to  9  Ibs.  per  square 
foot  of  roof. 

PAN  TILES  14|"  X  W  laid  10"  to  the  weather  weigh  about  8 
Ibs.  per  square  foot. 

Inspection  of  Tile§. 

The  inspection  and  testing  of  tiles  should  embrace  : 

1.  Examination  of  dimension,  appearance,  and  soundness. 

2.  Weight  and  specific  gravity. 

3.  The  real  and  apparent  absorption  of  water. 

4.  Presence  of  constituents  soluble  in  water. 

5.  Strength. 


ARTIFICIAL    STONES.  29 

Stones  made  by  Patented  Processes. 

Several  kinds  of  artificial  stone  are  manufactured  under 
patented  processes.  They  are  all  a  combination  of  hydraudc 
cement,  sand,  pebbles,  stone-dust,  etc.,  with  or  without  the  addi- 
tion of  some  indurating  material,  as  baryte,  litharge,  etc.  They 
are  manufactured  either  in  place  or  in  form  of  blocks  at  a  factory. 
Such  stones  are  extensively  employed  in  architecture  and  for  the 
paving  of  cellars,  areas,  footpaths,  etc. 


30  LIME. 


IV.    CEMENTING  MATERIALS. 

The  cementing  materials  employed  in  building  are  produced  by 
the  calcination  of  calcareous  minerals.  As  these  minerals  differ 
greatly  in  their  composition,  ranging  from  pure  carbonate  of  lime 
to  stones  containing  variable  proportions  of  silica,  alumina,  mag- 
nesia, oxide  of  iron,  manganese,  etc.,  they  confer  different  prop- 
erties upon  the  calcined  product,  which  render  necessary  certain 
precautions  in  its  manipulation  and  treatment,  and  furnishes  a 
basis  of  classification,  as  follows  : 

1st.  Common  or  fat  limes. 

2d.  Poor  or  meagre  limes. 

3d.   Hydraulic  limes. 

4th.  Hydraulic  cements,  which  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz.  :  Portland,  Rosendale,  and  Pozzuolana,  The  first 
two  differ  from  the  third  in  that  the  ingredients  of  which  the 
former  are  composed  must  be  roasted  before  they  acquire  the 
property  of  hardening  under  water,  while  the  ingredients  of  the 
latter  need  only  be  pulverized  and  mixed  with  water  to  a  paste. 

The  hydraulic  cements  do  not  slake  after  calcination,  differing 
materially  in  this  particular  from  the  limes  proper.  They  can  be 
formed  into  paste  with  water,  without  any  sensible  increase  in 
volume,  and  little,  if  any,  disengagement  of  heat,  except  in  cer- 
tain instances  among  those  varieties  which  contain  the  maxi- 
mum amount  of  lime.  They  do  not  shrink  in  hardening,  like  the 
mortar  of  rich  lime,  and  can  be  used  with  or  without  the  addition 
of  sand,  although  for  the  sake  of  economy  sand  is  combined 
with  them.  The  hydraulic  activity  of  some  of  them  is  so  ener- 
getic as  to  set  under  water  at  65°  F,  in  three  or  four  minutes, 
although  others  require  as  many  hours. 

Limes. 

RICH  LIMES. — The  common  fat  or  rich  limes  are  those  obtained 
by  calcining  pure  or  very  nearly  pure  carbonate  of  lime.  In 
slaking  they  augment  to  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  times  that 
of  the  original  mass.  They  will  not  harden  under  water,  or  even 
in  damp  places  excluded  from  contact  with  the  air.  In  the  air 
they  harden  by  the  gradual  formation  of  carbonate  of  lime,  due 
to  the  absorption  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 


LIME.  31 

The  pastes  of  fat  lime  shrink  in  haidcning  to  such  a  degree 
that  they  cannot  be  employed  for  mortar  without  a  large  dose  of 
sand. 

POOR  LIMES. — The  poor  or  meagre  limes  generally  contain 
silica,  alumina,  magnesia,  oxide  of  iron,  sometimes  oxide  of  man- 
ganese, and  in  some  cases  traces  of  the  alkalies,  in  relative  pro- 
portions, which  vary  considerably  in  different  localities.  In 
slaking  they  proceed  sluggishly,  as  compared  with  the  rich  limes 
— the  action  only  commences  after  an  interval  of  from  a  few 
minutes  to  more  than  an  hour  after  they  are  wetted  ;  less  water  is 
required  for  the  process,  and  it  is  attended  with  less  heat  and 
increase  of  volume  than  in  the  case  of  fat  limes. 

HYDRAULIC  LIMES. — The  hydraulic  limes,  including  the  three 
subdivisions  of  limes,  viz.,  slightly  liydraulic,  hydraulic,  and 
eminently  hydraulic,  are  those  containing  after  calcination  suf- 
ficient of  such  foreign  constituents  as  combine  chemically  with 
lime  and  water  to  confer  an  appreciable  power  of  setting  or  hard- 
ening under  water  without  the  access  of  air.  They  slake  still 
slower  than  the  meagre  limes,  »nd  with  but  a  small  augmentation 
of  volume,  rarely  exceeding  30  per  cent  of  the  original  bulk. 

Inspection   of  Lime. 

QUALITY. — The  quality  of  good  lime  is  indicated  by  the  per- 
fect ness  with  which  the  lumps  fall  to  powder  when  water  is 
applied.  No  mashing  of  the  lumps  or  stirring  should  be  neces- 
sary, though  the  slaking  will  be  somewhat  hastened  by  so  doing. 

Freshly  burned  lime  may  be  known  by  its  being  in  hard  lumps 
rather  than  in  powder  or  easily  crumbled  lumps. 

PRESERVATION. — Lime,  on  account  of  it  i  affinity  for  moisture, 
and,  when  moist,  for  carbonic  acid,  absorbs  them  gradually  from 
the  atmosphere,  and  returns  somewhat  to  the  state  of  carbonate 
of  lime;  this  process  is  termed  "air-slaking"  and  weakens  the 
setting  quality  of  the  lime.  To  protect  it  from  this  deteriorat- 
ing action  it  should  be  packed  in  close  casks  and  stored  in  a  dry 
place  until  required  for  use,  and  then  quickly  used;  therefore  the 
best  lime  for  use  is  that  which  has  been  recently  burned. 

Lime,  when  thoroughly  slaked  and  mixed  into  a  paste,  may  be 
kept  for  an  indefinite  time  in  that  condition  without  deterioration 
if  protected  from  contact  with  the  air  so  that  it  will  not  dry  up. 
It  is  customary  to  keep  the  lime  paste  in  casks,  or  in  the  wide 
shallow  boxes  in  which  it  was  slaked,  or  heaped  up  on  the  ground, 


32  LIME. 

covered  over  with  the  sand  to  be  subsequently  incorporated  with 
it  in  making  tlie  mortar, 

SLAKING. — Slaking  is  the  process  of  chemical  combination 
of  quicklime  with  water  ;  one  equivalent  of  water  combines  with 
one  equivalent  of  lime,  and  forms  slaked  lime,  or,  in  chemical  lan- 
guage, Jiydrate  of  lime. 

The  process  of  slaking  is  a  simple  one.  The  lime  is  spread  out  in 
a  suitable  bed  and  as  much  water  as  it  will  readily  absorb  is 
poured  upon  it.  This  moistening  with  water  gives  rise  to  various 
phenomena  :  the  lime  almost  immediately  cracks,  swells,  and  falls 
into  a  bulky  powder  with  a  hissing,  crackling  sound,  slight  explo- 
sions, an  1  considerable  evolution  of  heat  and  steam  ;  the  volume 
is  increased  from  two  to  three  and  a  half  times  the  original  bulk, 
the  variation  depending  both  iipon  the  density  of  the  original  car- 
bonate and  the  manner  of  conducting  the  process 

The  same  process  takes  place  slowly  by  absorption  of  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere  ;  the  lime  falls  into  powder  with  increase 
of  volume,  but  without  perceptible  heating.  Lime  slaked  in 
this  way  is  said  to  be  air-slaked.  Some  carbonic  acid  gas  is  also 
absorbed  and  a  part  of  the  lime  returns  to  the  state  of  a  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Air-slaked  lime  is  deficient  in  setting  properties  and  should  not 
be  used  for  building  purposes. 

The  common  limes  contain  impurities  which  prevent  a  thor- 
ough, uniform,  and  prompt  slaking  of  the  entire,  mass  ;  hence  the 
necessity  of  slaking  some  days  before  the  lime  is  required  for  use, 
to  avoid  all  danger  to  the  masonry  by  subsequent  enlargement  of 
volume  and  change  of  condition. 

The  slaking  of  lime,  although  an  exceedingly  simple  operation, 
is  liable  to  be  unskilfully  performed  by  the  workmen.  They  are 
apt  either  to  use  tr.o  much  water,  which  reduces  the  slaked 
lime  to  a  semi-fluid  condition  and  thereby  injures  its  binding 
qualities  ;  or,  not  having  used  enough  water  in  tlie  first  place, 
seek  to  remedy  the  error  by  adding  more  after  the  slaking  has 
well  progressed  and  a  portion  of  the  lime  is  already  reduced  to 
powder,  thus  suddenly  depressing  the  temperature  and  chilling 
the  lime,  which  renders  it  granular  and  lumpy.  The  lime  should 
not  be  stirred  while  slaking.  The  essential  point  is  to  secure  the 
reduction  of  all  the  lumps. 

The  best  mode  of  slaking,  so  far  as  regards  the  quality  of  the 
mortar,  is  by  sprinkling  the  loose  lump  lime  with  about  one  fourth 
to  one  third  by  trial  of  its  own  bulk  of  water,  and  then  covering 


LIME.  33 

it  with  a  layer  of  sand  or  with  a  tarpaulin  ;  this  retains  the  heat 
and  accelerates  the  slaking.  All  the  lime  necessary  for  any  re- 
quired quantity  of  mortar  should  be  slaked  at  least  one  day  before 
it  is  incorporated  with  the  sand. 


Memoranda  and  Definitions  of  Lime. 

Lime  is  shipped  either  in  bulk  or  in  barrels.  If  in  bulk,  it  is 
impossible  to  preserve  it  for  any  considerable  length  of  time. 

A  barrel  of  lime  usually  weighs  about  230  Ibs.  net,  and  will 
make  about  three  tenths  of  a  cubic  yard  of  stiff  paste.  A  bushel 
weighs  75  Ibs. 

PURE  LIME  is  a  protoxide  of  calcium,  or,  in  other  words,  a 
metallic  oxide.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  2.3,  is  amorphous, 
somewhat  spongy,  highly  caustic,  quite  infusible,  possesses  great 
affinity  for  water,  and  if  brought  in  contact  with  it  will  rapidly 
absorb  22  to  23  per  cent  of  its  weight,  passing  into  the  condition 
of  hydrate  of  lime. 

SLAKED  LIME  is  hydrate  of  lime. 

QUICKLIME,  or  caustic  lime,  is  the  resulting  lime  left  from  the 
calcination  of  limestone — it  is  chemically  known  as  calcium  oxide. 

LIMESTONE. — Carbonate  of  lime. 

CRYSTALLIZED  LIME. — Marble. 

FOSSIL  LIME. — Chalk. 

SULPHATE  OF  LIME. — Gypsum. 

CALCINATION  is  heating  to  redness  in  air. 

SLAKING  is  the  process  of  chemical  combination  of  quicklime 
with  water. 

AIR-SLAKING. — Hydra tion  by  the  absorption  of  moisture  from 
the  atmosphere. 


34  CEMENTS. 

Portland  Cement. 

Portland  cement  is  produced  by  burning,  with  a  heat  of  suf- 
ficient intensity  and  duration  to  induce  incipient  vitrification, 
certain  argillaceous  limestones,  or  calcareous  clays,  or  an  artificial 
mixture  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  clay,  and  then  reducing  the 
burnt  material  to  powder  by  grinding.  Fully  95  per  cent  of  the 
Portland  cement  produced  is  artificial.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  resemblance  which  hardened  mortar  made  of  it  bears  to  a 
stone  found  in  the  isle  of  Portland,  off  the  south  coast  of  England. 

The  quality  of  Portland  cement  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the 
raw  materials,  their  proportion  in  the  mixture,  the  degree  to 
which  the  mixture  is  burnt,  the  fineness  to  which  it  is  ground, 
and  the  constant  and  scientific  supervision  of  all  the  details  of 
manufacture. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  PORTLAND  CEMENT. 

COLOR. — The  color  should  be  a  dull  bluish  or  greenish  gray, 
caused  by  the  dark  ferruginous  lime  and  the  intensely  green  man- 
ganese  salts.  Any  variation  from  this  color  indicates  the  presence 
of  some  impurity  :  blue  indicates  an  excess  of  lime  ;  dark  green, 
a  large  percentage  of  iron  ;  brown,  an  excess  of  clay  ;  a  yellowish 
shade  indicates  an  underburned  material. 

FINENESS. — It  should  have  a  clear  almost  floury  feel  in  the  hand ; 
a  gritty  feel  denotes  coarse  grinding. 

WEIGHT. — It  should  weigh  from  84  to  88  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 
A  cement  weighing  from  70  to  80  pounds  per  cubic  foot  is  invari- 
ably a  weak  one,  though  it  may  be  of  the  requisite  fineness  ;  at 
the  same  time  a  heavy  cement  if  coarsely  ground  is  also  weak  and 
will  have  no  carrying  capacity  for  sand.  Light  weight  may  be 
caused  by  laudable  fine  grinding  or  by  objectionable  underburn- 
ing.  In  testing,  weight  and  fineness  must  be  taken  in  conjunction. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  is  between  3  and  3.05.  As  a  rule  the  strength 
of  Portland  cement  increases  with  its  specific  gravity. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. — When  moulded  neat  into  a  briquette 
and  placed  in  water  for  seven  days  it  should  be  capable  of  resisting 
a  tensile  strain  of  from  300  to  500  pounds  per  square  inch. 

SETTING  — A  pat  made  with  the  minimum  amount  of  wa,ter 
should  set  in  not  less  than  three  hours,  nor  take  more  than  six 
hours. 

EXPANSION  AND  CONTRACTION. — Pats  left  in  the  air  or  placed 
in  water  should  during  or  after  setting  show  neither  expansion  nor 
contraction,  either  by  the  appearance  of  cracks  or  change  of  form. 


CEMENTS.  35 

A  cement  that  possesses  the  foregoing  properties  may  be  con- 
sidered a  fair  sample  of  Portland  cement  and  would  be  suitable 
for  any  class  of  work. 

OVERLIMED  CEMENT  is  likely  to  gain  strength,  very  rapidly  in 
the  beginning  and  later  to  lose  its  strength,  or  if  the  percentage 
of  free  lime  be  sufficient  it  will  ultimately  disintegrate. 

BLOWING  or  SWELLING  of  Portland  cement  is  caused  by  too 
much  lime  or  insufficient  burning.  It  also  takes  place  when  the 
cement  is  very  fresh  and  has  not  had  time  to  cool. 

ADULTERATION. — Portland  cement  is  adulterated  with  slag 
cement  and  slaked  lime.  This  adulteration  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  light  specific  gravity  of  the  cement,  and  by  the  color,  which 
is  of  a  mauve  tint  in  powder,  while  the  inside  of  a  water-pat  when 
broken  is  deep  indigo.  Gypsum  or  sulphate  of  lime  is  also  used 
as  an  adulterant. 

Natural  Cement. 

The  Ro&endcde  or  natural  cements  are  produced  by  burning  in 
draw-kilns  at  a  heat  just  sufficient  in  intensity  and  duration  to 
expel  the  carbonic  acid  from  argillaceous  or  silicious  limestones 
containing  less  than  77  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime,  or  argillo- 
magnesian  limestone  containing  less  than  77  per  cent  of  both  car- 
bonates,  and  then  grinding  the  calcined  product  to  a  fine  powder 
between  millstones. 

The  natural  cements  usually  take  the  name  of  the  place  of 
manufacture.  The  name  Rosendale  is  derived  from  the  place  (Ro- 
sendale,  Ulster  Co.,  N.  Y.)  where  it  was  first  made. 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  ROSENDALE  CEMENTS. 

The  natural  cements  have  a  porous,  globular  texture.  They  do 
not  heat  up  nor  swell  sensibly  when  mixed  with  water.  They  set 
quickly  in  air,  but  harden  slowly  under  water,  without  shrinking, 
and  attain  great  strength  with  well-developed  adhesive  force. 

COLOR. — Usually  brown,  of  greater  or  less  intensity.  The  color 
gives  no  clue  to  the  ce:i  entitious  value,  since  it  is  due  chiefly  to 
oxides  of  iron  and  manganese,  which  bear  no  direct  relation  to  the 
cementing  properties.  A  very  light  color  generally  indicates  an 
inferior  underburned  cement  A  Rosendale  cement  made  at  Cop- 
lay,  Pa  ,  from  the  same  stone  as  Portland  is  a  light  gray  in  color. 

SETTING. — A  pat  made  with  the  minimum  amount  of  water 
should  set  in  about  30  minutes. 


36  CEMENTS. 

FINENESS. — At  least  93  per  cent  must  pass  through  a  No.  50 
sieve. 

WEIGHT  —Varies  from  49  to  56  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  about  2.70. 

TENSILE  STRENGTH. — Neat  cement  one  day,  from  40  to  80 
pounds.  Seven  days,  from  60  to  100  pounds.  One  year,  from 
300  to  400  pounds. 

Inspection  of  Cement. 

The  quality  or  constructive  value  of  a  cement  is  generally 
ascertained  by  submitting  a  sample  of  the  particular  cement  to  a 
series  of  tests.  The  properties  usually  examined  are  the  color, 
weight,  activity,  soundness,  fineness,  and  tensile  strength.  Chemical 
analysis  is  sometimes  made,  and  specific  gravity  test  is  substituted 
for  that  of  weight.  Tests  of  compression  and  adhesion  are  also 
sometimes  added.  As  these  tests  cannot  be  made  upon  the  site  of 
the  work,  it  is  usual  to  sample  each  lot  of  cement  as  it  is  delivered 
and  send  the  samples  to  a  testing  laboratory. 

SAMPLING  CEMENT. — The  cement  is  sampled  by  taking  a  small 
quantity  (1  to  2  Ibs.)  from  the  centre  of  the  package.  The  num- 
ber of  packages  sampled  in  any  given  lot  of  cement  will  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  work,  and  varies  from  every  package 
to  1  in  5  or  1  in  10.  When  the  cement  is  brought  in  barrels  the 
sample  is  obtained  by  boring  with  an  auger  either  in  the  head 
or  centre  of  the  barrel,  drawing  out  a  sample,  then  closing  the 
hole  with  a  piece  of  tin  firmly  tacked  over  it.  For  drawing  out 
the  sample  a  brass  tube  sufficiently  long  to  reach  the  bottom  of 
the  barrel  is  used.  This  is  thrust  into  the  barrel,  turned  around, 
pulled  out,  and  the  core  of  cement  knocked  out  into  the  sample- 
can,  which  is  usually  a  tin  box  with  a  tightly  fitting  cover. 

Each  sample  should  be  labelled,  stating  the  number  of  the  sam- 
ple, the  number  of  bags  or  barrels  it  represents,  the  brand  of 
the  cement,  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used,  the  date  of 
delivery,  and  date  of  sampling. 

FORM  OF  LABEL. 


Sample  No  , 

No.  of  Barrels 

Brand 

To  be  used 

Delivered 18. .     Sampled 18. 

By 


CEMENTS.  37 

The  sample  should  be  sent  at  once  to  the  testing  office,  and 
none  of  the  cement  should  be  used  until  the  report  of  the  tests  is 
received. 

The  testing  of  cement  ordinarily  consumes  30  days.  Therefore 
the  supply  must  be  so  gauged  that  a  sufficient  quantity  will  be 
kept  on  hand  to  allow  the  tests  to  be  made  without  delay  to  the 
work  of  construction. 

After  the  report  of  the  tests  is  received  the  rejected  packages 
should  be  conspicuously  marked  with  a  "C"  and  should  be  re- 
moved without  delay  ;  otherwise  it  is  liable  to  be  used. 

Rough  Tests  for  Cement.— As  one  lot  of  cement  is  liable  to 
differ  very  much  from  another  lot  of  the  same  brand,  it  is  very 
necessary  that  the  inspector  apply  some  rough  tests  to  get  an 
idea  of  how  the  cement  is  running. 

TEST  FOR  SETTING. — Make  a  small  pat  of  neat  cement  and 
note  the  interval  of  time  that  elapses  until  it  resists  penetration 
under  alight  pressure  of  the  thumb-nail. 

TEST  FOR  EXPANSION. — Make  a  small  pat  of  neat  cement  and 
when  set  in  air  place  it  under  water,  where  it  should  remain  for 
a  few  days.  If  the  cement  be  good  the  pat  will  show  no  altera- 
tion in  form,  but  if  any  cracks  show  on  the  edges,  or  other  devia- 
tions from  the  original  shape  of  the  pat,  they  indicate  that  the 
cement  is  of  an  expansive  nature,  and  therefore  not  to  be  trusted. 
But  because  a  cement  will  not  stand  this  test  it  is  not  in  all  cases 
to  be  condemned  as  useless,  as  its  expansive  or  blowing  property 
may  be  attributable  to  its  being  used  too  soon  after  leaving  the 
mill.  A  proper  process  of  cooling — placing  it  in  a  thin  layer  on  a 
dry  floor  for  a  short  time — may  correct  the  defect. 

TEST  FOR  SOUNDNESS. — Place  some  mortar  of  neat  cement  in  a 
glass  tube  (a  milled  lamp-chimney  is  excellent  for  this  purpose) 
and  pour  water  on  top.  If  the  tube  breaks  the  cement  is  unfit 
for  use  in  damp  places. 

CONTRACTION  due  to  the  cement  being  overclayed  may  be  de- 
tected by  a  similar  test  to  that  for  expansion. 

BALL  TEST. — This  test  is  extensively  employed  by  masons. 
Take  enough  neat  cement  to  make  a  ball  an  inch  in  diameter,  mix. 
with  just  sufficient  water  to  make  it  mould  readily,  and  roll  it  into 
a  ball.  Allow  it  to  set  in  air  for  about  two  hours,  then  place 
under  water,  and  allow  it  to  remain  from  1  to  10  days.  It  should 
become  gradually  harder,  and  show  no  signs  of  cracking  or  crum- 
bling. Any  cement  that  does  not  endure  this  test  is  not  of  suffi- 
ciently good  quality  to  make  satisfactory  work.. 


38  CEMENTS. 

Preservation  of  Cements. — Cements  require  to  be  stored  in 
a  dry  place  protected  from  the  weather  ;  the  packages  should  not 
be  placed  directly  on  the  ground,  but  on  boards  raised  a  few 
inches  from  it.  If  necessary  to  stack  it  out  of  doors  a  platform 
of  planks  should  first  be  made  and  the  pile  covered  with  canvas, 
Portland  cement  exposed  to  the  atmosphere  will  absorb  moisture 
until  it  is  practically  ruined.  The  absorption  of  moisture  by  the 
natural  cements  will  cause  the  development  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  will  interfere  with  the  subsequent  hydration. 

Cements — Memoranda  and  Definitions. 

Cement  is  shipped  in  barrels  or  in  cotton  or  paper  bags. 
The  usual  dimensions  of  a  barrel  are  :  length  2  ft.  4  in. ,  middle 
diameter  1  ft.  4^  in.,  end  diameter  1  ft.  3|  in. 
The  bags  hold  50,  100,  or  200  pounds. 
A  barrel  weighs  about  as  follows  : 

Rosendale,  N.  Y 300  Ibs.  net 

"  Western 265 

Portland 375 

A  barrel  of  Rosendale  cement  contains  about  3.40  cubic  feet 
and  will  make  from  3.70  to  3.75  cubic  feet  of  stiff  paste,  or  79  to 
83  pounds  will  make  about  one  cubic  foot  of  paste.  A  barrel  of 
Rosendale  cement  (300  Ibs.)  and  two  barrels  of  sand  (7-j  cubic 
feet)  mixed  with  about  half  a  barrel  of  water  will  make  about  8 
cubic  feet  of  mortar,  sufficient  for 

192  square  feet  of  mortar-joint  £  inch  thick 
288        "         "     "  "          |    " 

384        "        "     •'  "          £    " 

768        ««        "     "  "          £    " 

A  barrel  of  Portland  cement  contains  about  3.25  to  3.35  cubic 
feet — 100  pounds  will  make  about  one  cubic  foot  of  stiff  paste. 

A  barrel  of  cement  measured  loosely  increases  considerably  in 
bulk.  The  following  results  were  obtained  by  measuring  in  quan- 
tities of  two  cubic  feet : 

1  bbl.  Norton's  Rosendale  gave ....  4.37  cu.  ft. 

"        Anchor  Portland  " 3.65 

Sphinx         "  "  3.71 

"        Buckeye       "  "  4.25       " 


CEMENTS.  39 

The  weight  of  cement  per  cubic  foot  is  as  follows  . 

Portland,  English  and  German 77  to  90  Ibs. 

"  fine-ground  French 69    " 

"  American  92  "  95   " 

Rosendale 49  "  56   " 

Roman 54   " 

A  bushel  contains  1.244  cubic  feet.  The  weight  of  a  bushel  can 
be  obtained  sufficiently  close  by  adding  25$  to  the  weight  per 
cubic  foot. 

ACTIVITY  denotes  the  speed  with  which  a  cement  begins  to 
set.  Cements  differ  w'dely  in  their  rate  and  manner  of  setting. 
Some  occupy  but  a  few  minutes  in  the  operation,  and  others 
require  several.  Some  begin  setting  immediately  and  take  con- 
siderable time  to  complete  the  set,  while  others  stand  for  a  con- 
siderable time  with  no  apparent  action  and  then  set  very  quickly. 
The  point  at  which  the  set  is  supposed  to  begin  is  when  tlie 
stiffening  of  the  mass  first  becomes  perceptible,  and  the  end  of  the 
set  is  when  cohesion  extends  through  the  mass  sufficiently  to  offer 
such  resistance  to  any  change  of  form  as  to  cause  rupture  before 
any  deformation  can  take  place. 

FINENESS. — The  cementing  and  economic  value  of  a  cement  is 
affected  by  the  degree  of  fineness  to  which  it  is  ground.  Coarse 
particles  in  a  cement  have  no  setting  power  and  act  as  an  adul- 
terant. In  a  mortar  or  concrete  composed  of  a  certain  quantity  of 
inert  material  bound  together  by  a  cementing  material  it  is  evident 
that  to  secure  a  strong  mortar  or  concrete  it  is  essential  that  each 
piece  of  aggregate  shall  be  entirely  surrounded  by  the  cementing 
material,  so  that  no  two  pieces  are  in  actual  contact.  Obviously, 
then,  the  finer  a  cement  the  greater  surface  will  a  given  weight 
cover,  and  the  more  economy  will  there  be  in  its  use. 

The  proper  degree  of  fineness  is  reached  when  it  becomes 
cheaper  to  use  more  cement  in  proportion  to  the  aggregate  than  to 
pay  the  extra  cost  of  additional  grinding. 

The  fineness  of  a  cement  is  determined  by  measuring  the  per- 
centage which  will  not  pass  through  sieves  of  a  certain  number  of 
meshes  per  square  inch.  Three  sieves  are  generally  used,  viz. : 

No.    50,    2,500  meshes  per  square  inch 
«'     74,    5,476       " 
"    100,  10,000       "         * 


40  CEMENTS. 

The  usual  degree  of  fineness  required  is  that  the  residue  left  on 
a  No.  50  sieve  shall  not  be  more  than  10  per  cent  by  weight. 

FREEZING  OF  CEMENT  MORTARS.— Portland  cement  mortar 
suffers  no  surface  disintegration  under  any  condition  of  freezing, 
but  the  strength  is  impaired,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  and  some- 
times as  much  as  40  per  cent. 

Rosendale  cement  is  disintegrated  upon  the  surface  when 
exposed  to  frost  while  setting,  the  amount  of  injury  depending  to 
a  certain  extent  upon  the  number  of  degrees  of  the  exposure 
below  the  free  zing-point. 

The  cohesion  of  Rosendale  cement  mortar  may  be  entirely 
destroyed  by  immersion  in  water,  which  becomes  frozen  around  it. 

In  some  cases  Rosendale  cement  shows  an  increase  of  strength 
acquired  under  the  conditions  which  it  passes  through  while 
frozen. 

Portland  cement  is  injured  relatively  less  by  freezing  as  the 
ratio  of  cement  to  sand  decreases. 

Salt  used  in  the  mixing  water,  in  proportions  varying  around  1  to 
15,  assists  Rosendale  cement  to  resist  the  disintegrating  action  of 
frost,  but  appears  to  have  an  injurious  effect  on  the  strength. 
The  injury  to  Portland  cement  is  decreased  with  about  the  same 
proportion  of  salt. 

HYDRAULICITY. — Lime  or  cement  is  said  to  be  more  or  less 
hydraulic  according  to  the  extent  to  which  paste  or  mortar  made 
from  it  will  set  under  water,  or  in  positions  where  it  is  excluded 
from  the  action  of  the  air. 

HYDRAULIC  ACTIVITY  is  the  term  used  to  denote  the  quickness 
or  time  required  for  a  mortar  to  attain  a  small  degree  of  strength. 

HYDRAULIC  ENERGY  or  STRENGTH  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
ultimate  strength  attained  by  a  mortar.  There  is  no  necessary 
relation  between  time  of  setting  and  ultimate  strength  ;  but,  as 
a  general  rule,  the  slow-setting  cements  ultimately  attain  to  a 
greater  strength  than  quick- seting  ones. 

QUICK  AND  SLOW  SETTING. — The  aluminous  natural  cements 
are  commonly  "  quick  -setting, "  though  not  always  so,  as  those 
containing  a  considerable  percentage  of  sulphuric  acid  may  set 
quite  slowly.  The  magnesian  and  Portland  varieties  may  be  either 
"quick"  or  "slow."  Specimens  of  either  variety  may  be  had 
that  will  set  at  any  rate,  from  the  slowest  to  the  most  rapid,  and 
no  distinction  can  be  drawn  between  the  various  classes  in  this 
regard. 

Water  containing  sulphate  of  lime  in  solution  retards  the  set- 


CEMENTS.  4L 

ting.  This  fact  has  been  made  use  of  in  the  adulteration  of 
cement,  powdered  gypsum  being  mixed  with  it  to  make  it  slow- 
setting,  greatly  to  the  injury  of  the  material. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  used  affects  the  time  required  for 
setting  :  the  higher  the  temperature,  within  certain  limits,  the 
more  rapid  the  set.  Many  cements  which  require  several  hours 
to  set  when  mixed  with  water  at  a  temperature  of  40°  F.  will 
set  in  a  few  minutes  if  the  temperature  of  the  water  be  increased 
to  80°  F.  Below  a  certain  inferior  limit,  ordinarily  from  30°  to 
40°  F.,  the  cement  will  not  set,  while  at  a  certain  upper  limit,  in 
many  cements  between  100°  and  140°  F.,  a  change  is  suddenly 
made  from  a  very  rapid  to  a  very  slow  rate,  which  then  contin- 
ually decreases  as  the  temperature  increases,  until  practically  the 
cement  will  not  set. 

The  quick- setting  cements  usually  set  so  that  experimental 
samples  can  be  handled  within  5  to  30  minutes  after  mixing.  The 
slow-setting  cements  require  from  1  to  8  hours.  Freshly  ground 
cements  set  quicker  than  older  ones. 

STRENGTH. — The  strength  of  a  cement  mortar  is  usually  deter- 
mined by  submitting  a  specimen  of  known  cross-section  to  a 
tensile  strain.  The  reason  for  adopting  tensile  tests  is  that  com- 
paratively light  strains  produce  rupture  ;  and  that,  since  mortar  is 
less  strong  in  tension  than  in  compression,  in  most  cases  of  failure 
of  mortar  it  is  broken  by  tensile  stress,  even  though  the  masonry 
be  under  compression. 

Table  6  shows  the  average  minimum  and  maximum  tensile 
strength  per  square  inch  which  some  good  cements  have  attained. 

SETTING  denotes  the  process  of  combination  amongst  the  par- 
ticles of  the  cement  under  the  action  of  water. 

SOUNDNESS  denotes  the  property  of  not  expanding  or  contracting 
or  cracking  or  checking  in  setting.  These  effects  may  be  due  to 
free  lime,  free  magnesia,  or  to  unknown  causes.  Testing  sound- 
ness is,  therefore,  determining  whether  the  cement  contains  any 
active  impurity.  An  inert  adulteration  or  impurity  affects  only  its 
economic  value;  but  an  active  impurity  affects  also  its  strength  and 
durability. 


CEMENTS. 


TABLE  6. 
TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  CEMENT  MORTAR. 


Age  of  Mortar  when  Tested. 

Average  Tensile  Strength  in 
Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

Portland. 

Rosendale. 

CLEAR  CEMENT. 
One  hour,  or  until  set,  in  air,  the  remain- 
der of  the  time  in  water: 

1  iltty          .    . 

Min. 

100 

250 
350 
450 

Max. 

140 

550 

700 
800 

Min. 

40 

60 
100 
300 

30 
50 
200 

Max. 

80 

100 
laO 

400 

50 
80 
300 

One  day  in  air,  the  remainder  of  the  time 
in  water  : 
1  week  .             .                            . 

4  iveeJcs  

1  year                                   

1  PART  CEMENT  TO  1  PART  SAND. 
One  day  in  air,  the  remainder  of  the  time 
in  water  : 

1  PART  CEMENT  TO  3  PARTS  SAND. 
One  day  in  air,  the  remainder  of  the  time 
in  water  : 
1  ivttek            .... 

80 
100 
200 

126 
200 
350 

4  weeks  

1  yeur.        ...          .            

Miscellaneous  Cements. 

SLAG  CEMENTS  are  those  formed  by  an  admixture  of  slaked  lime 
with  ground  blast-furnace  slag.  The  slag  used  has  approximately 
the  composition  of  an  hydraulic  cement,  being  composed  mainly 
of  silica  and  alumina,  and  lacking  a  proper  proportion  of  lime  to 
render  it  active  as  a  cement.  In  preparing  the  cement  the  slag 
upon  coming  from  the  furnace  is  plunged  into  water  and  reduced 
to  a  spongy  form  from  which  it  may  be  readily  ground.  This  is 
dried  and  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  The  powdered  slag  and 
slaked  lime  are  then  mixed  in  proper  proportions  and  ground 
together,  so  as  to  very  thoroughly  distribute  them  through  the 
mixture.  It  is  of  the  first  importance  in  a  slag  cement  that  the 
slag  be  very  finely  ground,  and  that  the  ingredients  be  very  uni- 
formly and  intimately  incorporated. 

Both  the  composition  and  methods  of  manufacture  of  slag 
cements  vary  considerably  in  different  places.  They  usually  con- 
tain a  higher  percentage  of  alumina  than  Portland  cements,  and 


CEMENTS.  43 

the  materials  are  in  a  different  state  of  combination,  as,  being 
mixed  after  the  burning,  the  silicates  and  aluminates  of  lime 
formed  during  the  burning  of  Portland  cement  cannot  exist  in  slag 
cement. 

The  tests  for  slag  cement  are  that  briquettes  made  of  one  part 
of  cement  and  three  parts  of  sand  by  weight  shall  stand  a  tensile 
strain  of  140  pounds  per  square  inch  (one  day  in  air  and  six  in 
water),  and  must  show  continually  increasing  strength  after  seven 
days,  one  month,  etc.  At  least  90  per  cent  must  pass  a  sieve  con- 
taining 40,000  meshes  to  the  square  inch,  and  must  stand  the 
boiling  test. 

POZZUOLANAS  are  cements  made  by  a  mixture  of  volcanic  ashes 
with  linie,  although  the  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  mixed 
cements  in  general.  The  use  of  pozzuolana  in  Europe  dates  back 
to  the  time  of  the  Romans. 

ROMAN  CEMENT  is  a  natural  cement  manufactured  from  the  sep- 
taria  nodules  of  the  London  Clay  formation;  it  is  quick-setting, 
but  deteriorates  by  age  and  exposure  to  the  air. 

LAFARGE  CEMENT. — This  is  a  patented  cement  similar  to  Port- 
land, but,  unlike  Portland  or  the  natural  cements,  does  not  stain 
marble,  limestone,  or  other  porous  stones  when  used  in  setting 
them.  For  this  reason  it  is  largely  used  in  setting  and  backing 
up  the  stone-work  in  fine  buildings. 

Asphalt  uni. 

BITUMEN?  ASPHALTUM,  ASPHALT. — Bitumen  is  the  name  used 
to  denote  a  group  of  mineral  substances,  composed  of  different 
hydrocarbons,  found  widely  diffused  throughout  the  world  in  a 
variety  of  forms  which  grade  from  thin  volatile  liquids  to  thick 
semi-fluids  and  solids,  sometimes  in  a  free  or  pure  state,  but  more 
frequently  intermixed  with  or  saturating  different  kinds  of  in- 
organic or  organic  matter. 

To  designate  the  condition  under  which  bitumen  is  found  dif- 
ferent names  are  employed  ;  thus  the  liquid  varieties  are 
known  as  naphtha  and  petroleum,  the  semi-fluid  or  viscous  as 
maltha  or  mineral  tar,  and  the  solid  or  compact  as  aspJialtum  or 
asphalt. 

Three  distinct  varieties  of  asphaltum  are  recognized,  namely, 
the  earthy,  the  elastic,  and  the  hard  or  compact. 

The  earthy  variety,  represented  by  the  chapopota  of  Mexico, 
Colombia,  and  other  parts  of  South  America,  has  a  brownish- 


44  CEMEKTS. 

black  dull  color,  an  earthy  uneven  fracture,  when  freshly  exca- 
vated a  strong  though  not  unpleasant  earthy  odor,  is  soft  enough 
to  take  an  impression  of  the  nail,  hardens  slightly  on  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere,  and  burns  with  a  clear  brisk  flame,  emitting  a 
powerful  odor,  and  depositing  much  soot. 

Elastic  asphaltum  is  of  various  shades  of  brown;  is  soft,  flexible, 
and  elastic  ;  it  has  an  odor  strongly  bituminous,  and  is  of  about 
the  density  of  water  ;  it  burns  with  a  clear  flame  and  much 
smoke.  Like  caoutchouc,  it  takes  up  pencil-marks,  and  on  this 
account  is  called  mineral  caoutchouc ;  it  has  been  found  only  at 
three  places  :  in  the  fissures  of  a  slaty  clay  at  Castleton,  Eng- 
land ;  at  Montrelais,  France  ;  and  in  Massachusetts. 

Hard  or  compact  asphaltum  is  the  most  useful  variety  ;  it  forms 
large  deposits  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  of  various  de- 
grees of  quality,  according  to  its  age  and  the  impurities  mixed 
with  it ;  when  nearly  pure  its  ordinary  characteristics  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Color  brownish  black  and  black  ;  lustre  resinous  or  coal-like  ; 
opaque.  At  temperatures  below  100°  F.  it  is  brittle  and  breaks 
with  a  conchoidal  fracture.  Melts  ordinarily  at  190°  F.  to  195° 
F.,  and  is  liquid  at  about  212°  F.  At  212°  F.  it  has  a  peculiar 
but  agreeable  aromatic  odor,  somewhat  resembling,  but  still  very 
different  from,  that  of  coal-tar  ;  at  ordinary  temperatures  the 
odor  is  scarcely  perceptible,  but  when  rubbed  it  is  quite  strong. 
It  kindles  readily  and  burns  brightly  with  a  thick  smoke.  Dis- 
tilled by  itself  it  yields  a  bituminous  oil  of  a  yellow  color  (con- 
sisting of  hydrocarbons  mixed  with  oxidized  matter),  water,  some 
combustible  gases,  and  sometimes  traces  of  ammonia. 

After  combustion  it  leaves  about  one  third  of  its  weight  of 
charcoal  and  ashes  containing  silica,  alumina,  oxide  of  iron, 
sometimes  oxide  of  manganese,  lime,  and  other  inorganic  and 
organic  matter.  Its  composition  and  hardness  are  variable. 

Specific  Gravity. — Pure  bitumen  has  a  density  less  than  water  ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  impurities  mixed  with  it  the  specific 
gravity  of  asphaltum  varies  from  1.0  to  1.7.  Solubility:  It  is 
insoluble  in  water,  partly  or  wholly  soluble  in  chloroform  and 
disulphide  of  carbon,  partly  or  wholly  in  oil  of  turpentine  and 
petroleum  ether,  and  commonly  partly  in  alcohol. 

By  different  solvents  asphaltum  may  be  decomposed  into  three 
distinct  though  complex  substances  which  have  been  named  by 
Boussingault  and  other  chemists  who  have  investigated  it  petro- 
lene,  asphaltene,  and  retine.  Nothing  definite  is  known  concern- 
ing these  compounds  or  how  their  variable  proportions  and 


CEMENTS.  45 

composition  affect  the  quality  of  asphaltum.  In  the  past  they 
have  received  but  little  attention  from  chemists,  due  probably  to 
the  limited  use  of  asphaltum  ;  but  now,  in  view  of  its  large  and 
increasing  employment  for  paving  and  other  industrial  purposes, 
their  investigation  offers  a  wide  and  undoubtedly  profitable  field 
for  chemical  research. 

The  characteristics  of  these  compounds,  so  far  as  known,  are 
generally  as  follows  : 

Petrolene  is  the  compound  which  is  considered  to  give  the  vis- 
cous or  adhesive  quality.  It  may  be  described  as  that  portion  of 
the  bitumen  which  is  soluble  in  petroleum  ether.  It  is  lighter 
than  water,  very  combustible,  and  has  a  high  boiling-point,  pale- 
yellow  color,  and  peculiar  odor.  On  evaporating  off  the  ether  it 
remains  as  a  resin  with  a  brownish-black  color,  which  dissolves 
readily  in  the  volatile  oils.  Its  composition  is  carbon,  hydrogen; 
and  sulphur.  The  amount  present  in  an  asphaltum  is  variable, 
ranging  from  3  to  70  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  asphaltum. 

Asphaltene  is  the  compound  which  gives  the  hardness  to  as- 
phaltum. It  contains  the  elements  of  petrolene,  together  with  a 
quantity  of  oxygen,  and  probably  arises  from  the  oxidation  of 
that  compound.  It  is  that  portion  of  the  bitumen  which  is  insol- 
uble in  ether.  It  is  dissolved  out  by  carbon  disulphide,  chloro- 
form, benzene,  etc.  Its  color  is  a  brilliant  black  ;  density  greater 
than  water.  It  burns  like  resins  in  general,  leaving  a  very 
abundant  coke.  Like  petrolene,  it  is  composed  of  carbon,  hydro- 
gen, and  oxygen,  and  the  amount  present  in  an  asphaltum  is  as 
variable — ranging  from  1  to  about  60  per  cent. 

Retine  is  dissolved  out  by  alcohol  (anhydrous)  from  that  por- 
tion of  the  asphaltum  which  is  unaffected  by  the  solvents  above 
mentioned.  It  is  a  yellow  resin  composed  of  carbou,  hydrogen, 
and  sulphur.  What  effect  this  compound  has  upon  asphaltum  is 
unknown.  Some  authorities  claim  that  its  presence  is  injurious. 

ORIGIN  OP  BITUMEN.— The  origin  of  bitumen  is  unknown.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  the  ultimate  product  resulting  from  the  de- 
struction under  certain  conditions  of  the  organized  remains  of 
animals  and  vegetables,  producing  (1)  naphtha,  (2)  petroleum,  (3) 
maltha  or  mineral  tar,  (4)  jisphaltum.  The  whole  of  these  sub- 
stances merge  into  each  other  by  insensible  degrees,  so  it  that  is 
impossible  to  say  at  what  point  maltha  ends  and  asphaltum  begins. 
Naphtha,  the  first  of  the  series,  is  in  some  localities  found  flow- 
ing out  of  the  earth  as  a  clear,  limpid,  and  colorless  liquid  ;  as 
such  it  is  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons,  some  of  which  are  very  vol- 


46  CEMENTS. 

atile  aud  evaporate  on  exposure.  It  takes  up  oxygen  from  the 
air,  becomes  brown  and  thick,  and  in  this  condition  it  is  called 
petroleum. 

The  hardening  of  the  bituminous  fluids  which  have  oozed  out 
or  been  exposed  by  other  causes  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth 
seems,  in  most  cases  at  least,  to  have  resulted  from  the  loss  of 
the  vaporizable  portions,  and  also  from  a  process  of  oxidation 
which  consists,  first,  in  a  loss  of  hydrogen,  and  finally  in  the 
oxygenation  or  evaporation  of  the  more  volatile  portions,  which 
gradually  transforms  them  into  mineral  tar  or  maltha,  and,  still 
later,  into  solid  glossy  asphaltum,  of  which  gilsonite,  wurtzilite, 
uintahite,  etc.,  are  examples. 

OCCURRENCE  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  ASPHALTUM. — Deposits 
of  asphaltum  are  found  widely  diffused  throughout  the  world, 
and  at  various  altitudes  ranging  from  below  sea-level  to  thou- 
sands of  feet  above.  It  is,  however,  seldom  found  among  the 
primitive  or  older  rock  formations,  but  seems  to  belong  exclu- 
sively to  the  secondary  and  tertiary  formations.  Intermixed  with 
the  argillaceous  stratas  it  forms  extensive  beds  or  lake-like  depos- 
its on  both  continents,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  those 
situated  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America.  The  most  nota- 
ble of  these  are  the  so-called  pitch  lakes  on  the  island  of  Trim 
dad,  and  at  Bermudez,  Venezuela. 

Saturating  the  calcareous  and  sandstone  formations,  it  forms 
large  subterraneous  deposits  in  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
The  calcareous  varieties  occur  more  extensively  in  Europe  than 
in  America,  and  are  the  source  of  the  material  employ od  there  for 
street-paving  under  the  name  of  asphalte.  The  sandstone  class 
is  found  extensively  in  the  Western  and  Southwestern  States, 
especially  in  California,  Texas,  Kentucky,  and  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory. 

In  a  free  or  nearly  pure  state  it  is  found  in  veins  and  seams  in 
the  primitive  rock  and  volcanic  formations.  This  class  of  deposit 
is  rare,  and  the  amount  of  asphaltum  is  generally  insignificant. 
A  notable  exception,  however,  are  the  deposits  of  Utah,  etc  The 
mines  from  which  gilsonite,  wurtzilite,  uintahite  are  produced  are 
said  to  be  very  extensive,  and  the  material  is  very  nearly  pure 
Similar  deposits  are  found  in  Mexico,  Cuba,  and  various  parts  of 
South  America. 

In  many  localities  beds  of  shale,  sand,  and  cretaceous  limestone 
are  found  saturated  with  maltha,  from  which  the  bitumen  is 
extracted  by  boiling  or  macerating  with  water. 


CEMENTS. 


47 


From  the  variety  of  the  deposits  and  their  manner  of  occurrence 
it  seems  that  asphaltum  belongs  to  no  particular  era  or  age. 
Moreover,  the  asphaltum  obtained  from  these  different  sources  is 
not  uniform  either  in  character,  appearance,  hardness,  or  chemical 
composition.  The  ultimate  composition  of  specimens  from  several 
localities  is  given  in  the  following  table: 

COMPOSITION   OF  ASPHALTUM. 


Locality. 

Car- 
bon. 

Hydro- 
gen. 

Oxy- 
gen. 

Nitro- 
gen. 

Sul- 
phur. 

Ash. 

Trinidad,  W.  I  

(80.32 
•<     to 

6.30 
to 

0.56 
to 

to 

2.49 
to 

Cuba  "  

(85.89 
82.34 

11.06 
9  10 

1.40 
6.25 

0.50 
1  91 

11.48 

0  40 

*^ 

•0t 

Caxatambo,  Peru  .... 
N.  S.  (albertite)  
W.  Va(grahamite)... 
Auvergne,  France  

Oklahoma,  I.  T  
Mexico 

88.66 
86  04 
76.45 
77.64 

-J55.00 
80  34 

9.69 
8.96 

7.83 
7.86 

10.21 
10  09 

I. 
1.97 
13.14 

8.35 

7.14 
9  57 

65 
2.93 

"i'.OiT 
2.74 

trace 

0.10 

2.26 
5.13 
24.91 
and  silicates 

Utah  (gilsonite)  

80.88 

9.76 

6.05 

3.30 

0.01 

NOMENCLATURE. — As  indicated  above,  the  varieties  of  bitumen 
and  asphaltum  are  as  numerous  as  the  localities  producing 
them  ;  hence  there  is  a  great  variety  of  names  used  to  designate 
the  same  substance,  which  is  oftentimes  misleading,  if  not  con- 
fusing. As  an  illustration  of  this  variety  the  following  may  be 
mentioned:  native  pitch,  mineral  pitch,  glance  pitch,  grahamite, 
albertite,  piauzite,  elaterite,  gilsonite,  wurtzilite,  uintahite,  tur- 
rellite,  etc. 

Sometimes  the  name  of  the  locality  where  it  is  found  is  used  as 
a  prefix,  and  is  thus  useful  to  indicate  the  source.  Such  names 
are  Dead  Sea  bitumen,  Egyptian  asphalt,  Cuban,  Trinidad,  Ber- 
muda, Californian,  Kentucky,  etc. 

The  name  asphalle  has  been  adopted  by  the  French  to  designate 
the  material  obtained  from  their  bituminous  limestone  deposits, 
and  is  now  generally  employed  throughout  Europe  to  denote  both 
the  carbonate  of  lime  impregnated  with  asphaltum  and  the  pave- 
in  nt  made  from  that  material. 

The  name  litkocarbon  has  been  adopted  to  designate  a  cretaceous 
limestone  saturated  with  bitumen  found  in  Texas. 

Some  authorities  apply  the  terms  asphaltum,  asphalt,  and  liquid 
asphalt  to  the  semi-fluid  and  viscous  bituminous  substance,  or 
maltha,  which  by  heat  may  be  transformed  into  asphaltum.  This 


48  CEMENTS. 

application  seems  to  be  erroneous,  because  asphaltum  technically 
means  bitumen  in  tbe  solid  form.  Others  use  the  same  terms  to 
designate  the  entire  mixture  of  bitumen,  mineral  and  organic 
matter,  while  others  apply  them  to  denote  the  purified  material. 

The  names  which  seem  to  be  the  most  used  in  the  United  States, 
and  which  are  at  the  same  time  descriptive  of  the  various  classes, 
are  as  follows: 

Crude  asphaltum  or  crude  asphalt  is  applied  to  all  mixtures  of 
bitumen,  clay,  sand,  etc.;  e.  g.,  crude  Trinidad  asphalt. 

Refined  asphaltum  or  asphalt  is  used  to  denote  the  asphaltum 
after  it  has  been  wholly  or  partly  freed  from  the  combined  organic 
and  inorganic  matters. 

The  limestone  rocks  impregnated  with  bitumen  are  called 
'bituminous  or  asphaltic  limestones.  The  term  rock  asphalt  is  also 
applied  to  the  same  material,  the  name  of  the  source  being  also 
used,  as  "Italian  rock  asphalt,"  "  Val  de  Travers  rock  asphalt," 
etc. 

The  sandstones  containing  bitumen  are  known  as  bituminous  or 
asphaltic  sandstones,  the  name  of  the  source  being  also  mentioned. 

The  semi-fluid  bitumen  is  designated  by  the  names  maltha  and 
mineral  tar. 

The  term  aspJialt  is  also  frequently  but  erroneously  applied  to 
various  preparations  in  which  the  cementing  material  is  coal-tar 
or  the  residue  of  oil-refineries,  etc. — substances  which  are  entirely 
dissimilar  to  asphaltum,  though  apparently  possessing  some  of  its 
characteristics. 

The  term  bitumen  is  employed  to  designate  the  truly  bituminous 
portion  of  the  asphaltum  and  its  compounds. 

Refined  Asphaltum  is  asphaltum  freed  from  the  combined 
water  and  accompanying  inorganic  and  organic  matter.  By  com- 
paratively simple  operations  the  several  varieties  of  asphaltum 
may  be  reduced  to  an  equal  state  of  purity. 

The  argillaceous  varieties,  such  as  Trinidad,  Bermudez,  etc.,  are 
purified  in  iron  vessels  by  the  application  of  heat  either  directly 
from  fire  or  indirectly  by  steam;  the  temperature  employed  ranges 
from  212°  F.  to  350°  F.  During  the  application  of  the  heat  the  as- 
phaltum is  liquefied,  the  combined  water  is  evaporated,  the  organic 
matters  rise  to  the  surface  and  are  skimmed  off,  and  the  inorganic 
settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel;  when  the  liberation  of  the  im- 
purities is  completed  the  liquid  asphaltum  is  drawn  off  into 
barrels,  and  constitutes  the  refined  asphaltum  of  commerce. 

The  calcareous  and  silicious  varieties  are  purified  by  boiling  or 


CEMENTS.  49 

macerating  them  with  hot  water,  according  to  the  freedom  with 
which  they  part  with  the  intermixed  impurities.  Daring  the 
action  of  the  water  the  sand  and  other  ingredients  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  the  bitumen  rises  to  the  surface  or  forms 
clots  on  the  sides  of  the  boiler,  whence  it  is  skimmed  off  and 
thrown  into  another  boiler,  where  it  is  boiled  for  some  time, 
during  which  the  water  and  more  volatile  oils  are  evaporated,  and 
the  mineral  matters  still  retained  fall  to  the  bottom,  leaving  the 
bitumen  in  the  form  of  a  thick  viscid  substance,  in  which  state  it 
is  used  in  several  of  the  arts.  By  continuing  the  boiling  for  a 
considerable  time  or  by  increasing  the  temperature  to  about  250° 
F.  the  volatile  portions  are  driven  off,  and  the  viscid  bitumen  is 
brought  to  a  condition  which  upon  cooling  causes  it  to  become 
solid. 

The  operation  of  refining  or  purifying,  while  exceedingly 
simple,  requires  to  be  performed  with  much  care,  for  the  reason 
that  if  the  asphaltum  is  melted  at  too  high  a  temperature  it  will 
be  burned  or  coked,  or  if  the  heating  is  prolonged  at  a  low  tem- 
perature the  result  will  be  practically  the  same.  In  either  case 
the  petrolene  is  converted  into  asphaltene. 

Asphaltic  Cement. — Asphaltum  in  a  refined  or  pure  state  is 
valueless  as  a  cementing  medium,  owing  to  its  hardness,  brittle- 
ness,  and  lack  of  cementitious  properties;  therefore  it  is  necessary 
to  add  some  substance  which  will  impart  to  it  the  required  plastic, 
adhesive,  and  tenacious  qualities.  This  substance  must  be  one 
that  will  partially  dissolve  the  asphaltene  and  form  a  chemical 
union  by  solution  instead  of  a  mechanical  mixture.  The  duty 
which  it  has  to  perform  is  an  important  and  peculiar  one  :  if  it  is 
a  perfect  solvent  of  the  constituents  of  the  bitumen  the  adhesive 
qualities  will  be  destroyed,  if  it  is  an  imperfect  one  the  asphaltum, 
will  retain  its  brittleness. 

The  requirements  of  a  suitable  flux  are  that  it  shall  be  a  fluid 
containing  no  substances  volatile  under  300°  F.,  and  shall  possess 
the  power  to  dissolve  the  asphaltum  without  destroying  or  lessen- 
ing its  adhesive  properties. 

The  materials  employed  to  give  the  required  qualities  to  the 
hard  asphaltum  are  called  the  "  flux,"  and  those  in  general  use 
are  crude  or  specially  prepared  residuum  oil  obtained  from  the 
distillation  of  petroleum,  and  crude  or  refined  maltha. 

The  process  of  adding  the  flux  is  called  "  oiling  "or  "  temper- 
ing," and  is  conducted  as  follows:  The  refined  asphaltum  is 
nielted  and  the  temperature  raised  to  about  300°  F. ;  the  oil 


50  CEMENTS. 

previously  heated  is  then  pumped  or  in  other  ways  added  to  the 
asphaltum,  in  the  proportion  of  10  to  20  pounds  of  oil  to  100 
pounds  of  refined  asphaltum;  the  proportion  of  the  oil  is  varied 
between  the  limits  stated  according  to  its  quality,  the  hardness  of 
the  asphaltum,  and  the  purpose  for  which  the  cement  is  to  be  em- 
ployed. The  mixture  of  residuum  oil  and  asphaltum  is  agitated 
either  by  mechanical  means  or  by  a  blast  of  air  for  several  hours 
or  until  the  material  has  acquired  the  desired  properties.  The 
agitation  must  be  performed  with  great  thoroughness  to  secure  a 
uniform  mixture,  and  must  be  continued  whenever  the  material 
is  in  a  melted  condition,  as  a  certain  amount  of  separation  takes 
place  when  the  melted  cement  stands  at  rest.  It  is  therefore 
customary  to  agitate  it  constantly  when  in  use  as  well  as  during 
its  preparation. 

The  process  of  "tempering "  when  maltha  is  used  as  the  flux  is 
practically  the  same  as  outlined  above,  with  the  exception  that  the 
mixing  is  performed  at  a  lower  temperature  and  entirely  by 
mechanical  means,  and  a  separation  of  the  ingredients  seldom 
occurs  when  the  cement  is  standing  at  rest. 

The  maltha  from  many  localities  is  to  be  had  in  the  market ;  it 
is  sold  for  fluxing  purposes  under  various  trade  names,  among 
which  may  be  named  "  Alcatraz  "  liquid  asphaltum,  "  Standard  '" 
liquid  asphalt,  "Utah"  liquid  asphalt,  etc.;  also  artificial  flux- 
ing materials  which  are  offered  as  substitutes  for  oil  and  maltha, 
such  as  the  "  Pittsburg,"  asphaltic  flux  etc.  The  analyses  of 
some  of  these  fluxing  agents  are  as  follows  : 

*'  ALCATRAZ  "  LIQUID  ASPHALT. 

Specific  gravity 1.05 

Bitumen  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide 98.70  percent 

Bitumen  soluble  in  petroleum  naphtha. ...  89.17    "     " 

Mineral  matter 1.30    "     " 

Organic  non-bituminous  matter trace 

"  UTAH  "  LIQUID  ASPHALT  (CRUDE). 

Specific  gravity 0.9068 

Bitumen  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide.. ...  76  15  per  cent 

Bitumen  soluble  in  ether 64.90    "      " 

Mineral  matter. 3.40    "      " 

Organic  non-bituminous  matter 20.45   "      " 

Loss  at  100°  C..  .  24.72   "      '« 


CEMENTS.  51 

"PITTSBURGH"  ASPHALTIC  FLUX. 

Moisture 0.05  per  cent 

Volatile  oil  212°  F.  to  312°  F 1.60  "  " 

Volatile  oil  about  312°  F 89.19  "  " 

Fixed  carbon 8.48  "  " 

Ash 0.68  "  " 

Bitumen  soluble  in  carbon  disulpbide 99.32  "  " 

Bitumen  soluble  in  etber 65.00  "  " 

The  enduring  qualities  of  an  asphaltic  cement  depend  upon  (1) 
the  character  of  the  fluxing  agent,  (2)  the  temperature  at  which 
the  asphaltum  has  been  refined,  and  the  temperature  at  which  the 
flux  is  added,  (3j  the  degree  of  incorporation  of  the  flux  with  the 
asphaltum,  that  is,  whether  the  union  is  a  chemical  or  mechanical 
one 

Residuum  Oil  is  a  thick  heavy  oil  varying  considerably  in 
composition,  according  to  the  source  of  the  petroleum  and  method 
of  distillation  ;  its  base  is  parqffine — a  substance  so  different  from 
asphaltum  that  when  the  two  are  brought  together  the  result  is  a 
mixture  partly  mechanical  and  partly  chemical,  and,  being  of 
different  specific  gravities,  they  partly  separate  when  allowed  to 
stand  for  any  cansiderable  period  without  stirring. 

In  preparing  the  oil  the  object  aimed  at  is  (1)  the  removal  of 
the  hard  paraffines,  which  are  very  susceptible  to  changes  of  tem- 
perature, becoming  soft  under  the  summer  sun  and  brittle  at  or 
below  the  freezing-point;  their  presence  imparts  similar  properties 
to  the  asphalt  cement  ;  (2)  to  remove  the  lighter  and  more  volatile 
oils  ;  care.in  their  removal  must  be  exercised  :  if  t^o  large  a  per- 
.centage  is  removed  the  oil  becomes  heavy  and  thick,  and  too 
large  a  proportion  is  required  to  make  a  cement  of  suitable  con- 
sistency— therefore  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  that  can  be 
removed. 

The  oil  is  carefully  examined  to  accertain  ; 

1.  Specific  gravity. 

2.  Flash-point. 

3.  Percentage  volatile  in  a  given  time  at  400°  F. 

4  Susceptibility  to  changes  of  temperature  as  revealed  by 
changes  in  viscosity. 

5.   Presence  of  crystals  of  paraffine. 

The  specifications  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  provide  that  the 
heavy  petroleum  oil  used  in  the  manufacture  of  asphalt  cement 
shall  have  the  following  characteristics  ; 


52  CEMENTS. 

It  shall  be  a  petroleum  from  which  the  lighter  oils  have  been 
removed  by  distillation  without  cracking. 

Specific  gravity  Baume  17°  to  21°.  Flash-point  not  less  than 
300°  F.  Distillate  at  400°  F.  for  ten  hours  less  than  10  per  cent. 

Shall  not  cease  to  flow  above  60°  F.  Shall  not  require  more 
than  21  pounds  of  oil  for  each  100  pounds  of  refined  asphalt  to 
produce  the  specific  quality  of  cement. 

The  flash-point  shall  be  taken  in  a  New  York  State  closed  oil- 
tester.  The  distillate  shall  be  made  with  about  90  grams  of  oil  in 
a  small  glass  retort  provided  with  a  thermometer  and  packed  en- 
tirely in  asbestos. 

The  flowing-point  shall  be  determined  by  cooling  100  cc.  of  oil 
in  a  small  bottle  and  noting  the  temperature  at  which  it  flows 
readily  from  one  end  of  the  bottle  to  the  other. 

Analysis  and  Tests  of  Asphaltum.  — The  tests  employed  to 
determine  the  relative  merits  of  asphaltum  and  asphaltic  cements 
comprise  both  chemical  and  physical  investigations. 

The  chemical  examination  of  the  crude  material  involves  the 
following  determinations  : 

Specific  gravity. 
Percentage  of  moisture. 

' '  "  matter  soluble  in  turpentine. 

"  "         "         "         "  carbon  bisulphide. 

"  "         "         "         "  alcohol. 

"  "         "         "         "  ether. 

"  "         "         volatile  in  10  hours  at  400°  F. 

"  "  sulphuretted  hydrogen  evolved  at  400°  F. 

"  "  non- bituminous  organic  matter. 

"  "  mineral  constituents. 

Softening-point. 
Flowing-point. 

The  examination  of  the  physical  properties  (mechanical  tests) 
involves  the  following  determinations  : 

1.  The  refining  of  the  crude  material  and  making  of  an  asphal- 
tic cement. 

2.  Determining  the  penetrability  of  the  cement. 

3  Making  a  paving  mixture  and  testing  it  for  tensile  and 
crushing  strength. 

The  penetration  tests  are  usually  conducted  in  a  machine  in- 
vented by  Prof.  Bowen.  This  machine  consists  of  a  lever  about 
17  inches  long,  having  the  fulcrum  at  one  end  and  a  cambric 


CEMENTS.  53 

needle  inserted  in  the  other  end,  above  which  is  placed  a  weight 
of  100  grams.  The  end  near  the  needle  is  connected  by  a  steel 
rod  and  waxed  cord  with  a  spindle  having  a  long  hand  which 
moves  about  a  dial  divided  into  360  degrees.  Another  cord  and 
weight  upon  an  enlarged  part  of  the  spindle  keeps  the  first- 
mentioned  cord  taut.  By  a  suitably  contrived  spring  clip  the 
steel  rod  can  be  released  for  any  length  of  time,  and  the  needle, 
which  has  first  been  brought  to  coincide  with  the  surface  of  the 
asphalt  cement  placed  under  it  in  a  tin  box,  allowed  to  penetrate 
under  the  action  of  the  weight  into  the  cement.  The  number  of 
degrees  through  which  the  hand  moves  on  the  dial  records  the 
penetration  of  the  cement ;  the  length  of  time  for  which  the 
needle  is  released  is  one  second.  Originally  Prof.  Bo  wen  selected 
77°  F.  as  the  proper  temperature  at  which  the  test  should  be 
made,  and  brought  the  cement  and  machine  to  this  degree  by 
keeping  them  in  a  room  warmed  to  this  point.  But  as  it  is  some- 
times inconvenient  or  impossible  to  have  a  room  temperature  of 
77°,  other  temperatures  may  be  made  available  by  placing  the  tin 
sample-box  of  asphalt  cement  in  water  at  77°  and  allowing  it  to 
acquire  that  temperature,  when  the  test  can  be  made  as  before, 
certain  allowance  being  made  to  reduce  the  result  to  the  normal 
temperature  of  77°  F. 

The  physical  tests  are  performed  in  the  usual  machines  em- 
ployed for  testing  other  cements. 

:'  s  asphalt  cement  possesses  the  same  qualities  and  can  be  used 
for  th-j  same  purposes  as  hydraulic  and  other  cements,  its  physi- 
cal qualities  can  be  tested  in  a  similar  manner  ;  but  the  tests  which 
have  been  made  and  published  have  been  conducted  without 
any  regard  to  uniformity  and  under  widely  different  conditions  ; 
therefore  they  are  of  little  or  no  value  in  determining  the  relative 
merits  of  the  cements. 

TEST  FOR  BITUMINOUS  ROCK. — A  specimen  of  the  rock,  freed 
from  all  extraneous  matter,  having  been  pulverized  as  finely  as 
possible,  should  be  dissolved  in  sulphurate  of  carbon,  turpentine, 
ether,  or  benzine,  placed  in  a  glass  vessel  and  stirred  with  a  glass 
rod.  A  dark  solution  will  result,  from  which  will  be  precipitated 
the  limestone.  The  solution  of  bitumen  should  then  be  poured 
off.  The  dissolvent  speedily  evaporates,  leaving  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  bitumen,  each  of  which  should  be  weighed  so  as  to 
determine  the  exact  proportion.  The  bitumen  should  be  heated 
in  a  lead  bath  and  tested  with  a  porcelain  or  Baume  thermometer 
to  428  degrees  Fahr.  There  will  be  little  loss  by  evaporation  if 


54  CEMEKTS. 

the  bitumen  is  good,  but  if  bituminous  oil  is  present  the  loss  will 
be  considerable.  Gritted  mastic  should  be  heated  to  450  degrees 
Fahr.  The  limestone  should  be  next  examined.  If  the  powder 
is  white  and  soft  to  the  touch  it  is  a  good  component  part  of 
asphalt  ;  but  if  rough  and  dirty  on  being  tested  with  reagents  it 
will  be  found  to  contain  iron  pyrites,  silicates,  clay,  etc.  Some 
bituminous  rocks  are  of  a  spongy  or  hygrometrical  nature  ;  thus, 
as  an  analysis  which  merely  gives  so  much  bitumen  and  so  much 
limestone  may  mislead,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  quality  of  the 
limestone  and  of  the  bitumen. 

The  European  bituminous  limestone  appears  like  a  fine-grained 
rock,  friable  in  summer,  hard  in  winter.  When  heated  to  50  or 
60  degrees  centigrade  it  can  be  crushed  between  the  fingers, 
and  if  exposed  for  several  hours  to  a  fierce  sun  it  crumbles  into 
unctuous  brown  powder.  Examined  under  the  microscope  it  is 
found  to  consist  of  minute  calcareous  grains,  each  covered  with  a 
thin  film  of  bitumen,  which  causes  them  to  adhere  together.  If 
a  small  portion  is  heated  the  cementing  bitumen  is  melted  and 
releases  the  solid  particles  from  a  loose  heap  of  a  deep  chocolate 
color.  If  this  powder  is  raised  to  175  or  212  degrees  Fahr.  and 
rapidly  compressed  in  a  mould  it  will  regain,  in  cooling,  its 
original  consistency  in  the  new  form.  And  the  process  may  be 
indefinitely  repeated,  no  change  being  produced  by  melting,  fol- 
lowed by  compression  and  cooling. 


TIMBER.  55 


V.    TIMBER. 

Structure  of  Timber. 

Woods  suitable  for  structural  purposes  are  usually  called  tim- 
ber, and  are  almost  exclusively  obtained  from  trees  that  grow  by 
the  formation  of  layers  of  wood  over  the  external  surface,  and 
therefore  called  exogenous.  There  are  a  few  exceptions,  as  the 
trees  of  the  palm  family,  the  bamboo,  etc.,  which  belong  to  the 
endogenous  class. 

When  a  tree  is  cut  across  it  is  seen  that  it  is  composed  of  three 
parts : 

1st.  The  bark,  having  a  thickness  of  from  J  to  1£  inches  or 
more.  This  has  no  value  for  structural  purposes,  though  useful 
in  other  respects  ;  it  hastens  the  decay  of  the  tree  after  felling, 
and  should  always  be  removed.  3d.  The  sap-wood,  which  lies 
next  the  bark,  having  a  thickness  varying  from  £  to  4  inches  ; 
it  is  indicated  by  a  lighter  color,  by  being  softer  and  less  com- 
pact than  the  inner  portion.  3d.  The  central  portion  surrounded 
by  the  sap-wood  and  called  the  heart.  The  boundary  between 
the  sap-wood  and  the  heart  is  in  general  distinctly  marked.  The 
heart- wood  alone  should  be  employed  in  those  works  in  which 
strength  and  durability  are  required.  Although  the  sap-wood  is 
liable  to  rapid  decay  when  exposed  to  unfavorable  conditions, 
yet  it  can  be  safely  used  when  entirely  immersed  in  water,  or 
when  impregnated  with  certain  preserving  solutions,  or  when 
carefully  seasoned  and  painted. 

Timber  for  building  purposes  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  : 
soft  and  hard.  To  the  first  class  belong  the  pines  and  firs,  to  the 
second  the  oaks,  chestnut,  locust,  hickory,  etc. 

PROPERTIES  OF  TIMBER. — Table  7  shows  the  weight  and 
strength  of  timber  collected  from  the  experiments  of  different 
authorities.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  figures  vary  throughout  a 
very  wide  range,  the  difference  being  caused  by  the  variations 
in  the  conditions  of  the  growth  of  the  timber,  seasoning  and  pres- 
erveration,  and  upon  the  part  of  the  tree  from  which  the  speci- 
men was  cut,  as  well  as  upon  the  size  and  form  of  the  piece  tested 
and  the  method  by  which  Ihe  test  was  applied. 

In  taking  figures  from  the  table  the  lowest  recorded  should  be 
taken,  applying  a  large  factor  of  safety  to  cover  defects  in  the 
pieces  used,  which  defects  may  not  have  existed  in  the  specimens 
experimented  upon. 


56 


TIMBER. 


TABLE  7. 

DESCRIPTION   AND    PROPERTIES   OF   TIMBER. 


Description  of  Timber. 

Weight 
per 
Cubic 
Foot 
Dry. 
Lbs. 

Resistance  to 

Shearing. 

Ten- 
sion. 

Crush- 
ing. 

Cross- 
break- 
ing. 

With 
the 
Grain. 

Aross 
the 
Grain. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

ASH  (White) 

40.77 
38.96 

44.35 

19.72 
to 
20.70 

23.66 

i-T 

s 
1 

o" 

3' 

3 
3 

rf 

o 
3 

3 

450  to  700 

1300  to  1519  6280 

Color  brown  ;  sap- 
wood  much  lighter,  often 
nearly  white.  Wood 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  ulti- 
mately brittle,  coarse- 
grained, compact.  Use  : 
Interior  and  cabinet 
work. 

ASH  (Red)                  

Color  rich  brown  ;  sap- 
wood  light  brown  streak- 
ed with  yellow.  Wood 
heavy,  strong,  brittle, 
coarse-grained,  compact. 
Use  :  As  a  substitute  for 
the  more  valuable  white 
ash,  with  which  it  is 
often  confounded  

Colorbrown;  sap-wood 
lighter.  Heavy,  hard, 
strong,  brittle,  coarse- 
grained. Use  :  Substitute 

CEDAR  (White) 

Color  light  brown,  turn- 
ing darker  with  expo- 
sure; the  thin  sap-wood 
nearly  white.  Wood  very 
light,  soft,  rather  coarse- 
grained. Very  durable 
in  contact  with  the  soil. 
Used  for  posts,  fencing, 
railway  ties,  and  shin- 
gles. 

CEDAR  (Red)  

Color  dull  brown  ting- 
ed with  red  ;  the  thin  sap- 
wood  nearly  white.  Wood 
very  light,  soft,  brittle, 
rather  coarse-grained, 
compact,  easily  worked. 
Very  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil.  Used  for 
interior  finish,  fencing, 
shingles. 

TIMBER.  57 

DESCRIPTION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  TIMBER.    (Continued.) 


Resistance  to 

Shearing. 

Description  of  Timber. 

Cubic 
Foot 
Dry. 

Ten- 
sion. 

Crush- 
ing. 

Cross- 
break- 
ing. 

With 
the 
Grain. 

Across 
the 
Grain. 

Lbs. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

CEDAR  (Central  America).. 

JNJ 

8 

3 

o 

CYPRESS  (Yellow)  
Color       bright,     light 

29.80 

g 

clear   yellow  ;   sap-wood 

nearly  white.  Wood  light, 
hard,  brittle,  close-grain- 

1 

§ 

1 

ed.    Durable  in  contact 

Q 

0 

0 

with    the    soil.       Easily 

•** 

+J 

+i 

worked.  Satiny,  polishes 
well.    Has  an  agreeable 

1 

1 

1 

resinous     odor.       Use  : 

Interior    finish,    cabinel 

work. 

ELM  (White) 

45.26 

Color       light        clear 

0 

o 

brown,  often  tinged  with 
red  ;      sap-wood     much 
lighter.       Heavy,    hard, 

09 

0 
0 

I 

strong,  tough,  very  close- 

4* 

« 

grained.     Susceptible  of 

eo 

polish.  Use  :  Bridge  tim- 

bers, sills,  ties. 

GUM          

36.83 

Color     bright     brown 

tinged  with  red.    Heavy 
hard,  tough,  close-grain- 
ed,  compact.      Inclinec 

OD 

1 

! 

to  shrink  and  warp  badly 
in  seasoning.     Suscepti 
ble  of  a  beautiful  polish 

O 

3 

i 

1 

Use  :    Boards  and  clap 

•o" 

«o 

boards,  and  as  a  substi 

1-1 

tute  for  black  walnut. 

HICKORY         

46.16 

Color  brown  ;  the  thin 

to 

§ 

and  more  valuable  sap 

52.17 

of 

_ 

S3 

wood      nearly       white 

Q 

o 

c* 

Wood  heavy,  very  hard 
and  strong,  tough,  close 

a 

3 

3 

3 

grained,  compact,  flexi 

731 

O 

JO 

3 

ble.     Use  :    Handles  fo 

1-1 

t- 

§ 

implements,  etc. 

H  KM  LOCK 

N.  andS.  Atlantic  

26.42 

§* 

§' 

Pacific 

32.29 

£— 

Color  light  brown  ting 

8 

3 

3 

g 

ed    with   red,    or    ofte 

00 

s 

nearly  white.    Sapwoo< 

g 

n 

somewhat  darker.  Woo 

"* 

light,    soft,    not   strong 

58 


TIMBER. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  TIMBER.    (Continued.) 


• 

Description  of  Timber. 

Weight 
pei- 
Cubic 
Foot 
Dry. 
Lbs. 

Resistance  to 

Shearing. 

Ten- 
sion. 

Crush- 
ing. 

Cross- 
break- 
ing. 

With 
the 
Grain. 

Across 
the 
Grain. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

brittle,  coarse,  crooked- 
grained.  Difficult  to 
work.  Liable  to  wind- 
shake  and  splinter.  Not 
durable.  Use  :  Rough 
lumber  for  construction. 
Two  varieties  of  the 
northern  are  recognized, 
red  and  white. 

LOCUST  

45.70 

71.24 
to 
83.00 

43.08 

32.84 
35.00 

8000 
2300  to  17,900  to  8000  to  10,000  10,000  to  12,000  10,500  to  24,800 
10,000 

6000 
6000  to  7000  to  9940  8000  to  9600  7000  to  11.700 
7500 

o 

i 

s 

1 

p 

£ 

Color  brown,  or  more 
rarely  light  green;  sap- 
wood  yellow.  Heavy, 
hard,  strong,  close-grain- 
ed, compact.  Very  dur- 
able in  contact  with  the 
ground.  Use:  Posts, 
turning. 

LIGNUM  VITJE 

Color       rich       yellow 
brown,    varying    to     al- 
most   black  ;    sap-wood 
light     yellow.       Heavy, 
hard,     strong,      brittle, 
close-grained,    compact. 
Difficult  to  work,   splits 
irregularly.  Use:  Sheaves 
of  blocks. 
MAPLE  (Hard)  .       .   . 

Color      light      brown 
tinged   with    red  ;  sap- 
wood    lighter.      Heavy, 
hard  ,  strong,  tough  ,  close- 
grained,  compact.     Sus 
ceptible  of  a  good  polish. 
Use  :    Flooring,  interior 
finish. 
MAPLE  (White) 

Light,     hard,    strong, 
brittle,    close-g  rained, 
compact.  Easily  worked 
Use:  Flooring,  furniture' 
MAHOGANY  (Cent.  America. 
Color     red-brown     of 
various  shades  and   de- 
grees of  brightness.    Of- 
ten very  much  variedand 
mottled.    Inferior  quali- 
ties contain  a  large  num- 
ber of  gray    specks. 
Wood    strong,    durable, 
flexible  when  green,  brit- 
tle when  dry,  is  very  free 

TIMBER. 


59 


DESCRIPTION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  TIMBER.    (Continued.) 


Description  of  Timber. 

Weight 

Cubic 
Foot 
Dry. 
Lbs. 

Resistance  to 

Shearing. 

Ten- 
sion. 

Crush- 
ing. 

Cross- 
break- 
ing. 

With 
the 
Grain. 

Across 
the 
Grain. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

from  shakes;  is  seldom 
attacked  by  dry  rot  or 
worms.  Requires  care  in 
seasoning  ;  if  seasoned  too 
rapidly  is  liable  to  split 
into  deep  shakes.    Use  : 
Interior  finish,  handrails, 
patterns,  etc. 
OAK  (White)               .   .. 

46.35 
53.63 

59.21 

40.75 
27.44 

10,000 
3000  to  11,000  10,000  to  10,250  to  19,500 
16,380 

8000 
3000  to  6650  4000  to  8500  to  4684  to  9500 
10,000 

g 

2 

1 
2 

| 

1 
2 

?, 

0* 

2 

e 

2 
8 

1 

i 

•SI 

Color  brown  ;  sap-wood 
light    brown.      Wood 
heavy,      strong,      hard, 
tough,    close-g  rained. 
Checks  if  not  carefully 
seasoned.    Use  :  Interior 
finish,  cabinet-making. 
OAK  (Chestnut)  

Color  dark  brown;  sap- 
wood  much  lighter.  Wood 
heavy,hard,  strong,  close- 
grained.  Checks  badly  in 
drying.    Durable  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil.    Use  : 
Railroad  ties. 
OAK  (Live)  

Color  light    brown    01 
yellow:  sap-wood  nearly 
white.  Wood  very  heavy 
hard,  strong,  tough,  close- 
grained,  compact.    Diffi. 
cult  to  work.    Polishes. 
OAK  (Red  and  Black)  
Color  light   brown    01 
red.  Heavy,  hard,  coarse- 
grained .     Checks  in  dry- 
ing. Use  :  Interior  finish 
and  furniture. 
PALMETTO  (Florida).  . 

Color    light    brown. 
Wood  light,  soft,  fibres 
dark-colored.     Hard  and 
difficult  to  work.    Use  : 
Piles.    Is  impervious  to 
the  attacksof  the  Teredo, 
and  very  durable  under 
water. 
PINE  (White)  

Color  lightbrown,  often 
slightly  tinged  with  red; 
sap-wood    nearly    white. 
Wood    light,    soft,    very 
close,      straight-grained. 
Easily  worked.   Polishes. 

60 


TIMBER. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  TIMBER.    (Continued.) 


Resistance  to 

Shearing. 

Description  of  Timber. 

Cubic 
jFoot 
Dry. 

Ten- 
sion. 

Crush- 
ing. 

Cross- 
break- 
ing. 

With 
the 
Grain. 

Across 
the 
Grain. 

Lbs. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

Use  :  Interior  finish,  win- 

dows, doors,  etc 

Can.,  N.  Atlantic  States. 

24.02 

N   Pacific  coast  

24  35 

California 

22.00 

Colorado  

Arizona 

30^39 

PINE  (Red),  Norway  Pine. 

30.25 

Color  light  red;    sap- 

wood   yellow   or   white. 

S 

Wood  light,  hard,  coarse- 

5? 

p 

o 

grained,    compact.  Res- 

o 

o 

c^ 

in-passages      few,     not 

js 

o 

conspicuous.    Use  :    All 

8 

8 

purposes  of  construction  . 

§ 

PINE  (Yellow),  Long-leafed 

43.62 

Color   light  red   or 

orange:  sap-wood  nearly 
white.  Wood  heavy,  hard, 

1 

8 

0 

to 

strong,   tough,     coarse- 
grained;  compact.  Dur- 
able.   Cells  resinous  and 

OT 

3 

I 

1 
g 

1 

1 

dark-colored.    Use  :    All 

o 

8 

eo 

c* 

purposesof  construction. 

0 

PINK  (Yellow),  Short-leafed 
Colororange  ;sap-wood 

38.40 

white,    Wocd  vary  ing 

greatly   in    quality   and 

amount  of  sap.    Heavy, 

^ 

hard  ,    coarse-g  rained, 
compact.Cells  broad,  very 

o" 

1 

§ 

resinous  ;  resin-passages 

o 

o 

£ 

§ 

numerous,  large.  Medul- 

s 

-. 

§i 

O 

lary  rays  numerous.  Use: 

§ 

g 

All  purposes  of  construc- 
tion.   Frequently  substi- 

s 

* 

tuted     for     long  -leafed 

pine,  which  is  superior. 

PINE  (Oregon)(Z>ottgrZas  Fir) 

32.14 

Color    varying    from 

light  red  to  yellow;  sap- 

wood  nearly  white.  Wood 

hard,     strong,     varying 
greatly  with  age,  condi- 
tions of  growth,  and 

1 

1 

1 

amount  of  sap.    Difficult 
to  work.    Durable.   Use  : 

o 

2 

2 

All  kinds  of  construction. 

o 

SB 

§ 

Two    varieties,  red    and 

0 

01 

eg 

00 

yellow;    red    considered 

lessvaluable  thanyellow. 

TIMBER. 


61 


DESCRIPTION   AND  PROPERTIES    OF   TIMBER.    (Continued.) 


Description  of  Timber. 

Weight 
pei- 
Cubic 
Foot 
Dry. 
Lbs. 

Resistance  to 

Shearing. 

Ten- 
sion. 

Crush- 
ing. 

Cross- 
break- 
ing. 

With 
the 
Grain. 

Across 
the 
Grain. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

POPLAR  (Whitewood).  . 

30 
26.23 

28.57 
25.25 
25.46 
38.11 

I 

i 

B 

to 
o 

o 

o 
o 

1 

2 
1 

0 

1 
1 

8 

0 

253  to  374 

00 

5 

i 

1 

Color  light    yellow  or 
brown;   sapwood  nearly 
white.  Soft,  brittle,  very 
close,     straight-grained, 
compact.  Easily  worked. 
Use  :  interior  finish,  shin- 
gles. 

REDWOOD  (Pacific  coast)... 
Color  clear,  light  red; 
Sap-wood  nearly   white. 
Wood    tig  I  it,    soft,    very 
brittle,     coarse-grained, 
compact.  Easily  worked. 
Polishes.  Durable  in  con- 
tact with  the  soil.  Use  : 
Building   material    and 
general  use 

SPRUCE  (Black) 

Color  light  red  or  often 
nearly  white;    sap-wood 
lighter.  Wood  light,  soft, 
not   strong,      close, 
straight-grained,      com- 
pact, satiny.  Use  :  Piles, 
lumber. 

SPRUCE  (Whiter  

Color  light  yellow  ;  sap- 
wood  hardly  distinguish- 
able.   Wood  light,  soft, 
not    strong,     close, 
straight-grained,      com- 
pact, satiny.  Use  :  Lum- 
ber for  construction. 

WALNUT   (White)  (Butter" 
nut)  

Color    light    brown, 
turning  dark    on  expo- 
sure.   Light,  soft,  coarse- 
grained, compact.  Easily 
worked.  Satiny.  Polishes 
well.  Use:  Interior  finish. 

WALNUT  (Black)  

Color  rich  dark  brown; 
sap-wood  lighter.  Heavy, 
hard,      strong,      coarse- 
grained.    Checks  if  not 
carefully       seasoned. 
Easily  worked.  Polishes. 
Use:  Interior  finish,  cabi- 
net-work. 

62  TIMBER. 

Seasoning  Timber. 

The  seasoning  of  timber  consists  in  expelling,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  moisture  which  is  contained  in  its  pores.  Two  methods  are 
practised,  natural  and  artificial. 

NATURAL  SEASONING  is  performed  simply  by  exposing  the  tim- 
ber freely  to  the  air  in  a  dry  place,  piled  under  shelter.  The 
bottom  pieces  should  be  placed  upon  skids  (which  should  be  free 
from  decay),  raised  not  less  than  two  feet  from  the  ground.  It 
should  be  piled  in  horizontal  layers  with  slats  or  piling- strips 
placed  between  each  layer,  one  near  the  end  of  each  pile  and  others 
at  short  distances,  in  order  to  keep  the  timber  from  winding:  these 
strips  should  not  be  less  than  one  inch  thick.  Each  pile  should 
contain  but  one  description  of  timber  and  the  piles  should  be  placed 
at  least  2|  feet  apart,  so  as  to  allow  free  circulation  of  the  air. 

The  timber  should  be  replied  at  frequent  intervals,  and  all 
pieces  indicating  decay  should  be  removed,  to  prevent  their  affect- 
ing those  which  are  still  sound. 

The  time  required  for  natural  seasoning  varies  according  to  the 
character  of  the  wood  and  its  dimensions. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  time  required  for  the 
woods  named  : 

White-pine  board 1    year 

"    plank  2  in.  thick 1£    " 

"       "        "       3"       " 2      " 

Southern  heart-pine  1  in.  thick 1      " 

Black  walnut  1  "      "     1^-2      " 

4  "      "     4      " 

Hemlock  will  dry  out  sufficiently  to  be  used  as  joists  in  from 
five  to  seven  months  ;  oak  and  ash  approximate  walnut  in  the 
length  of  time  required. 

WATER  SEASONING  is  total  immersion  of  timber  in  water  for 
the  purpose  of  dissolving  the  sap,  and  when  thus  seasoned  it  is 
less  liable  to  warp  and  crack,  but  is  rendered  more  brittle,  and  if 
kept  too  long  immersed  will  upon  being  brought  into  the  air  be- 
come brashy  and  useless.  Two  weeks  is  about  the  usual  time  it  is 
kept  under  water.  After  removal  from  the  water  it  must  be  thor- 
oughly dried,  with  free  access  of  air,  and  turned  daily. 

ARTIFICIAL  SEASONING. — The  best  method  consists  in  exposing 
the  timber  to  a  current  of  hot  air  in  a  drying-kiln.  The  best 
temperature  for  the  hot  air  varies  with  the  kind  and  dimensions 


TIMBER.  63 

of  the  timber  ;  thus  for  oak  the  temperature  required  is  about 
105°  F.  and  for  pine  130°  to  200°  F. 

The  time  required  for  drying  varies  with  the  thickness. 

Too  high  temperatures  evaporate  the  moisture  too  rapidly, 
and  the  timber  cracks. 

Shrinkage  and  Expansion  of  Timber. 

During  the  drying  or  seasoning  process  timber  shrinks  consider- 
ably ;  below  about  30  per  cent  of  moisture  it  shrinks  nearly  as 
much  as  it  dries ;  that  is  to  say,  when  timber  dries  down  from  30 
per  cent  of  moisture  to  10  per  cent  moisture  it  dries  out  or  loses 
in  weight  about  20  per  cent  of  its  dry  weight.  It  also  loses  about 
20  per  cent  of  its  dry  volume.  A  board  that  is  1  foot  wide  at  30 
per  cent  moisture  is  only  llf  inches  wide  at  10  per  cent  moisture, 
or  a  board  4  inches  wide  at  20  per  cent  moisture  is  only  about 
3f  inches  wide  at  10  per  cent  moisture  The  shrinkage  lengthwise 
is  very  slight. 

On  account  of  the  very  large  radial  fibres  (medullary  rays)  in 
oak  wood  this  kind  of  timber  shrinks  mostly  in  a  circumferential 
direction,  and  all  timber  shrinks  more  circumferentially  than 
radially,  since  all  woods  have  those  medullary  rays  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  "quarter-sawed"  (radial- 
sawed)  lumber  is  more  satisfactory  than  "  flat-sawed  "  for  all  kinds 
of  furniture  and  house  trimmings.  For  flooring,  quarter-sawed 
or  "rift- sawed"  boards,  presenting  an  "edge-grain"  surface, 
is  far  preferable  to  "  flat-grain,"  because  it  wears  evenly  and  does 
not  sliver  on  the  surface. 

The  shrinkage  of  different  woods  is  about  as  follows: 

Cedar  Canada from     14     to  13.25  inches 

Elm "  11      "  10.75      " 

Oak "  12      "  11.625     " 

Pine  (Northern  pitch) "  10x10  "  9.75X9.75  " 

"     (Southern  pitch) "  18.375"  18.25       " 

"     (white) "  12      "  11.875     " 

"     (yellow  Northern) "  18      "  17.875     " 

Spruce "  8.5      "  8.375     " 

EXPANSION  OF  TIMBER  DUE  TO  THE  ABSORPTION  OF  WATER. 

Pine.  Oak.         Chestnut. 

Elongation ,  per  cent 0. 065        0. 085        0. 1 65 

Lateral  expansion,  per  cent 2.6  3.5  3.65 


64  TIMBER. 

EXPANSION  OP  TIMBER  BY  HEAT. 

White  pine  for  1  degree  F.  1  part  in  440.530  or  for  180  degrees 
1  part  in  2447,  or  about  one  third  of  the  expansion  of  iron. 

Durability  and  Decay  of  Timber. 

The  durability  of  wood  is  subject  to  too  great  variation  to  have 
any  limits  placed  upon  it,  depending  almost  entirely  upon  the 
conditions  to  which  it  is  exposed,  as  to  heat  and  moisture,  attacks 
of  insects,  etc.  Well-seasoned  wood  in  dry  situations  or  in  well- 
ventilated  situations  with  uniform  state  of  moisture  or  dryness 
(moisture  preferred)  should  never  decay.  Timber  kept  constantly 
wet  niay  become  softened  and  weakened,  but  it  does  not  necessarily 
decay.  Various  kinds  of  timber,  such  as  elm,  alder,  oak,  and 
beech,  possess  great  durability  in  this  condition. 

The  condition  which  is  least  favorable  to  durability  is  alternate 
wetness  and  dryness,  or  a  slight  degree  of  moisture,  especially  if 
accompanied  by  heat  and  confined  air. 

The  season  and  manner  of  felling  and  working  are  important  in 
determining  the  life.  Timber  felled  in  winter  is  more  durable 
than  that  felled  in  summer.  Hewed  wood  is  also  more  durable 
than  sawed  from  the  fact  that  the  pores  are  closed  and  the  fibre 
compacted  by  the  blows,  while  the  saw  tears  the  fibre  and  opens  it. 
Besides  decomposition  and  decay,  timber  both  in  its  growing 
and  converted  states  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  worms  and 
insects  ;  these  are  often  selective  in  their  attacks  ;  the  resinous 
woods,  ironwood,  and  palmetto  are  not  readily  attacked.  When  the 
insects  exist  iii  large  numbers  they  remove  so  much  of  the  wood 
as  seriously  to  impair  its  strength. 

Dry  Rot  is  the  most  formidable  kind  of  decay  to  which  timber 
is  subject.  It  is  caused  by  a  fungus,  whose  spawn  in  the  sap- 
wood,  on  the  introduction  of  moisture,  causes  fermentation,  and 
the  decay  of  the  tissues  follows,  and  in  a  short  time  the  wood  will 
crumble  beneath  the  touch. 

Dry  rot  occurs  most  frequently  in  ill-ventilated  places.  The  ends 
of  timbers  built  into  walls,  woodwork  fixed  to  walls  before  they 
are  dry,  are  quickly  affected.  Painting  and  tarring  the  surface  of 
unseasoned  timber  has  the  same  effect.  An  excess  of  moisture 
prevents  the  growth  of  the  fungus,  but  a  moderate  warmth,  com- 
bined with  damp  and  want  of  air,  accelerates  it. 

The  season  of  felling  influences  the  resistance  to  dry  rot,  tim- 
ber felled  in  winter  being  less  liable  to  attack,  but  the  germs  of 


TIMBER.  65 

decay  may  remain  inert  in  the  wood  for  a  long  time,  and  finally 
become  evident  and  active  if  the  conditions  be  favorable.  Once 
established  in  the  wood  it  is  very  difficult  to  eradicate,  the  only 
remedy  be'ng  to  remove  all  trace  of  the  fungus  and  disinfect. 

Healthy  wood  is  liable  to  receive  germs  from  the  air  and  water, 
and  these  sources  are  of  more  danger  than  the  germs  contained  in 
the  wood  itself. 

The  colors  of  the  fungus  are  various:  sometimes  white,  grayish 
white  with  violet,  often  of  yellowish  brown  or  a  deep  shade  of 
fine  rich  brown. 

The  softer  and  more  porous  woods  are  the  more  liable  to  decay 
by  dry  rot. 

Detection  of  Dry  Rot. — In  the  first  stages  of  rottenness  the 
timber  swells  and  changes  color,  and  is  often  covered  with  fungus 
or  mouldiness,  and  emits  a  musty  odor. 

In  the  absence  of  any  outward  fungus  or  other  visible  sign  a 
hole  may  be  bored  into  the  wood  :  the  appearance  of  the  dust 
extracted  and  especially  the  odor  will  indicate  the  presence  of  dry 
rot. 

Sometimes  the  rot  only  appears  in  the  form  of  reddish  or  yellow 
spots,  which  upon  being  scratched  show  that  the  fibres  have  been 
reduced  to  powder. 

Wet  Rot  is  caused  by  the  presence  of  moisture,  which  decom- 
poses the  tissues  of  the  wood,  particularly  those  of  the  sap-wood. 
Wood  felled  between  April  and  October  is  especially  liable  to  wet 
rot. 

Common  Rot  is  caused  by  the  wood  being  piled  to  season  in 
badly  ventilated  sheds.  Outward  indications  are  yellow  spots  upon 
the  ends  of  the  pieces,  and  a  yellowish  dust  in  the  checks  and 
cracks,  particularly  where  the  pieces  rest  upon  the  piling-strips. 

Worms. — Of  worms  the  two  most  active  are  the  Teredo  navalis 
and  the  Limnoria  terebrans.  The  Teredo  is  most  active  in  salt 
water.  It  is  found  in  both  warm  and  cold  climates.  It  avoids 
fresh  water  and  prefers  clear  water  to  that  which  is  muddy. 

The  Teredo  is  first  deposited  upon  the  timber  in  the  shape  of  an 
egg,  from  which  in  time  it  emerges  a  small  worm  ;  this  worm 
soon  becomes  larger  and  commences  its  depredations. 

Furnished  with  a  shelly  substance  in  its  head,  shaped  like  an 
auger,  it  bores  into  the  wood,  in  an  upward  course  parallel  to  the 
grain  ;  at  the  same  time  it  lines  the  hole  it  makes  with  a  thin 
coating  of  carbonate  of  lime,  and  closes  the  opening  with  two 
small  lids  ;  hence  it  prefers  a  calcareous  seashore. 


66  TIMBER. 

As  the  work  of  the  Teredo  advances  its  size  increases.  Worms 
two  feet  long  and  three  fourths  inch  in  diameter  have  been  found 

The  Limnoria  tercbrans  resembles  in  appearance  a  very  small 
wood-louse  and  is  most  active  in  brackish  water  and  prefers  a 
silicious  shore,  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  silicious  rocks. 
As  many  as  twenty  thousand  will  appear  on  a  surface  only  twelve 
inches  square.  The  Limnoria  prefers  soft  woods  and  avoids 
knots ;  it  does  not  bore,  but  destroys  the  wood  by  eating  the  surface 
at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  three  inches  per  annum. 

Both  the  Teredo  and  Limnoria  confine  their  work  to  a  space 
between  high-  and  low- water  marks,  showing  that  they  require 
both  air  and  water. 

The  Lycoris  fucata  is  the  enemy  of  the  Teredo ;  it  is  a  little 
worm  with  legs,  something  like  a  centipede  ;  it  lives  in  the  mud, 
crawls  up  the  pile  inhabited  by  the  Teredo,  enters  the  tunnel  in 
which  it  is  ensconced,  eats  the  Teredo,  enlarges  the  entrance  to 
the  tunnel,  and  then  lives  in  it. 

Many  processes  have  been  tried  to  protect  timber  from  the 
ravages  of  those  worms ;  the  most  successful  appears  to  be 
impegnation  with  creosote. 

Processes  for  Preserving'  Timber. 

From  the  earliest  times  attempts  have  been  made  to  preserve 
wood,  and  a  vast  number  of  processes  and  materials  have  been 
experimented  with.  A  few  of  the  successful  methods  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

BURNETT'S  PROCESS,  OR  BURNETTIZING. — Impregnation  with 
chloride  of  zinc.  The  operation  is  performed  in  large  metal 
cylinders  called  retorts,  and  is  conducted  about  as  follows:  The 
load  of  timber,  called  a  "charge,"  is  placed  in  the  retort  and  the 
heads  or  doors  closed  and  bolted.  A  vacuum  is  then  produced  in 
the  retort.  When  this  has  reached  about  twenty  inches  live  steam 
at  about  20  pounds'  pressure  is  let  in  and  continued  for  about  four 
or  five  hours.  It  is  then  blown  off  and  the  retorts  drained.  A 
second  vacuum  is  produced  of  from  twenty -two  to  twenty -six 
inches.  The  zinc  chloride  solution  is  introduced  under  pressure; 
this  pressure  is  raised  to  about  120  to  150  pounds  per  square  inch 
and  maintained  until  the  required  quantity  of  solution  is  injected 
into  the  timber;  when  this  has  been  accomplished  the  surplus 
fluid  is  drawn  off,  the  doors  opened,  and  the  charge  pulled  out. 

The  solution  of  zinc  chloride,  called  the  "stock  solution,,"  con- 


TIMBER.  67 

sists  of  about  43  per  cent  pure  zinc  chlorine,  2  per  cent  of  impu- 
rities (iron,  aluminum,  lead,  etc.),  and  55  per  cent  of  water.  The 
standard  solution  when  ready  for  use  should  register  2^°  Bauine 
at  60°  F  The  solution  is  heated  by  steam  passed  through  coils  to 
about  150°  F.  before  being  pumped  into  the  charge. 

To  provide  means  for  watching  the  effect  of  the  various  steps  in 
the  process  the  retorts  are  provided  with  thermometers  and 
vacuum-gauges,  the  steam-pipes  with  pyrometers,  the  tanks  with 
gauges,  the  condenser  with  a  measuring- well,  and  the  solution  is 
taken  from  a  gauged  measuring-tank. 

The  quantity  of  zinc  injected  per  cubic  foot  of  timber  is  about 
T2D^y  of  a  pound.  The  time  required  for  treatment  ranges  from  8 
to  12  hours,  depending  upon  the  condition  of  the  timber  ;  the 
greener  the  wood  the  more  easily  it  is  impregnated. 

Burnettizing  has  not  been  so  successful  in  the  United  States  as 
in  Europe. 

WELLSHOUSE'S  PROCESS  is  a  modification  of  Burnett's.  The 
timber  is  steamed  in  a  cylinder  one  to  three  hours  (according  to 
size);  zinc  chloride  and  glue  solution  is  then  forced  in,  after  which 
tannin  is  injected,  the  purpose  of  the  glue  being  to  combine  with 
the  tannic  acid  in  the  wood,  precipitating  the  glue  as  an  insoluble 
compound  and  retaining  the  zinc.  The  tannic  acid  is  added  to 
precipitate  the  excess  of  glue. 

THILMANY'S  PROCESS. — Impregnation  with  zinc  or  copper  sul- 
phate. For  this  process  green  wood  is  preferred,  the  dry  requiring 
to  be  longer  steamed.  The  timber  is  run  on  flat  cars  into  a  cylinder, 
steam  is  applied  to  drive  out  the  sap,  and  an  air-pump  is  connected 
to  draw  air  and  condensed  moisture  and  form  a  vacuum.  The 
cylinder  is  then  filled  with  a  1^  per  cent  solution  of  zinc  or  copper 
sulphate  and  a  pressure  of  80  to  100  pounds  applied  until  charged. 
The  sulphate  solution  is  then  drawn  off  and  a  1  per  cent  solution 
of  barium  chloride  similarly  charged.  The  strength  of  the  solu- 
tion is  varied  according  to  the  class  of  timber  to  be  impregnated. 

KYAN'S  PROCESS. — Saturating  with  corrosive  sublimate. 

BURCHERI'S  PROCESS.—  Impregnation  with  sulphate  of  copper 
under  a  pressure  of  about  15  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

CREOSOTINU  (BETIIKLL'S  PROCESS). — Impregnating  with  dead 
oil  of  coal  tar  or  distillates  from  wood-tars. 

The  timber  is  placed  in  cylinders,  steam  turned  on  and  continued 
until  the  mass  is  thoroughly  heated  and  the  sap  va  orizod.  The 
steam  and  sap  are  drawn  off  by  a  pump,  a  partial  vacuum  formed, 
and  the  cylinder  filled  with  the  oil,  which  is  usually  heated  to  a 


68  TIMBER. 

temperature  of  about  160°.  A  pressure  varying  from  150  to  200 
Ibs.  is  applied  and  continued  until  the  gauge  stands  constant, 
showing  that  no  more  oil  is  being  absorbed.  The  oil  is  then 
drawn  off  and  the  charge  removed. 

The  details  of  the  operation  vary  in  different  establishments. 
The  time  required  for  steaming  varies  from  30  minutes  to  several 
hours  according  to  the  variety  of  wood  under  treatment,  green  and 
hard  timber  requiring  more  than  seasoned  or  soft  timber.  The 
amount  of  oil  absorbed  by  the  timber  also  varies  according  to  its 
variety  ;  from  12  to  18  pounds  per  cubic  foot  appears  to  be  the 
usual  amount.  The  treatment  of  a  charge  requires  on  an  average 
24  hours. 

PAYNE'S  PROCESS. — Impregnating  the  wood  while  in  a  vacuum 
with  sulphate  of  iron,  followed  by  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
lime  or  soda.  This  process  is  also  said  to  render  the  wood  incom- 
bustible. 

SEELEY'S  PROCESS  is  a  modification  of  Bethell's.  The  timber  is 
immersed  in  creosote  at  a  temperature  of  212°  to  300°  F.  for  a 
time  sufficient  to  expel  the  moisture,  the  hot  oil  is  drawn  off  and 
replaced  by  cold  oil.  About  4  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot  is  said  to  be 
absorbed  by  this  process. 

VULCANIZING  is  the  process  of  rendering  the  sap  insoluble  and 
undecomposable  within  the  cells  by  means  of  heat.  To  do  this 
the  wood-  is  subjected  to  such  pressure  of  air,  in  a  closed  vessel, 
that  the  sap  will  not  vaporize  on  the  application  of  heat.  Heat  is 
then  applied  gradually,  the  pressure  being  maintained  or  increased 
as  the  temperature  rises.  About  400°  F.  is  generally  sufficient  to 
vulcanize  ordinary  woods.  The  time  required  is  about  8  hours  for 
soft  and  from  10  to  20  hours  for  hard  woods. 


TIMBER.  69 


Inspection  of  Treated  Timber. 

Inspect  for  penetration  by  boring  two  ^-inch  holes  at  a  distance 
of  from  3  to  15  feet  from  each  end,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  stick  ;  the  two  holes  near  each  end  to  be  diametrically  oppo- 
site, and  the  pair  on  one  end  to  be  at  right  angles  to  that  on  the 
other.  In  special  cases  other  holes  may  be  bored.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  bore  into  a  check.  After  inspection  the  holes  are  to 
be  plugged  with  preserved  plugs  turned  to  a  driving  fit. 

TESTING  TIMBER  TREATED  WITH  ZINC  CHLORIDE. — At  inter- 
vals during  the  progress  of  the  impregnation  and  whenever  any 
charge  shows  some  change  in  the  treatment  as  to  vacuum,  time 
or  amount  of  pressure,  and  after  each  change  in  kind,  quality,  or 
dryuess  of  timber  four  samples  are  taken  from  a  charge  consist- 
ing of  pieces  of  average  grain— one  heaviest,  one  lightest,  and  two 
average  weight,  Each  piece  is  bored  in  the  middle  of  its  width 
and  length  with  a  one-inch  auger.  The  first  half  inch  of  the 
borings  is  thrown  away,  after  which  each  inch  of  borings  is  pre- 
served separately  and  designated  as  1-inch,  2-inch,  3-inch,  etc., 
specimens.  Each  specimen  is  burned  to  an  ash,  over  a  gasoline 
jet,  in  a  porcelain  roastiug-dish,  in  contact  with  the  air.  The 
ashes  are  carefully  collected  in  a  platinum  cup,  distilled  water 
added,  with  a  slight  excess  of  hydrochloric  acid,  converting  the 
zinc  oxide  into  zinc  chloride.  It  is  then  filtered  into  a  test-tube 
and  the  zinc  hydrate  thrown  down  with  sodium  carbonate,  mak- 
ing a  white  flocculeut  precipitate.  The  liquid  is  then  made  up 
with  distilled  water  to  three  drachms.  The  resulting  milky  liquid 
is  compared  with  standard  liquids  in  tubes  of  the  same  size  as  the 
test-tubes,  each  tube  containing  three  drachms*.  The  standard 
liquids  are  graded  to  represent  6,  9,  12,  15,  18,  21,  and  24  oue- 
hundiedths  of  u  pound  of  zinc  chloride  per  cubic  foot  of  timber. 
The  maximum  of  zinc  chloride  per  cubic  foot  of  timber  is  24 
oue-huudredths  of  a  pound. 


70  TIMBER. 

FORM  OF   REPORT. 

WOOD-PRESERVING. 

Report  of Creosotedat. 


189. 

Retort  No 

Kind  of  timber 

Charge  number. . . . 

Date  going  in 

Date  coming  out 

TIME  :     Load  in  at 

Pressure  began  at 

Pressure  left  off  at 

Load  out  at , 

Total  time 

TEMPERATURE  :     When  filled 

At  end  of  pressure  when  oil  is  let  out  of 

steam 

PRESSURE  :     At  beginning 

At  end 

CONDENSATION  ;    Quantity  of  oil  pumped 

Number  of  pieces  in  charge 

Number  of  cubic  feet  in  charge 

Length,  breadth,  and  thickness  of  pieces. . , 
Maximum  penetration:      Ends. ..  .Centre. 

Minimum  penetration:     Ends Centre. 

Amount  of  creosote  per  cubic  foot 


FORM  OF  REPORT. 

WOOD-PRESERVING. 

Report  of. Burnettized  at 

189. 

Retort  No 

Charge  number. . . . 

Date  going  in 

Date  going  out 

Number  of  pieces  in  charge. . . . 

Length,  breadth,  thickness 

Number  of  cubic  feet  in  charge 


TIMBER.  71 

TIME:     Charge'in  at 

Vacuum  begun  at 

Inches  of  vacuum. . . . 

Steam  turned  in  at 

Steam-pressure 


Vacuum  begun  at 


Injection  begun  at 

Pressure  begun  at 

Pressure  left  off  at 

Charge  out  at 

Total  time 

TEMPERATURE  :    At  end  of  live  steam. . . . 
When  injection  began. . . . 
At  end  of  pressure. . . . 
When  solution  is  let  off. . . . 

PRESSURE  :    At  beginning 

At  end 

Quantity  of  solution  pumped  in. 

Quantity  drawn  off 

REPORT  OP  TESTS. 

PILES  :    Number  of  specimens  tested. . . . 

Length  of  piles 

Diameter  of  piles 

Maximum  penetration  :    Butt Tip 

Minimum  penetration  :    Butt Tip 

TIMBER  :      Number  of  pieces  tested. . . . 

Length 

Breadth 

Thickness 

Weight 

Solution,  and  penetration  per  cubic  foot 

REMARKS:     Penetration  uniform  or  irregular. 

Depth  of  penetration 

Effect  on  timber — splitting,  checking,  or  cracking. 


TIMBER. 


T-I  O*  O*  00  T)  •*  JO  «O  to  )>  00  OS  O        CO  •* 


O  »-<  rf  to' 


18838888888888888888888 

i  T-I  oi  a >co  co  TP  TJ<  o  to'  to  i>  oo  os  o 'IT-<  oi i  oo  -<*'  m  to  od  o 
to  mbt  o  wi-  «n  co  o*  ot^~eo~c 


roio^ooo— icoio^cooocooec^Qcot-oeoot- 
g  01  «£>  o  is  01  ec  t- 1-1  »o  o  oo  «  o  co  T-I  o  oo  «o  in  co  o  so 

•  TH  r-i  oj  IN  oi  so  cc  i*  T)«  ta  10  «o  i>  cd  os  o  o'  i-<'  c»  co  o  «d 


'      '  " 


in  to  «  i>  o  o  o  o  r-,  I 


•  T-I  r-  ^  IN  s  e  co  co  co  •*  -<t  m  «o  c  i>  0  0  o  o  o  o  co" 


•  •  »-  i-  i-  oj  oj  <jj  <N  eo  co  -<t.T).  o  10  to  i>  t-  o  0  o  o  rt 


eo  co  T«  -*  10  10  o  so  i>  t-  o  s 


i  *»'  ®i  i*  c*  eo'  co"  TI<  Tf'  »o'  to'  to  co"  so"  i>  oo' 


c5iOi^i>coi^coo(Ncoint- 


)'  CO  -^  -»'  Tf  to"  to' 


10  i^-  o  53  *O  t~-  O  ^  *O  l^-  O  to  C^  1C  O  *O  O  »O  Q  O  < 


•  •r-irHT-.,-!,-,  «  _  5*  <N  W 


TIMBER.  73 


Measurement  of  Timber. 

Timber  is  measured  when  bought  iu  the  market  either  by  the 
cubic  foot  or  by  board  measure.  The  unit  of  the  latter  is  a  square 
foot  of  surface  by  one  inch  in  thickness,  and  is  denoted  by  the 
abbreviation  B.  M. 

Rule. — Multiply  together  the  three  dimensions,  width  and 
thickness  in  inches  and  the  length  in  feet,  divide  the  product  by 
12,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  board  measure. 

Sawn  or  hewn  timber  is  often  measured  by  the  cubic  foot. 

Hound  timber  is  measured  by  multiplying  the  length  by  the 
square  of  one-fourth  its  mean  girth  to  obtain  the  cubic  contents. 
If  L  =  length  in  feet  and  G  the  mean  circumference  of  the  log, 
i.e.,  the  half  sum  of  the  girth  at  the  ends,  also  measured  in  feet, 
the  volume  in  cubic  feet  is  given  by  the  formula 

C*          LC* 
Volume  =  L  -j-  =  -TO-- 

When  the  length  is  in  feet  and  the  girth  in  inches,  divide  the 
result  obtained  by  144  to  obtain  cubic  feet. 


Inspection  of  Timber. 

In  examining  timber  the  points  to  be  observed  are  quality 
and  dimensions.  All  condemned  pieces  should  be  marked  with 
paint  or  a  branding-iron. 

APPEARANCE  OF  GOOD  TIMBER. — There  are  certain  appear- 
ances which  are  characteristic  of  strong  and  durable  timber,  to 
what  class  soever  it  belongs. 

In  the  same  species  of  timber  that  specimen  will  in  general  be 
the  strongest  and  the  most  durable  which  has  grown  the  slowest, 
as  shown  by  the  narrowness  of  the  annual  rings. 

Good  timber  should  be  from  the  heart  of  a  sound  tree,  the  sap 
being  entirely  removed,  the  wood  uniform  in  substance,  straight 
in  fibre,  free  from  large  or  dead  knots,  flaws,  shakes,  or  blemishes 
of  any  kind. 

If  freshly  cut  it  should  smell  sweet.  The  surface  should  not 
be  woolly,  or  clog  the  teeth  of  the  saw,  but  should  be  firm  and 
bright,  with  a  silky  lustre  when  planed.  A  disagreeable  odor 
indicates  decay,  and  a  dull,  chalky  appearance  is  a  sign  of  bad 
timber 


74  TIMBER. 

Good  timber  is  sonorous  when  struck.  A  dull,  heavy  sound 
indicates  decay. 

Amongst  resinous  woods  those  which  have  least  resin  in  their 
pores,  and  amongst  non-resinous  woods  those  which  have  least  sap 
or  gum  in  them,  are  in  general  the  strongest  and  most  lasting. 

Among  colored  woods,  darkness  of  color  is  in  general  a  sign  of 
strength  and  durability. 

If  a  piece  of  sound  timber  be  struck  lightly  with  a  small  ham- 
mer or  scratched  at  one  end,  the  sound  can  be  distinctly  heard  by 
a  person  placing  his  ear  against  the  other  end,  even  if  the  stick 
be  50  ft.  long;  but  if  the  timber  be  decayed,  the  sound  will  be 
very  faint. 

DEFECTS  OF  TIMBER. 

WIND  SHAKES.  —  Circular  cracks  separating  the  concentric 
layers  of  wood  from  each  other.  They  are  serious  defects. 

SPLITS,  CHECKS,  AND  CRACKS,  extending  toward  the  centre, 
if  deep  and  strongly  marked,  render  timber  unfit  for  use,  unless 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended  will  admit  of  its  being  split 
through  them. 

BRASHY  TIMBER. — Timber  from  trees  which  have  commenced 
to  decay  from  old  age  ;  indicated  by  a  reddish  color,  breaking  of 
the  wood  without  splinters,  and  porosity. 

BELTED  is  the  term  applied  to  timber  which  has  been  killed 
before  being  felled.  Such  timber  is  objectionable. 

KNOTTY  is  the  term  applied  to  timber  containing  many  knots. 
The  knots,  though  sound  are  objectionable  when  they  extend  far 
inwards. 

TWISTED  is  the  term  applied  to  timber  in  which  the  grain 
winds  spirally;  such  timber  is  unfit  for  long  pieces. 

HEART-SHAKE. — Splits  or  clefts  in  the  centre  of  the  tree. 

STAR-SHAKES.— Several  splits  radiating  from  the  centre. 

CUP-SHAKES. — Curved  splits  separating  the  rings  wholly  or  in 
part. 

RIND-GALL — Curved  swelling,  usually  caused  by  growth  of 
layers  over  a  spot  where  a  branch  has  been  removed. 

UPSET. — Fibres  injured  by  crushing. 

FOXINESS.— Yellow  or  red  tinge,  indicating  incipient  decay. 

DOTE — DOATINESS. — A  disease  indicated  by  speckled  stains 
and  dulness  of  sound  when  struck  a  quick  blow. 


TIMBER. 


75 


To  DETERMINE  AMOUNT  OF  MOISTURE  IN  LUMBER. 

To  determine  the  amount  of  moisture  in  lumber,  cut  a  section 
from  a  board  or  stick  and  weigh  it;  then  dry  it  in  an  ordinary 
stove-oven  with  a  slow  fire  for  an  hour  or  two;  then  weigh  again. 
The  difference  in  weight  divided  by  the  dry  weight  is  the  per- 
centage of  moisture. 

"Thoroughly  dry  lumber "  should  not  contain  more  than  10 
or  12  per  cent  of  water,  and  the  interior  should  be  as  dry  as  the 
exterior. 

The  amount  of  water  contained  in  wood  varies  within  very 
wide  limits. 


Willow 26.0  per  cent 

Mountain  ash..  28.3   " 

Oak 34.7   "      " 

Horse-chestnut    38.7   "      " 

Elm 44.5   "      " 

Poplar  (white).   50.2   "      " 


Sycamore 27.0  per  cent 

Beech 30.8   "      " 

Fir  (white) 37.1    "      " 

Alder 41.6  "      " 

Fir(red) 45.2   "      " 

Poplar  (black)..  51.8   "      " 


By  "air-drying"  the  water  is  not  entirely  removed;  the  evapo- 
ration continues  until  an  equilibrium  is  established  between  the 
humidity  of  the  air  and  the  hygroscopic  power  of  the  wood. 
By  heat,  however,  16  to  20  per  cent  more  can  be  expelled,  but  at 
such  temperatures  that  the  wood  is  liable  to  become  brown  and 
decompose.  By  air-drying  20  to  25  per  cent  of  water  can  be 
expelled  by  from  10  to  12  months'  exposure. 


ABSORPTIVE  POWER  OF  WOOD. 


Percentage  of  Water  Absorbed. 


Dry  Wood. 

Creosoted. 

1  0000 

1250 

Cotton  wood  

7140 

3470 

Oak 

2000 

0625 

Spruce              .  .                       

1754  to    3333 

0236  to    0306 

"      (burnettized,  .2500)  
Hard  pine  ...         .  .                         . 

1600 

0000 

White  birch 

4300 

1240 

Sesquoia  gigantea  of  California  

.4722 

.0000 

76  TIMBER. 


General  Rules  for  Classifying  Lumber.* 

The  following  general  rules  are  intended  to  serve  as  a  guide  in 
classifying  lumber  in  accordance  with  the  grades  named  below. 
While  they  are  intended  to  apply  only  to  Southern  yellow  pine, 
they  can  be  understood  to  apply  in  a  general  way  to  all  mer- 
chantable lumber. 

YELLOW-PINE  LUMBER  shall  be  graded  and  classified  accord- 
ing to  the  following  rules  and  specifications  as  to  quality;  and 
dressed  stock  shall  conform  to  the  subjoined  table  of  standard 
sizes,  except  where  otherwise  expressly  stipulated  between  buyer 
and  seller. 

Recognized  Defects  in  Yellow  Pine  are  knots  (pin,  round, 
spike,  black,  encased,  loose,  or  rotten),  knot-Iioles,  splits  (either 
from  seasoning,  ring-heart,  or  rough  handling),  rotten  streaks, 
dote,  rot,  worm-holes,  and  pitch-pockets. 

SHAKE. — "  Ring-heart "  is  a  shake  or  cleavage  along  the  plane 
of  an  annual  ring,  usually  about  half-way  between  the  pith  and 
the  circumference.  "  Shake,"  or  "  wind-shake,"  is  a  cleavage  of 
the  trunk  of  a  tree,  while  yet  standing,  due  to  the  action  of  the 
wind  in  bending  the  trunk.  It  is  usually  along  the  plane  of  an 
annual  ring,  that  is  to  say,  concentric  with  the  centre  or  pith  of 
the  tree.  "Heart-shake"  is  a  diametrical  or  radial  cleavage 
through  the  tree  or  log.  If  it  occurs  after  the  logs  are  cut,  or  in 
large  timbers  after  they  are  sawed,  it  is  due  to  shrinkage  in  dry- 
ing. This  is  a  common  defect  of  all  oak  logs  or  large  timbers. 

WANE  is  a  deficiency  in  width,  either  over  the  entire  edge  or 
on  one  corner,  caused  by  a  crook  in  the  log. 

CROOKS  are  permanent  distortions  of  the  board,  due  to  defec- 
tive piling  or  from  other  causes. 

WAHP  is  a  twisting  of  the  board  into  a  warped  surface. 

SEASONING-  OR  KILN-CHECKS  are  either  very  small  or  large 
cracks  caused  by  drying  the  surface  of  the  board,  with  its 
accompanying  shrinkage,  while  the  interior  is  still  wet. 

BLUE  SAP,  a  discoloration  which  green  yellow  pine  is  subject 
to,  especially  the  sap  portion,  if  not  at  once  piled  for  drying  or 
placed  in  a  dry  kiln. 

PITCH-STREAKS  are  longitudinal  openings,  sometimes  of  con- 
siderable size,  as  ^  to  ^  inch  wide  and  several  inches,  or  even 
feet,  long,  filled  with  resin. 

*  Adopted  by  the  Southern  Lumber  Manufacturers'  Association,  1895. 


TIMBER.  77 

BRIGHT  SAP  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect  in  any  of  the 
grades  provided  for  and  described  in  these  rules.  The  restric- 
tion or  exclusion  of  bright  sap  constitutes  a  special  class  of 
material,  which  can  be  secured  only  by  special  contract. 

FIRM  REDHEART  shall  not  be  considered  a  defect  in  common 
grades. 

DEFECTS  IN  ROUGH  STOCK,  caused  by  improper  manufacture 
or  diying,  will  reduce  grade,  unless  they  can  be  removed  in 
working  such  stock  to  standard  sizes. 

IMPERFECT  MANUFACTURE  in  dressed  stock,  such  as  chipped, 
grain-splintered  or  torn  places,  broken  knots  on  edge  of  ship-lap, 
insufficient  tongue  on  flooring,  etc.,  shall  be  considered  defects, 
and  reduce  grade  accordingly. 

A  STANDARD  KNOT  is  sound,  and  not  over  1£  inches  in  diameter. 

A  PIN-KNOT  is  sound,  and  not  over  1£  inches  in  diameter. 

Any  piece  that  will  not  work  one  half  its  size  shall  be  classed 
as  a  dead  cull. 

The  GRADE  of  all  regular  stock  shall  be  determined  by  the 
number  and  position  of  the  defects  visible  in  any  piece.  The 
enumerated  defects  admissible  in  any  given  grade  are  intended 
to  be  descriptive  of  the  coarsest  pieces  such  grade  may  contain. 
The  average  quality  of  the  grade  should  be  midway  between 
such  pieces  and  the  defects  allowed  in  the  next  higher  grade. 

Lumber  or  timber  sawed  for  specific  purposes,  as  bridge  timbers, 
etc.,  must  be  inspected  with  a  view  to  the  adaptability  of  the 
piece  for  the  use  intended. 

In  finishing,  flooring,  etc,,  the  enumerated  defects  admissible 
in  a  given  grade  apply  only  to  the  face  side  of  the  piece,  but  the 
reverse  face  should  not  admit  defects  that  would  render  the  piece 
unsuitable  for  the  purpose  intended. 

STANDARD  LENGTHS  are  multiples  of  2  feet  from  10  to  20  feet, 
inclusive,  for  boards  and  strips,  and  from  10  to  24  feet,  inclusive, 
for  dimension  joists  and  timbers.  Longer  or  shorter  lengths 
than  those  herein  specified  are  special.  Odd  lengths,  if  below  24 
feet,  shall  be  counted  as  of  the  next  higher  even  length. 

On  stock  shipments  of  8-inch  and  under  no  board  shall  be 
admissible  that  is  more  than  £  inch  scant;  on  10-inch  not  more 
Ihnn  |  inch,  and  on  12-inch  not  more  than  \  inch  scant  of  speci- 
fi.-d  width. 

Yellow  pine  of  better  grade  than  No.  1  common  up  to  4  inches 
in  width  is  classified  according  to  grain,  as  edge-grain  and  flat- 
grain.  Edge-grain  yellow  pine  has  been  variously  designated  S8 


78  TIMBER. 

"rift-sawn,"  "straight-grain,"  "vertical-grain,"  and  "quarter- 
sawed,"  all  being  commercially  synonymous  terms.  Edge-grain 
stock  is  specially  desirable  for  flooring,  and  admits  no  piece  in 
which  the  angle  of  the  grain  exceeds  45  degrees  from  the  vertical, 
thus  excluding  all  pieces  that  will  sliver  or  shell  from  wear. 
Such  stock  as  will  not  meet  these  requirements  is  known  as  flat- 
grain. 

All  dressed  and  matched  stock  shall  be  measured  and  sold 
"strip  count,"  i.  e.,  full  size  of  rough  strip  from  which  such 
stock  is  made — 3,  4,  5,  and  6  inches. 

The  foregoing  general  observations  shall  apply  to  and  govern 
the  following  detailed  descriptive  enumeration  of  recognized 
grades. 

RULES  FOR  GRADING  FINISHED  LUMBER. 

The  following  rules  for  grading  apply  to  all  kinds  of  finishing 
stock,  whether  for  interior  or  outdoor  work.  In  these  rules  the 
expressions  "  S.  IS."  or  "  S.  28."  mean  "surfaced  one  side"  or 
"surfaced  two  sides,"  respectively  Also  "S.  IS.  IE."  mean 
"surfaced  one  side  and  one  edge."  By  surfacing  is  meant 
planing  or  running  it  through  a  plauing-machine.  It  mny  still 
require  hand-dressing  for  the  best  work.  Nearly  all  sawmills 
now  dry  their  lumber  and  run  it  through  the  planer  in  order  to 
save  the  extra  freight  on  the  rough  and  green  lumber. 

GRADES. — First  and  second  clear;  third  clear,  barn  and  roofing 
stocks. 

FIRST  AND  SECOND  CLEAR  FINISH. — 1  inch,  IS.  or  28.,  up  to 
and  including  10  inches  wide,  must  show  one  face  clear  from  all 
defects;  33£  per  cent  of  any  shipment  of  boards  12  or  14  inches 
wide  will  admit  two  pin-knots  or  one  standard  knot,  slight  pitch- 
streak,  or  small  pitch-pocket,  or  sap-stain  not  over  1£  inches  wide 
running  across  the  face,  or  small  kiln-  or  seasoning- checks,  but 
no  two  of  these  defects  shall  appear  in  a  single  piece;  16-inch 
wide  will  admit  of  two  defects  allowed  in  12-inch  or  their  equiva- 
lent, wider  than  16-inch  will  admit  proportionately  more  defects. 
Pieces  otherwise  admissible  in  which  the  point  of  the  grain  has 
been  loosened  or  slivered  in  dressing  one  face  side  should  be  put 
in  lower  grade.  Defective  dressing  on  reverse  face  of  finishing  is 
admissible.  In  case  both  faces  are  desired  clear  special  contract 
must  be  made. 

THIRD  CLEAR  FINISH. — 1  inch,  S.  IS.  or  28.,  up  to  and  in- 
cluding 10  inches  wide,  may  have  not  more  than  two  of  the 


TIMBER.  79 

following  defects  on  best  or  face  side:  three  pin-kuots,  one 
standard  kuot,  three  sap-stains  2  inches  wide  running  across  the 
face  or  their  equivalent,  two  pitch-pockets,  slight  pitch  streaks^ 
kiln  or  seasoning  checks,  torn  places,  and  wane  which  does  not 
enter  more  than  1  inch,  nor  extend  more  than  2  feet;  12-inch 
will  admit  three  of  the  above  defects  or  their  equivalent.  This 
grade  is  suitable  for  paint  finish. 

1£,  H,  and  2  inch,  S.  1  or  2  S.,  shall  take  1-inch  inspection,  and 
unless  otherwise  agreed  between  buyer  and  seller,  shall  be  sub- 
ject to  inspection  on  face  or  best  side  only. 

BARN  and  NOVELTY-SIDING,  SHIP-LAP  and  GROOVED  ROOFING 
shall  be  8,  10,  and  12  inches  wide,  and  consist  of  boards  below 
third  clear  which  are  sound  and  water-tight,  free  from  conrse 
knots,  and  wane  over  1  inch  wide  and  extending  more  than  3  feet 
in  any  piece.  Pitch,  except  in  narrow  streaks,  should  be  excluded. 

EDGE-GRAIN  FLOORING.  (Grades  :  First  Clear,  Second  Clear). 
— First  clear  edge-grain  flooring  must  be  well  manufactured,  and 
free  from  all  defects  on  face  side  of  strip. 

Second  clear  edge-grain  flooring  will  admit  of  three  pin-knots, 
or  one  standard  knot,  or  small  pitch-pocket,  or  blue-sap  stain  not 
to  exceed  10  per  cent  of  the  face. 

FLAT-GRAIN  FLOORING.  (Grades  :  A  flat,  B  flat.)— A-flat  floor- 
ing may  contain  two  pin-knots  or  one  small  pitch-pocket,  but 
shall  be  free  from  other  defects,  and  must  be  well  manufactured. 
Pieces  in  which  the  point  of  the  grain  has  been  loosened  in  dress- 
ing should  be  put  in  lower  grade. 

B-flat  flooring  may  have  any  two  of  the  following  defects  : 
Three  pin-knots  or  one  standard  knot;  slight  sap-stains,  slight 
torn  places  and  defects  in  manufacture,  narrow  pitch-streaks,  and 
seasoning-checks.  When  all  other  defects  are  absent,  blue-sap 
stain  in  any  quantity  shall  be  admitted. 

COMMON  FLOORING.  (Grades:  No.  1  Common,  No.  2 Common.) 
— No.  1  Common  must  be  manufactured  from  sound  stock.  In 
addition  to  the  defects  described  in  B  flat,  also  admits  of  sound 
knots,  blue  sap  and  firm  redheart  in  any  quantity,  pitch,  and 
slight  shake,  but  must  "lay"  without  waste.  No  division  as  to 
grain  is  made  in  this  grade. 

No.  2  COMMON  FLOORING  includes  all  pieces  that  will  not 
grade  No.  1  common,  which  can  be  laid  without  wasting  more 
than  one-fourth  the  length  of  any  piece.  This  grade  will  admit 
imperfections  winch  do  not  render  the  piece  unfit  for  use  in  cheap 
floors  and  roof-sheathing. 


80  TIMBER. 

CENTRE-MATCHED  FLOORING  shall  be  required  to  come  up  to 
grade  on  one  face  only. 

CEILING.  (Grades  :  A,  B,  C.)—A  ceiling  shall  be  free  from  all 
defects  on  face,  and  well  manufactured. 

B  Ceiling  will  admit  slight  imperfections  in  dressing.  Three 
pin-knots,  or  one  standard  knot,  pitch-streaks  or  small  pitch- 
pockets,  or  blue  sap-stain  not  to  exceed  10  per  cent  of  the  face  ; 
but  not  more  than  two  of  these  defects  to  be  admitted  in  any 
piece. 

C  Ceiling  conforms  to  grade  No.  1  common  flooring,  and  is 
suitable  for  paint  finish.  Will  admit  imperfections  that  do  not 
prevent  its  use  without  waste. 

WAGON  BOTTOMS.  (Grades:  A,  B.) — Wagon  bottoms  shall  be 
graded  the  same  as  flat-grain  flooring. 

BEVEL  AND  DROP  SIDING.  (Grades-  A,  B,  C.)— Shall  be  graded 
according  to  ceiling  rules,  but  will  admit  more  blue  stain,  and, 
except  in  grade  C,  should  exclude  pitch.  Slight  additional  im- 
perfections on  the  thin  edge  of  bevel-siding  which  will  be  covered 
by  the  lap  are  admissible. 

PARTITION.  (Grades  :  A,  B,  C.)— Partition  shall  conform  to 
ceiling  grades,  but  must  meet  the  requirements  of  the  specified 
grade  only  on  one  face.  The  reverse  face  shall  not  be  more  than 
one  grade  lower. 

MOULDED  CASINGS  AND  BASE.  (Grades  •  First  Clear,  Second 
Clear.) — First  clear  shall  be  free  from  all  defects  on  face  and 
perfect  in  manufacture. 

Second  clear  is  suitable  for  work  that  is  to  receive  a  paint  finish, 
and  usually  consists  of  rejections,  made  after  dressing,  from  stock 
inspected  in  I  he  rough  as  first  clear.  The  defects  admitted  in  B 
ceiling  would  be  allowed. 


TIMBER.  81 

Rules  for  Grading:  Common  Boards  and  Rough 
Lumber. 

COMMON  BOARDS  AND  SHIP-LAP. — No.  1  common  boards,  S. 
IS.,  and  No.  1  common  ship-lap  shall  be  manufactured  from 
sound  stock,  of  even  thickness  the  entire  length.  Will  admit 
of  any  two  of  the  folio  wing  defects:  Wane  one-half  inch  deep  on 
edge  and  one  sixth  the  length  of  the  piece;  tight  sound  knots, 
none  of  which  shall  be  larger  Ihan  three  inches  in  diameter,  or 
equivalent  spike-knots  ;  one  split  not  more  than  16  inches  long; 
and  blue  sap.  These  boards  shall  be  firm  and  strong,  suitable  for 
use  in  all  ordinary  construction,  and  serviceable  without  waste. 

No.  2  Common  Boards  and  No.  2  Common  Ship-lap  admit 
pieces  that  fall  below  No.  1,  which  are  free  from  the  following 
defects:  Rotten  streaks  that  go  through  the  piece,  through  heart- 
shakes which  extend  more  than  half  the  length  of  the  piece,  and 
wane  over  2  inches  wide,  exceeding  one  third  the  length  of  the 
piece.  A  knot-hole  1^  inches  in  diameter  or  its  equivalent  will 
be  allowed,  provided  the  piece  would  otherwise  grade  No.  1  com- 
mon. Worm-holes  and  straight  splits  one  fourth  of  the  length  of 
the  piece  are  admissible. 

FENCING,  S.  IS.—  No.  1  Common  Fencing  must  be  manufac- 
tured from  sound  stock.  May  contain  sound  knots  equal  in  di- 
ameter to  not  over  one  third  the  width  of  the  piece  at  any  given 
point  throughout  its  length,  but  must  be  free  from  spike-knots 
the  length  of  which  is  over  half  the  width  of  the  piece.  Also, 
free  from  wane  over  J  inch  deep  on  edge  and  one  half  the  length 
of  any  piece  measured  on  one  side.  This  grade  must  work  its 
full  length  without  waste. 

No.  2  COMMON  FENCING  shall  admit  of  pieces  that  fall  below 
No.  1  common  which  arc  free  from  thiough  rotten  streaks. 

Miscut  1-inch  stock  in  boards  and  fencing  which  does  not  fall 
below  £  inch  thick  shall  be  admitted  in  No.  2  common  provided 
that  the  grade  of  such  thin  stock  is  in  all  other  respects  as  good 
as  No.  1  common. 

DIMENSION  S.  IS.  IE. — No.  1  Common  Dimension  shall  be 
manufactured  from  sound  stock,  and  be  free  from  loose  and  un- 
sound knots,  and  large  knots  so  located  as  to  materially  impair 
the  strength  of  the  piece;  will  admit  of  seasoning-checks  and 
heart-shakes  that  do  not  go  thro.ugh,  of  slight  wane  and  such 
other  defects  as  do  not  prevent  its  use  as  substantial  structural 
material. 


82  TIMBER. 

No.  2  COMMON  DIMENSION  admits  all  pieces  falling  below  No. 
1  common  which  are  free  from  through  rotten  streaks  and  sound 
enough  to  be  used  without  waste. 

Miscut  2  inch  stock  which  does  not  fall  below  1^  inches  shall 
be  admitted  in  No.  2  common  provided  that  the  grade  of  such 
thin  stock  is  in  all  other  respects  as  good  as  No.  1  common. 

In  boards,  fencing  and  dimension  stock  falling  below  No.  2 
grade  and  excluding  dead  culls  shall  be  classed  as  No.  3. 

DRESSED  TIMBERS  shall  conform  in  grade  to  the  specifications 
applying  to  rough  limbers  of  similar  size. 

ROUGH  YELLOW  PINE.  FLOORING- STRIPS  AND  FINISHING. — 
Flooring-strips  are  3,  4,  5,  and  6  inches  wide  when  green;  square- 
edged  and  evenly  manufactured. 

Finish  must  be  evenly  manufactured,  and  shall  embrace  all  sizes 
from  1  inch  to  2  inches  thick  by  6  inches  and  over  in  width. 

No  finishing-lumber,  unless  otherwise  ordered,  should  measure 
when  dry  and  rough  less  than  j\  inch  scant  in  thickness.  No 
piece  in  any  shipment  of  boards  and  strips  shall  be  more  than  £ 
inch  scant  on  6-  and  8-inch  stock,  f  inch  scant  on  10-  and  \  inch 
scant  on  12-inch  and  wider  stock. 

Wane  and  seasoning  checks  that  will  dress  out  in  working  to 
standard  thicknesses  and  widths  are  admissible. 

Subject  to  the  foregoing  provisions  rough  finishing  shall  be 
graded  according  to  the  specifications  applying  to  dress  finishing. 
"When  like  grade  of  both  faces  is  required  special  contract  should 
be  made. 

COMMON  BOARDS.  FENCING  AND  DIMENSION. — Rough  com- 
mon boards  and  fencing  must  be  evenly  manufactured,  and 
should  not  be  less  than  I  inch  thick  when  dry,  nor  more  than  £ 
inch  scant  of  specified  width. 

ROUGH  2-iNCH  COMMON  shall  be  evenly  manufactured  and  not 
less  than  1|  inches  thick  when  green,  or  If  inches  thick  when 
dry.  The  several  widths  must  not  be  less  than  i  inch  over  the 
standard  dressing  width  for  such  stock.  The  defects  admissible  in 
rough  stock  shall  be  the  same  as  those  applying  to  dressed  stock 
of  like  kind  and  grade,  but  such  further  defects  as  would  disap- 
pear in  dressing  to  standard  size  of  such  material  shall  be 
allowed. 

ROUGH  TIMBERS  6x6  inches  and  larger  shall  not  be  more 
than  |  inch  scant  when  green,  -and  be  evenly  manufactured  from 
sound  stock  with  not  less  than  three  square  edges,  and  must  be 
free  from  knots  that  will  materially  weaken  the  piece. 


TIMBER.  83 

Timbers  10  X  10  inches  may  have  a  2- inch  wane  on  one  corner, 
or  its  equivalent  on  two  or  more  corners,  one  fourth  the  length  of 
the  piece.  Other  sizes  may  have  proportionate  defects. 

Season  ing- checks  and  shakes  extending  not  over  one  eighth 
the  length  of  the  piece  are  admissible. 

Staiiclard  Dimensions  of  the  Southern  Lumber 
Manufacturers'  Association.* 

FLOCKING.— The  standard  of  1"  X  4"  and  6"  shall  be  ff"  X 
3£"  and  5J":  H-inch  flooring  l?y. 

CEILING. — f-inch  ceiling  T5riiich;  £-inch  TVinch;  f-inch  TV 
inch;  f-iuch  j^-iuch.  Same  width  as  flooring. 

FINISHING.— 1 -inch  S.  IS.  or  S.  2S.to  ff-inch;  1^-inch  S.  IS.  or 
S.  2S.  to  l¥35-iuch;  14-inch  S.  IS.  or  S.  2S.  to  1^-iuch;  2-inch  S. 
IS.  or  S.  28.  to  If-inch. 

BOARDS  AND  FENCING.— 1-inch  S.  IS.  or  S.  28.  to  jf-inch. 
DIMENSION.— 2  X    4  inch  S.  IS.  IE.  to  If  X    3|  inches. 
2X6"        "        "    ••  If  X    54    ':  "; 
2X8"        "        "    "  14  X    7|       " 
2  x  10     "        "        "    "  If  X    9^       " 
2  X  12     "        "        "    "  14  X  1H 
4x4    "  |  inch  off  side  and  edge. 
4  X    4     "   S.  48.  £  inch  off  each  side. 

Inspection  of  Yellow-pine  Lumber. 

(Rules  adopted  by  the  New  York  Lumber-Trade  Association.) 

SCANTLING  shall  embrace  all  sizes  from  two  to  five  inches  in 
thickness  and  two  to  six  inches  in  width.  For  example:  2x2, 
2x3,  2X4,  2X5,  2X6,  3  X  3,  3  X  4,  3  X  5,  3  X  6,  4x4, 
4x  5,  4  X  6,  5  X  5,  and  5  X  6. 

PLANK  shall  embrace  all  sizes  from  one  and  one-half  to  five 
inches  in  thickness  by  seven  inches  and  up  in  width  (1£,  2,  2£,  3, 
3|,  4,  4|,  5  X  7  and  up  wide). 

DIMENSION  SIZES  shall  embrace  all  sizes  six  inches  and  up  in 
thickness  by  seven  inches  and  up  in  width,  including  six  by  six. 
For  example:  6  X  6,  6  X  7,  7  X  7,  7  X  8,  8  X  8,  8  X  9,  and  up. 

STEPPING  shall  embrace  one  to  two  and  one-half  inches  in 
thickness  by  seven  inches  and  up  in  width.  For  example  :  1,  1£, 
1|,  2,  2|  X  7  and  up  wide. 

*  These  particular  dimensions  cannot  be  assumed  to  hold  for  all  parts  of 
the  country. 


84  TIMBER. 

ROUGH-EDGE  or  FLITCH  shall  embrace  all  sizes  one  inch  and  up 
in  thickness  by  eight  inches  and  up  in  width,  sawed  on  two  sides 
only.  For  example:  1,  1|,  2,  3,  4  and  up  thick,  by  8  and  up 
wide,  sawed  on  two  sides  on]y. 

SQUARE-EDGED  INSPECTION. 

SCANTLING  shall  be  free  from  injurious  shakes,  unsound  knots, 
or  knots  to  impair  strength;  sap,  no  objection. 

PLANK  shall  be  free  from  unsound  knots,  wane  through  or 
round  shakes;  sup,  no  objection. 

DIMENSION  SIZES.— Sap,  no  objection;  no  wane  edges,  no 
shakes  to  show  on  outside  of  stick.  All  stock  to  be  well  and 
truly  manufactured,  full  to  sizes,  and  saw-butted. 

MERCHANTABLE  INSPECTION. 

SCANTLING  shall  show  three  corners  heart  free  from  injurious 
shakes  or  unsound  knots. 

PLANK,  nine  inches  and  under  wide  shall  show  one  heart  face 
and  two-thirds  heart  on  opposite  side,  over  nine  inches  wide  shall 
show  two-thirds  heart  on  both  sides,  all  free  from  round  or 
through  shakes,  large  or  unsound  knots. 

DIMENSION  SIZES. — All  square  lumber  shall  show  two-thirds 
heart  on  two  sides,  and  not  less  than  one-half  heart  on  two  other 
sides.  Other  sizes  shall  show  two-thirds  heart  on  faces  and  show 
heart  two  thirds  of  the  length  on  edges,  excepting  where  the 
width  exceeds  the  thickness  by  three  inches  or  over;  then  it  shall 
show  heart  on  the  edges  for  one  half  its  length. 

STEPPING  shall  show  three  corners  heart,  free  from  shakes  and 
all  knots  exceeding  half  an  inch  in  diameter  and  not  more  than 
six  in  a  board. 

ROUGH-EDGE  or  FLITCH  shall  be  sawed  from  good  heart  tim- 
ber, and  shall  be  measured  in  the  middle  on  the  narrow  face, 
free  from  injurious  shakes  or  unsound  knots.  All  stock  to  be 
well  and  truly  manufactured,  full  to  size,  and  saw-butted. 

PRIME  INSPECTION. 

SCANTLING  shall  show  three  corners  heart,  and  not  to  exceed 
one  inch  of  sap  on  fourth  corner,  measured  diagonally,  free  from 
heart,  shakes,  large  or  unsound  knots. 

PLANK  shall  show  one  entire  heart  face,  on  opposite  face  not 
exceeding  one  sixth  its  width  of  sap  on  each  corner,  free  from 


TIMBER.  85 

unsound  knots.  Through  or  round  shakes;  sap  to  be  measured 
on  face. 

DIMENSION  SIZES. — On  all  square  sizes  the  sap  on  each  corner 
shall  not  exceed  one  sixth  the  width  of  the  face.  When  the 
width  does  not  exceed  the  thickness  by  three  inches,  to  show  half 
heart  on  narrow  faces  the  entire  length;  sap  on  wide  faces  to  be 
measured  as  on  square  sizes. 

ROUGH-EDGE  or  FLITCH  shall  be  measured  in  the  middle  or 
narrow  face  inside  of  sap,  free  from  shakes  or  unsound  knots. 

CLEAK  INSPECTION. 

SCANTLING  and  PLANK  shall  be  free  of  sap,  large  knots,  or 
other  defects. 

DIMENSION  SIZES  shall  be  free  from  sap,  large  or  unsound 
knots,  shakes  through  or  round. 

DESIGNATIONS  OF  THE  TRADE. 

RESAWED  LUMBER.  — Lumber  sawn  on  four  sides. 
ROUGH-EDGE  or  FLITCH. — Lumber  sawn  on  two  sides. 
TIMBER.— Hewn  only. 

MERCHANTABLE  FLOORING. 

1  in.  and  1£  in.  in  thickness  and  from  4  to  6  in.  in  width, 
shall  show  one  face  free  from  sap,  and  two-thirds  heart  the  entire 
length  on  the  opposite  face.  Shall  be  free  from  rot,  split,  shakes, 
and  unsound  knots.  Sound  knots  to  be  allowed  as  follows,  viz.: 
Two  knots  in  boards  under  10  ft.  long;  three  knots  in  boards  16 
ft.  long  and  over,  of  not  over  1  in.  in  diameter,  or  six  knots  of 
not  over  £  in.  in  diameter. 

MERCHANTABLE  FLOORING-PLANK. 

1^  to  3  in.  in  thickness  and  5  to  10  in.  in  width  shall  show  one 
face  free  from  sap,  except  on  each  edge  of  the  face;  $  in.  of  sap 
shall  be  allowed  and  two-thirds  heart  on  opposite  face.  Free 
from  rot,  split,  shakes,  unsound  knots,  and  knots  exceeding  1£ 
in.  in  diameter. 

MERCHANTABLE  WIDE  BOARDS  AND  PLANK. 

1  to  2  in.  in  thickness  and  10  to  14  in.  in  width  shall  show  one 
face  free  from  sap,  and  two-thirds  heart  entire  length  on  opposite 


86  TIMBER. 

face.  Free  from  rot,  through  shakes,  splits,  and  unsound  knots; 
six  sound  knots  of  1  in.  and  under  in  diameter,  or  three  of  1^  in. 
in  diameter,  to  be  allowed  in  any  place. 

PRIME  WIDE  BOARDS  AND  PLANK. 

1  to  2  iM.  in  thickness  and  10  to  14  in.  in  width  shall  show  one 
face  and  one  edge  free  from  sap,  and  two- thirds  heart  on  the 
other  face  ;  free  from  rot,  shakes,  splits,  and  knots. 

MERCHANTABLE  SIDINGS. 

1  in.,  1£  in.,  and  1£  in.  in  thickness  and  4  in.  and  over  in  width. 
Sap  shall  be  allowed  on  the  face,  or  best  side  (regardless  of  sap  on 
the  opposite  face),  as  follows:  £  in.  on  one  edge  on  boards  7  in. 
and  under  in  width,  and  ^  in.  on  each  edge  of  boards  over  7  in. 
wide.  Must  be  free  from  through  shakes,  rots,  splits,  and 
unsound  knots;  and  on  the  face  side  the  following  allowance  for 
knots  shall  be  made,  viz.:  Three  sound  knots  not  exceeding  1  in. 
in  diameter  in  boards  under  14  ft.  long;  four  sound  knots  not 
exceeding  1  in.  in  diameter  in  boards  14  ft.  long  and  over,  or  six 
sound  knots  not  exceeding  \  in.  in  diameter  in  boards  of  any 
length.  In  the  measurement  of  boards,  flooring,  and  sidings  1£ 
in.  and  under  in  thickness  the  fractions  of  a  foot  iu  contents  less 
than  nine  twelfths  shall  be  thrown  off;  six  twelfths  and  over  shall 
be  counted  as  a  foot.  In  the  measurement  of  merchantable 
sidings,  as  to  widths,  they  shall  be  measured  whole  and  half  inch 
only.  For  example:  4  in.,  4|  in.,  5  in.,  5^  in.,  6  in.,  6£  in.,  etc., 
wide. 

KILN-DRIED  SIDINGS  and  FLOORING  are  inspected  in  the 
New  York  market  as  follows:  Kiln-dried  Saps,  1  in.  and  1£  in. 
in  thickness,  3  in.  and  up  wide,  12  to  18  ft.  long,  small  percent- 
age 10  and  11  ft.,  90  per  cent  shall  be  free  from  knots  and  stain 
on  one  face,  10  per  cent  may  have  stain  defects  or  a  few  sound 
knots. 

ROUGH  or  DRESSED  FLOORING,  clear  heart  face  rift  or  flat 
grain,  to  be  free  of  knots,  sap,  or  pitch-streaks  on  face  side;  No. 
1  flooring  to  be  free  of  knots  on  face,  but  admitting  bright  sap. 


TIMBER.  £7 

Inspection  of  White  Pine,  Spruce,  etc. 

WHITE  PINE. — White-pine  plank  and  boards  will  frequently 
deteriorate  in  quality  during  the  process  of  seasoning,  or,  more 
correctly  speaking,  imperfections  which  are  entirely  hidden 
when  the  wood  is  green  become  visible  after  it  has  dried  out. 

White  pine  is  graded  into  three  qualities,  viz.,  panel,  common, 
and  callings.  All  boards  and  plank  that  shall  not  have  more 
than  three  small  sound  knots,  not  more  than  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  without  sap  or  shake  or  any  other  defect  or  being  free 
from  knots  and  not  having  on  an  average  more  run  of  sap  than 
half  the  thickness  of  the  board  or  plank  shall  be  deemed  and 
counted  as  panel.  All  boards  and  plank  that  shall  not  contain 
more  than  three — round — knots,  not  more  than  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter, and  not  more  run  of  sap  than  half  the  thickness  of  the  board 
or  plank,  shall  be  deemed  and  counted  as  common.  A  split  in  the 
end  of  a  board  or  plank  nearly  straight  and  not  over  two  feet  in 
length  shall  not  condemn  it  to  an  inferior  grade  ;  the  split  shall 
not  vary  more  than  half  an  inch  to  a  foot  from  a  straight  line. 
All  boards  or  plank  that  are  rotten,  worm-eaten,  wind-shaken, 
or  otherwise  defective  are  classed  as  cuttings. 

SPRUCE  requires  careful  examination.  The  adhesion  of  the 
annual  rings  is  very  slight,  and  boards  taken  from  the  outside  of 
the  tree  are  liable  to  curl  up  and  splinter  when  dried  ;  boards 
cut  from  saplings  are  subject  to  excessive  shrinkage.  Reject  all 
waney  pieces  and  those  with  knots  and  sap. 


Hardwood  Lumber  Grades. 

The  Boston  law  for  the  inspection  of  black  walnut  and  cherry, 
ash,  oak,  poplar,  and  butternut,  requires  that  the  woods  be 
divided  into  three  grades,  number  one,  number  two,  and  culls. 

NUMBER  ONE  includes  all  boards,  plank,  or  joist  that  are  free 
from  rot  and  shakes,  and  nearly  free  from  knots,  sap,  and  bad 
taper  ;  the  knots  must  be  small  and  sound,  and  so  few  that  they 
would  not  cause  waste  for  the  best  kind  of  work.  A  split  in  a 
board  or  plank  if  parallel  with  the  edge  of  a  piece  is  classed 
number  one. 

NUMBER  Two  includes  all  other  descriptions  except  when 
one  third  is  worthless.  When  a  board,  plank,  or  joist  contains 
sap,  knots,  splits,  or  any  other  imperfections  combined,  making 
less  than  one  third  of  a  piece  unfit  for  good  work,  and  only  fit 


88  TIMBER. 

for  ordinary  purposes,  it  is  number  two  ;  when  one  third  is 
worthless  it  is  a  cull  or  refuse. 

REFUSE  or  CULL  hardwood  includes  all  boards,  planks,  or 
joists  that  are  manufactured  badly,  by  being  sawed  in  diamond- 
shape,  smaller  in  one  part  than  in  another,  split  at  both  ends,  or 
with  splits  not  parallel,  large  and  bad  knots,  worm-holes,  sap, 
rot,  shakes,  or  any  imperfections  which  would  cause  a  piece  of 
lumber  to  be  one  third  worthless  or  waste. 

All  hardwoods  are  measured  from  six  inches  up  ;  and  all  lum- 
ber sawed  thin  is  inspected  the  same  as  if  of  proper  thickness, 
but  is  classed  as  thin,  and  sold  at  the  price  of  thin  lumber. 

THE  REGULAR  SIZES  are  f-,  1-,  1|-,  !£-,  2-,  2|-,  3-,  4-inch,  and 
up,  by  even  inches.  The  regular  lengths  are  12,  14,  and  16  feet ; 
shorter  than  12  feet  does  not  command  full  market  price. 

Inspection  of  Quartered  Oak  and  Yellow  Pine. 

OAK  for  trimming,  finishing,  or  flooring  is  rift-sawed  or  quar- 
tered, that  is,  sawed  with  two  cuts  at  right  angles  with  each  other, 
and  through  the  centre  of  the  log,  all  subsequent  cuts  being 
made  as  nearly  as  possible  on  radial  lines. 

Oak  is  distinguished  from  all  other  woods  by  the  "silver 
grain  "  or  medullary  rays  consisting  of  small  bundles  of  fibres, 
•which  shoot  out  laterally  from  the  centre  of  the  trunk,  passing 
through  the  annual  rings  toward  the  bark.  By  quartering  the 
log  these  fibres  are  divided  nearly  or  quite  in  the  direction  of 
their  course,  and  show  on  the  surface  of  the  boards  as  flecks  or 
irregular  silvery  streaks  upon  a  ground  of  fine  parallel  lines 
formed  by  the  section  of  the  annual  rings.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
the  log  is  sawed  into  parallel  slices  in  the  ordinary  manner,  the 
middle  slice  will  exhibit  the  silver  grain,  as  will  also  one  or  two 
on  each  side  of  it.  Further  from  the  centre  the  medullary  rays 
will  be  divided  almost  transversely,  appearing  on  the  cut  surface 
as  nearly  imperceptible  lines  or  dashes,  while  the  sections  of  the 
annual  rings  will  grow  broader  and  broader,  showing,  since 
the  sap  tubes  of  oak  are  quite  large,  as  a  coarse,  rough  figure, 
completely  different  in  appearance  from  the  delicate  and  silvery 
grain,  and  liable  to  a  dingy  discoloration  from  the  entrance  of  dust 
and  dirt  into  the  exposed  pores.  Some  varieties  of  oak,  sawed 
in  the  ordinary  way,  often  appear  brashy,  or  of  a  very  coarse  tex- 
ture, with  short  fibres  which  break  away  easily. 

The  manner  in  which  the  log  is  sawn  affects  also  its  disposition 


TlMBEtt.  89 

to  warp  and  curl,  which  in  badly  cut  oak  is  very  strong,  The 
inner  portions  of  the  tree  are  compressed  and  hardened  by  age,  so 
that  there  is  a  gradual  diminution  of  density  toward  the  circum- 
ference, which  is  occupied  by  the  soft  and  spongy  sap-wood.  The 
less  compact  substance  naturally  shrinks  more  in  drying  than 
that  which  is  nearer  the  interior  of  the  log,  but  with  boards 
whose  surfaces  follow  the  radial  lines  the  movements  caused  by 
dry  ness  or  damp  are  all  in  the  planes  of  these  surfaces,  and 
although  the  board  varies  in  width,  it  has  no  tendency  to  warp. 
Those  boards,  on  the  contrary,  which  are  cut  in  lines  parallel  with 
the  diameter  of  the  log  have  one  surface  which  looks  toward  the 
bark  of  the  tree  and  the  other  toward  the  heart,  and  the  fibres 
on  one  side  are  therefore  slightly  softer  than  on  the  other,  and 
will  shrink  more,  curling  the  piece  outward  with  a  force  propor- 
tioned to  its  thickness. 

By  keeping  constantly  in  mind  these  properties  of  oak,  which 
belong  in  some  degree  to  all  kinds  of  timber,  many  annoying  de- 
fects in  hardwood  finish  may  be  avoided. 

YELLOW  PJNE  for  floors  and  finishing  is  cut,  like  quartered  oak, 
on  radial  lines.  These  may  be  recognized  by  the  figure,  consist- 
ing of  fine  parallel  lines  in  place  of  the  broad  mottlings  produced 
by  a  cut  tangent  to  the  annual  rings.  Hard-pine  boards  of  the 
latter  kind  are  very  liable  to  splinter  and  must  be  rejected.  Hard- 
pine  boards  containing  large  streaks  of  dark  turpentine  should  be 
rejected,  as  the  turpentine  soon  crumbles  away. 


90  METALS. — IKOK. 


VI.  METALS. 

The  metals  used  in  construction  are  iron,  copper,  lead,  tin, 
zinc,  and  some  of  their  alloys. 

These  metals  are  not  found  to  any  great  extent  in  the  pure 
metallic  state,  but  chiefly  in  the  form  of  oxides,  carbonates,  or 
sulphides  called  "ores." 

The  ores  are  broken  up,  and  separated  from  the  earthy  matters 
adhering  to  them,  by  stamping  or  crushing  in  mills  and  by  wash- 
ing with  a  stream  of  water,  which  carries  away  the  lighter  im- 
purities, leaving  the  ore,  which  is  then  said  to  be  "dressed." 

The  extraction  of  the  metal  from  the  ore  is  effected  by  various 
processes,  generally  by  smelting,  the  ore  being  mixed  with  a  flux  ; 
i.e.,  a  mineral  substance  which  will  readily  combine  with  the  im- 
purities of  the  ore  is  placed  in  a  suitable  furnace  and  subjected 
to  intense  heat,  upon  which  the  metal  sinks  down  in  a  fluid 
state,  while  the  impurities  combine  with  the  flux  and  run  off  in  a 
light  and  fusible  slag. 

Iron. 

Iron  is  extracted  from  its  ores  by  smelting  in  a  blast-furnace, 
using  either  a  "  cold  blast,"  i.  e.,  a  blast  at  ordinary  temperature, 
or  a  "hot  blast."  In  this  the  air  is  raised  to  a  temperature 
of  from  800°  to  1400°  F.  before  being  forced  into  the  furnace. 
The  intense  heat  developed  causes  fusion  of  the  substances. 
The  molten  metal  sinks  to  the  bottom  and  over  this  is  collected 
a  glassy  refuse  composed  of  the  lighter  and  more  fusible  im- 
purities. This  is  called  "  slag."  The  slag  is  drawn  off,  run  into 
iron  cars,  and  hauled  to  the  dumping-ground. 

When  a  considerable  quantity  of  molten  iron  has  collected  the 
furnace  is  tapped,  and  the  iron  is  run  into  a  long  channel  formed 
in  sand,  having  smaller  channels  on  each  side.  These  small 
channels  are  3  or  4  inches  deep  and  2  to  2|  feet  long.  The 
channels  are  called  the  sow  and  her  pigs;  hence  the  bars  produced 
are  called  "pig  iron." 

It  is  generally  considered  that  the  cold-blast  irons  are  superior 
to  the  hot-blast.  The  hot  blast,  while  saving  fuel  and  producing 
a  larger  yield,  also  causes  the  iron  to  combine  with  a  larger 
quantity  of  impurities. 


METALS.— PIG   IROK. 


91 


PIG  IRON  is  classed  under  several  heads,  as  Foundry  Pig, 
Bessemer  Pig,  and  Forge  Pig.  These  classes  are  graded  according 
to  the  character  of  the  fracture,  the  number  of  grades  varying  in 
different  localities.  In  Eastern  Pennsylvania  the  principal  grades 
recognized  are  known  as  No.  1  and  No.  2  Foundry,  No.  3  Gray 
Forge,  No.  4  Mottled,  and  No.  5  White.  Intermediate  grades  are 
sometimes  made,  as  No.  2X  between  No.  1  and  No.  2,  and  special 
names  are  given  to  irons  more  highly  silicized  than  No.  1,  as 
No.  IX,  Silver  Gray,  and  Soft.  Charcoal  foundry  pig  iron  is 
graded  by  numbers  1  to  5,  but  the  quality  is  very  different  from 
the  corresponding  numbers  in  anthracite  and  coke  pig.  Southern 
coke  pig  iron  is  graded  into  ten  or  more  grades,  as  follows, 
beginning  with  the  highest  in  silicon:  Nos.  1  and  2  Silvery,  Nos.  1 
and  2  Soft,  all  containing  over  3  per  cent  of  silicon;  Nos.  1,  2,  and 
3  Foundry,  respectively  about  2.75  per  cent,  2.5  per  cent,  and  2 
per  cent  silicon;  No.  1  Mill,  or  Foundry  Forge,  No.  2,  or  Gray 
Forge;  mottled,  and  white. 

TABLE  8. 

COMPOSITION  OF  PIG  IRON. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  composition  of  the  five  stand- 
ard grades  of  Northern  foundry  and  mill  pig  irons: 


No.  1 
Gray. 

92.37 
3.52 
.13 
2.44 
1.25 
.02 
.28 

No.  2 
Gray. 

No.  3 
Gray. 

No.  4 
Mottled. 

'  :  v 
No.  4  B. 

No.  5 
White. 

94.68 

Yes 

.41 
.04 
.02 
.98 

Iron  

92.31 
2.99 
.37 
2.52 
1.08 
.02 
.72 

94.66 
2.50 
1.52 
.72 
.26 
trace 
.34 
Rolling- 
mill  or 
foundry. 

94.48 
2.02 
1.98 
.56 
.19 
.08 
.67 

R 

94.08 
2.02 
1.43 
.92 
.04 
.04 
2.02 

Graphitic  carbon.... 
Combined  carbon... 
Silicon  

Phosphorus  
Sulphur  .... 

Manganese  . 

Used  exclusively 
in  the  foundry. 

olling-mill. 

IMPURITIES  IN  PIG  IRON. 

The  various  ores  and  the  mineral  fuels  used  in  smelting  fre- 
quently contain  substances  which  injure  the  quality  of  the  respec- 
tive metals  produced  from  the  pig  iron  unless  eliminated  in  sub- 
sequent processes. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  impurities: 


92  METALS. — PIG    IKON". 

PHOSPHORUS  is  very  readily  taken  up  during  the  smelting 
process,  and  is  one  of  tlie  worst  impurities  it  can  contain. 

Cast  iron  is  hardened  by  it,  but  is  made  more  readily  fusible; 
shrinkage  is  decreased  and  fluidity  increased.  Its  tenacity  is 
reduced. 

Wrought  iron  is  injured  by  it  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
present. 

y'o  per  cent  does  not  reduce  the  strength,  but  improves  its 
welding  capacity. 

T^  per  cent  makes  it  harder,  but  not  weaker. 

y5^  per  cent  makes  it  "cold-short." 

1  per  cent  makes  it  very  brittle,  and  unfit  for  any  but  special 
purposes. 

Steel  is  injured  by  a  very  minute  proportion. 

SULPHUR  is  derived  from  the  pyrites  in  the  ore  and  coal. 

In  cast  iron  it  tends  to  produce  the  mottled  and  white  varie- 
ties; in  general  its  influence  is  to  drive  out  carbon  and  silicon,  to 
increase  chill  and  shrinkage,  and  to  decrease  strength. 

In  wrought  iron  three  tenths  per  cent  produces  "  Red-short- 
ness. 

In  steel  one  tenth  per  cent  produces  "Red  shortness";  more 
than  two  tenths  per  cent  unfits  it  for  forging,  but  makes  it  more 
fluid. 

MANGANESE.  In  cast  iron  it  tends  to  produce  the  white  variety; 
it  increases  the  holding  capacity  for  carbon,  reduces  plasticity, 
and  increases  briltleness  and  shrinkage. 

Manganese  decreases  the  magnetism  of  iron.  This  character- 
istic increases  with  the  percentage  present.  When  25  per  cent  is 
present  the  iron  loses  nil  its  magnetism.  This  peculiarity  has 
been  made  use  of  by  French  metallurgists  to  draw  a  clear  line 
between  spiegel  and  /(gm>-mauganese.  When  the  pig  iron  con- 
tains less  than  25  per  cent  of  manganese  it  is  classed  as  spiegel, 
and  when  more  than  25  per  cent  it  is  classified  as  ferro-manga- 
nese.  For  this  reason  manganese  iron  has  to  be  avoided  in  cast- 
ings of  dynamo-fields  and  other  pieces  belonging  to  electric 
machinery. 

When  the  quantity  of  manganese  is  under  40  per  cent,  with 
the  remainder  mostly  iron,  and  silicon  not  over  0.50  per  cent,  the 
alloy  is  called  Spiegeleisen,  and  the  fracture  will  show  flat  reflect- 
ing surfaces,  from  which  it  takes  its  name, 

A  little  manganese  is  an  excellent  antidote  against  sulphur  in 
the  furnace. 


METALS. — PIG 

In  wrought  iron  and  steel  it  counteracts  red-shortness.  Its 
presence  is  essential  in  the  manufacture  of  Bessemer  steel,  and  in 
some  other  processes. 

SILICON. — The  effect  produced  by  silicon  in  cast  iron  varies 
according  to  the  physical  properties  of  the  original  iron:  in  some 
it  causes  hardness  and  brittleness,  and  decreases  shrinkage;  a 
small  percentage  usually  increases  strength,  high  percentage  de- 
crenses  strength. 

Wrought  iron  is  rendered  by  it  hard  and  brittle.  To  obtain 
good  wrought  iron  the  silicon  must  be  removed  as  far  as  possible 
by  repeatedly  heating  and  working  the  iron. 

Steel. — 5^  part  makes  it  cool  and  solidify  without  bubbling 
and  agitation,  more  makes  it  brittle ;  £  per  cent  makes  it  un- 
forgeable. 

MATERIALS  PRODUCED  FROM  PIG  IRON. 

By  subjecting  pig  iron  to  various  processes  three  varieties  of 
material  are  produced,  viz. :  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron,  Steel. 

The  great  differences  that  exist  between  these  materials  depend 
chiefly  upon  the  amount  of  carbon  they  respectively  contain,  the 
other  substances  present  being  generally  regarded  as  impurities. 

The  percentage  of  carbon  present  in  these  materials  and  their 
several  gradations  is  about  as  follows: 

Cast  iron 4.00  to  5.00  per  cent. 

Malleable  cast  iron 0.88  "  1.52    "  « 

Wrought  iron 0.00"  0.25    "  " 

Soft  steel 0.075"  " 

Mild  steel 0.08"  0.20   "  " 

Hard  steel 0.20  "  0.40    "  " 

Tool  steel 0.40  "  0.80    "  " 

Draw-plate  steel 3.30    "  " 


94  METALS.— CAST  IRON. 


Cast  Iron. 

Cast  iron  is  obtained  by  remelting  the  foundry  pig  iron  and 
running  it  into  moulds  of  the  shape  required. 

In  some  cases  the  metal  is  run  into  the  moulds  direct  from  the 
blast-furnace,  but  in  superior  work  it  is  generally  specified  that 
the  cast  iron  is  to  be  of  the  "  second  melting,"  that  is,  from  pigs 
remelted  in  a  cupola. 

There  are  two  principal  varieties  of  cast  irou,  the  gray  and  the 
white,  differing  in  their  chemical  and  physical  characters  ;  and 
between  these  two  are  several  intermediate  varieties,  which  re- 
semble more  or  less  the  gray  or  the  white  as  they  approach 
nearer  to  one  or  the  other. 

Gray  iron  contains  one  per  cent  or  less  of  carbon  chemically 
combined,  and  from  one  to  four  per  cent  of  carbon  in  the  state  of 
graphite  mechanically  mixed. 

The  gray  iron  is  soft  and  tough,  slightly  malleable  when  cold, 
may  be  drilled,  planed,  or  turned,  melts  at  a  lower  heat  than  the 
white,  being  red  when  molten,  remains  fluid  a  long  time,  fills  the 
mould  readily,  and  gives  fine  sharp  angles  to  the  casting.  The 
fracture  is  granular,  of  a  gray  color,  with  a  metallic  lustre. 

White  iron  contains  from  two  to  five  per  cent  of  carbon  in  a 
state  of  chemical  combination.  It  is  hard,  brittle,  and  sonorous, 
cannot  be  worked,  is  not  easily  melted,  is  white  when  fluid, 
thickens  rapidly,  and  shows  a  white  crystalline  fracture,  with  a 
vitreous  lustre. 

The  gray  iron  is  most  suitable  for  strength,  the  white  for  hard- 
ness. 

The  two  varieties  may  be  produced  from  the  same  ore  under 
different  conditions  of  temperature.  The  carbon  requires  to  cool 
slowly  in  order  to  form  graphite,  and  to  exist  as  a  separate  mate- 
rial in  the  iron  ;  rapidly  cooled,  the  carbon  remains  chemically 
combined,  thus  producing  white  iron. 

The  term  "  chilling  "  irons  is  generally  applied  to  those  which 
if  cooled  slowly  would  be  gray,  but  when  cooled  suddenly  become 
white  either  to  a  depth  sufficient  for  practical  utilization  (e.  g.,  in 
car-wheels)  or  so  far  as  to  be  detrimental.  Many  irons  chill  more 
or  less  in  contact  with  the  cold  surface  of  the  moulds  in  which 
they  are  cast,  especially  if  they  are  thin.  Sometimes  this  is  a 
valuable  quality,  but  for  general  foundry  purposes  it  is  desirable 
to  have  all  parts  of  a  casting  an  even  gray. 


METALS.— CAST    IRON".  95 

The  density  and  strength  of  cast  iron  is  increased  by  repeated 
remelting  up  to  about  the  twelfth  time,  after  which  it  is  decreased. 
The  increase  is  the  result  of  the  gradual  abstraction  of  the  con- 
stituent carbon  and  the  consequent  approximation  to  wrought 
iron. 

By  prolonged  fusion  the  tenacity  is  increased. 

Both  remelting  and  prolonged  fusion  may  be  carried  too  far; 
as  the  carbon  is  removed  the  iron  becomes  less  fluid,  fills  the 
moulds  less  perfectly,  and  produces  too  hard  and  brittle  a  metal. 


Properties  of  Cast  Iron. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  6.85  to  7.48. 

WEIGHT  PER  CUBIC  FOOT,  usually  assumed  at  450  Ibs. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHT,  56. 

HARDNESS,  4.57  to  33.51. 

MELTING-POINT  :  Gray  iron,  2012°  to  2786°  F. 
White  iron,  1922°  to  2075°  F. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT,  .1298. 

CONDUCTIVITY  FOR  HEAT,  11.9. 

CONDUCTIVITY  FOR  ELECTRICITY,  12  to  14.8  (silver  being  100). 

EXPANSION  AND  CONTRACTION. — Expansion  in  bulk  by  heat, 
.0033  ;  exposed  to  continued  heat  it  becomes  permanently  ex- 
panded from  1|  to  3  per  cent  of  its  length.  A  bar  will  contract 
or  expand  .000006173  of  an  inch,  or  T^VT>TT  of  its  length  for 
each  degree  of  heat ;  between  the  extremes  —  20°  F.  and  +  120° 
F.  it  will  contract  or  expand  .0008642  of  an  inch,  or  the  1157th 
part  of  its  length,  equivalent  to  a  strain  of  4|  tons  per  square 
inch. 

CONTRACTION  on  cooling  ranges  from  ^ih  to  ^ih  of  the 
length. 

EXTENSION,  ^innr  of  its  length  per  ton  per  square  inch,  or 
.000000107  of  its  length  per  pound  of  tension. 

COMPRESSION  per  pound  =  .0000000804  of  the  length. 

ELONGATION. — The  elastic  limit  is  not  clearly  defined,  the 
elongation  increasing  faster  than  the  increase  of  the  loads  from 
the  beginning  of  the  test.  The  modulus  of  elasticity  is  therefore 
variable,  decreasing  as  the  loads  increase.  The  following  results 
of  a  test  by  Prof.  Lanza  are  an  example : 


96 


METALS.— CAST   IRON". 


TABLE  9. 
CAST  IRON:  ELONGATION  AND  MODULUS  OF  ELASTICITY. 


Pounds  per 
Square  Inch. 

Elongation  in 
13.4  inches. 

Sets  in 

Modulus  of 
Elasticity. 

1000 

.0004. 

18,217,400 

2000 

.0013 

. 

16,777,700 

3000 

.0024 

m 

14,085,400 

4000 

.0036 

, 

13,101,200 

5000 

.0048 

e 

12,809,200 

6000 

.0061 

.6666 

12,319,300 

8000 

.0088 

.0001 

11,600,800 

10000 

.0119 

.0001 

10,930,500 

12000 

.016 

.0007 

9,714,200 

SHRINKAGE. — The  usual  allowance  for  shrinkage  is  $  inch  per 
foot. 

ULTIMATE  STRENGTH.— Tensile,  9000  to  45.970  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Compressive,  80,000  to  174,120  Ibs.  per 

sq.  in. 

Shearing  (mean),  24,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
Torsion        "          8,614   "      " 
Transverse,  500  to  4,000    "      " 

WORKING  STRENGTH. — Tensile,  3,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Compressive,  80,000   "      " 
Transverse,          600   "      "        " 
Shearing,          6,000    "     $,L,  ffJV  j 
Torsion,  5,000   "      "    ,,^0 

TENACITY  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURES. — Cast  iron  appears  to 
maintain  its  strength,  with  a  tendency  to  increase  until  900°  F.  is 
reached,  beyond  which  temperature  it  gradually  decreases.  (Jas. 
E.  Howard's  Tests,  Iron  Age,  April  10,  1890.) 

Cast  iron  of  average  quality  loses  strength  when  heated  above 
120°  F. ;  and  it  becomes  insecure  at  the  freezing-point.  At  a  red 
heat  its  normal  strength  is  reduced  one  third.  (D.  K.  Clark.) 


METALS. — CAST  IRON".  97 


Notes  on  Founding1. 

Cast  iron  becomes  more  compact  and  sound  by  being  cast 
under  pressure ;  bence  pipes,  columns,  and  tbe  like  are  stronger 
wben  cast  in  a  vertical  than  in  a  horizontal  position,  and  stronger 
still  when  provided  with  a  head,  or  additional  column  of  iron, 
whose  weight  serves  to  compress  the  mass  of  iron  in  the  mould 
below  it.  The  air-bubbles  ascend  and  collect  in  the  head,  which 
is  broken  off  when  the  casting  is  cool. 

"Blow-holes"  and  "honeycomb"  are  produced  by  confined 
air  and  render  castings  defective. 

Cavities  and  flaws  caused  by  unequal  contraction  during  cool- 
ing, and  the  collection  of  foundry  dirt  and  other  impurities,  are 
frequent  sources  of  weakness. 

In  column  and  pipe  castings  a  common  defect  is  unevennesa  of 
thickness.  This  may  be  detected  either  by  drilling  small  holes 
along  the  sides,  or  by  a  careful  application  of  the  calipers.  If 
one  side  is  much  thicker  than  the  other  the  thin  side  cools  first 
and  is  consequently  subjected,  during  the  cooling  of  the  thick 
side,  to  strains  frequently  severe  enough  to  bend  the  casting  and 
produce  injury.  Columns  or  pipes  cast  upon  their  sides  suffer 
from  this  imperfection  by  the  displacement  of  the  core.  Columns 
or  pipes  taken  from  the  mould  too  quickly  are  apt  to  be  bent  in 
the  handling. 

Unequal  contraction  of  the  metal  in  cooling  frequently  causes 
strains  which  produce  rupture  especially  in  columns  and  lug 
castings. 

"When  castings  are  of  such  length  as?  to  make  it  necessary  to 
pour  the  metal  into  the  mould  from  both  ends,  it  frequently 
occurs  that  the  iron  becomes  too  much  chilled  to  properly  mix 
and  unite,  thus  forming  weak  seams,  called  "cold-shuts." 

Castings  should  be  covered  up  and  allowed  to  cool  as  slowly  as 
possible.  They  should  remain  in  the  sand  until  cool.  If  they  are 
removed  from  the  mould  in  a  red-hot  state,  the  metal  is  liable  to 
injury  from  too  rapid  and  irregular  cooling. 

The  unequal  cooling  and  consequent  injury  caused  by  great 
and  sudden  differences  in  the  thickness  of  parts  of  a  casting  are 
sometimes  avoided  by  uncovering  the  thick  parts  so  that  they 
may  cool  more  quickly. 


98  METALS. — CAST   IRON". 

Inspection  of  Cast  Iron. 

The  appearance  of  good  cast  iron  for  structural  purposes 
should  show  oil  the  outer  surface  a  smooth,  clear,  and  continuous 
skin,  with  regular  face  and  sharp  angles.  When  broken,  -the 
surface  of  the  fracture  should  be  of  a  light  bluish-gray  color  and 
close-grained  texture,  with  considerable  metallic  lustre  ;  both 
color  and  texture  should  be  uniform,  except  that  near  the  skin 
the  color  may  be  somewhat  lighter  and  the  grain  closer;  if  the 
fractured  surface  is  mottled,  either  with  patches  of  darker  or 
lighter  iron,  or  with  crystalline  patches,  the  casting  will  be  un- 
safe, and  it  will  be  still  more  unsafe  if  it  contains  air-bubbles. 
The  iron  should  be  soft  enough  to  be  slightly  indented  by  a  blow 
of  a  hammer  on  the  edge  of  the  casting;  if  it  is  hard  and  brittle, 
fragments  will  be  broken  off. 

Castings  are  tested  for  "honeycomb"  by  tapping  with  a 
hammer. 

Blow-  or  sand-holes  filled  in  with  sand  from  the  mould  or 
purposely  stopped  with  loam  cause  a  dulness  in  the  sound  which 
leads  to  their  detection. 

In  examining  water-pipes  and  the  castings  connected  therewith, 
see  that  the  interior  is  free  from  swells,  scale,  and  blisters.  Test 
thickness  with  the  calipers.  Sound  thoroughly  with  the  hammer 
to  discover  flaws,  air-  or  sand-holes.  Examine  the  junction  of  the 
hubs  or  bells  with  the  body  for  honeycomb.  See  that  the  hydraulic 
pressure  required  by  the  specifications  is  applied.  While  under 
pressure  tap  the  pipe  all  over  to  discover  flaws,  etc.  Inspect 
the  weighing  and  marking  of  each  piece. 

Columns  and  posts  are  examined  for  cold-shuts,  sand-  and  blow- 
holes; the  thickness  of  the  shaft  in  closed  columns  is  tested  by 
drilling  a  sufficient  number  of  f-in.  holes.  The  connections  of 
lugs,  brackets,  capitals  and  bases  require  close  examination  to 
discover  flaws,  shrinkage  cracks  and  blow-holes. 

TEST  BARS.— The  test-bars  should  be  poured  alternately  before 
and  after  the  casting  is  poured;  there  should  be  at  least  one  test 
bar  for  each  2000  Ibs.  of  castings,  or  such  number  as  the  specifica- 
tions require. 

The  test-bars  are  usually  3  in.  wide  by  1  in.  thick,  and  either  14 
or  26  in.  long;  they  are  placed  on  supports  12  or  24  in.  apart, 
narrow  side  up,  and  loaded  in  the  centre  until  broken.  Note  the 
deflection  and  breaking  weight. 

The  bars  for  testing  tensile  strength  are  usually  turned  down 
on  a  lathe  in  order  to  remove  the  rough  exterior  scale  and  enable 
the  diameter  to  be  carefully  measured. 


METALS.— CAST   IRON. 


99 


TABLE  10. 
CAST  IRON.   WEIGHT  OF  PLATES,  ROUND  AND  SQUARE   BARS. 


03 

^2 

; 

.s 

.  "3 

o 

eS  ** 

o3  ^ 

J3 

J' 

'A 

o3  § 

eS  OJ 

f~>    £)£ 

a 

O3    ~ 

°IJ 

«wEsj 

c^CQ  O 

«wM  O 

oj 

o  a  ^ 

«wW  O 

*w§ 

S 

a  **>  <t> 

|8| 

S 

O   £>>J 

o-Qt-5 

09 

$a 

ill 

°.  V 

O  3}  1-3 

0-oJ 

•  o  ^> 

hQ 

-M  fi~« 
u  5  c 

iQfe 

•^  C  ci 

gt  *  0 

$  §o 

°- 

C  f, 

X.- 

c«fe 

•^  C  S3 

si 

J£  *0 

£§§ 

o 

^ 

"•—  c 
£PM 

f:l 

"1 

°^5 

ftfe 

fej 

•2p 

~~    ~ 

O  >*5 

B  fl  o 

af 

of^ 

rt^ 

o 

«3 

hi 

p 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs.  i 

5 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1/32 

.0026 

1.173 

.003 

.002 

3^6 

.2604 

117.3 

30.52 

23.97 

4.162 

1/16 

.0052 

2.344 

.012 

.010 

IX 

.2708 

121.8 

33.01 

25.93 

4.681 

3/32 

.0078 

3.516 

.027 

.021 

.0001 

% 

.2813 

126.5 

35.60 

27.95 

5.243 

H 

.0104 

4.687 

.048 

.038 

.0003 

IX 

.2917 

131.2 

38.28 

30.07 

5.846 

5/32 

.0130 

5.861 

.076 

.060 

.0005 

RX 

.3021 

135.9 

41.07 

32.25 

6.498 

3/16 

.0156 

7.032 

.110 

.086 

.0009 

% 

.3125 

140.6 

43.i>5 

34.51 

7.193 

7/32 

.0182 

8.203 

.150 

.118 

.0014 

% 

.3229 

145.3 

46.  9: 

36.85 

7.934 

.0208 

9.375 

.195 

.154 

.0021 

4 

.3333 

150.0 

50.01 

39.27 

8.726 

9/32 

•0234 

10.54 

.247 

.194 

.0030 

.3438 

154.7 

53.18 

41.77 

9.572 

5/16 

.0260 

11.13 

.305 

.240 

.0042 

y* 

.3542 

159.3 

56.4(J 

44.33 

10.47 

11/32 

.0287 

12.89 

.370 

.290 

.0056 

% 

.3646 

164.0 

59.82 

46.99 

11.42 

.0313 

14.06 

.440 

.346 

.0072 

y% 

.3750 

168.7 

63.33 

49.71 

12.43 

13/32 

.0339 

15.24 

.516 

.400 

.0092 

7& 

.3854 

173.4 

66.86 

52.52 

13.49 

7/16 

.0365 

16.41 

.598 

.470 

.0114 

ax 

.3958 

178.1 

70.52 

55.39 

14.62 

15/32 

.0391 

17.56 

.687 

.540 

.0140 

% 

.4063 

182.8 

74.28 

58.34 

15.81 

ik 

.0417 

18.75 

.781 

.610 

.0170 

5 

.4167 

187.5 

78.12 

61.37 

17.05 

9/16 

.0469 

21.10 

.989 

.777 

.0243 

.4271 

192.2 

82.10 

64.47 

18.35 

% 

.0521 

23.44 

1.221 

.959 

.0334 

IX- 

.4375 

196.9 

86.14 

67.65 

19.73 

11/16 

.0573 

25.79 

1.478 

1.161 

.0444 

% 

.4479 

201.6 

90.29 

70.52 

21.18 

H 

.0625 

28.12 

1.758 

1.381 

.0575 

1Z 

.4583 

206.2 

94.54 

74.26 

22.68 

13/16 

.0677 

30.47 

2.064 

1.621 

.0732 

% 

.4688 

210.9 

98.89 

77.66 

24.27 

% 

.0729 

32.81 

2.393 

1.880 

.0913 

% 

.4792 

215.6 

103.3 

81.16 

25.93 

15/16 

.0781 

35.16 

2.747 

2.158 

.1124 

j2 

.4896 

220.3 

107.9 

84.72 

27.41 

1 

.0833 

37.50 

3.125 

2.455 

.1363 

6 

.5000 

225.0 

112.5 

88.36 

29.44 

1/16 

.0885 

39.84 

3.528 

2.771 

.1636 

IX 

.5208 

234.4 

122.1 

95.89 

33.28 

« 

.0938 

42.19 

3.955 

3.107 

.1942 

Ya 

.5417 

243.8 

132.0 

103.7 

37.44 

3/16 

.0990 

44.53 

4.407 

8.461 

.2284 

ax 

.5625 

253.1 

142.4 

111.9 

41.94 

i 

.1042 

46.87 

4.883 

3.835 

.2664 

7 

.5833 

262.5 

153.2 

120.2 

46.77 

5/16 

.1094 

49.22 

5.384 

4.229 

.3084 

.6042 

271.9 

164.2 

129.0 

51.97 

sk 

.1146 

51.57 

5.909 

4.640 

.3546 

L^ 

.6250 

281.3 

175.8 

138.1 

57.54 

7/18 

.1198 

53.91 

6.461 

5.073 

.4058 

ax 

.6458 

290.7 

187.7 

147.4 

63.47 

.1250 

56.26 

7.033 

5.523 

.4603 

8 

.6667 

300.0 

200.1 

157.0 

69.82 

9/16 

.1302 

58.60 

7.632 

5.993 

.5204 

.6875 

309.4 

212.7 

167.0 

76.58 

% 

.  1354 

60.94 

8.253 

6.484 

.5852 

y% 

.7083 

318.8 

225.8 

177.3 

83.74 

11/16 

.1406 

63.28 

8.900 

6.991 

.6555 

ax 

.7292 

328.2 

23'.).  3  J187.9 

91.35 

ax 

.1458 

65.63 

9.572 

7.518 

.7310 

9 

.7500 

337.4 

253.1   1198.8 

99.42 

13/16 

.1510 

67.97 

10.27 

8.064 

.8122 

.77081346.8 

267.4  1210.0 

107.9 

% 

.1563 

70.32 

10.99 

8.630 

.8991 

IX 

.7917356.2 

282.1   J221.5 

116.8 

15/16 

.1615 

72.66 

11.73 

9.215 

.9920 

axj 

.8125!3«5.6 

297.0    233.3 

126.3 

2 

.1667 

75.01 

12.50 

9.821 

1.073 

10 

.8333  375.0 

312.5    245.5 

136.3 

.1771 

79.70 

14.11 

11.09 

1.308 

.8542 

384.4 

328.4    257.8 

146.8 

y\ 

.1875 

84.40 

15.83 

12.43 

1.554 

y% 

.8750 

393.7 

344.5  !270.6 

157.9 

% 

.1979 

89.07 

17.C3 

13.85 

1.827 

ax 

.8958 

403.1 

361.2 

283.7 

169.3 

m 

.2083 

93.75 

19.54 

15.34 

2.131 

11 

.9167 

112.5 

378-2 

297.0 

181.5 

% 

.2188    98.44 

21.54 

16.56 

2.467 

IX 

.9375 

421.9 

395.5    310.6 

194.2 

% 

.2292  103.2 

23.64 

18.56 

2.835 

8 

.9583 

431.2 

413.3    324.6 

207.3 

% 

.2396 

107.8 

25.84 

20.29 

3.241 

H 

.9792 

440.6 

431.4    338.8 

219.2 

§ 

.2500112.6 

28.13 

22.10 

3.682 

12 

iFoot 

450.0 

450.0    353.4 

235.6 

At  450  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot  a  pound  contains  3.84  cubic  inches,  a  ton  5  cubic 
feet,  and  a  cubic  inch  weighs  .2604  Ib. 


100  METALS. — CAST   IRON. 


Malleable  Cast  Iron. 

Malleable  cast  iron  is  the  name  given  to  castings  made  of 
ordinary  cast  iron  which  have  been  subjected  to  a  process  of  de- 
carbonization,  which  results  in  the  production  of  a  crude  wrought 
iron. 

The  castings  are  made  in  the  usual  way,  and  are  then  em- 
bedded in  oxide  of  iron,  usually  of  hematite  ore,  or  in  peroxide 
of  manganese,  and  exposed  to  a  full  red  heat  for  a  sufficient 
length  of  time  to  insure  the  nearly  complete  removal  of  the 
carbon.  This  decarbonization  is  conducted  in  cast-iron  boxes, 
in  which  the  articles,  if  small,  are  packed  in  alternate  layers  with 
the  decarbonizing  material.  The  largest  pieces  require  the  long- 
est time.  The  fire  is  quickly  raised  to  the  maximum  tempera- 
ture, but  at  the  close  of  the  process  the  furnace  is  cooled  very 
slowly.  The  operation  requires  from  three  to  five  days  with 
small  castings,  and  may  take  two  weeks  for  large  pieces. 

STRENGTH  OF  MALLEABLE  CAST  IRON. 

TENSILE— 25,000  to  35,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 
*  ELONGATION — 1  to  2  per  cent  in  4  inches. 
ELASTIC  LIMIT— 15,000  to  21,000. 

Inspection  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings. 

The  fracture  should  be  fine-grained  and  uniform,  and  be  free 
from  blow-holes ;  the  centre  should  appear  almost  as  dark  as 
burnt  iron. 

Tests  should  be  made  at  the  foundry  prior  to  shipment,  extra 
castings  from  which  to  cut  test  pieces  being  furnished  at  the  rate 
of  at  least  two  for  every  2000  Ibs.  of  product. 

All  test-pieces  should  be  cut,  prepared,  and  tested  under  the 
eye  of  the  inspector. 

Should  the  average  of  three  tests  show  a  less  strength  than 
required  by  the  specifications,  a  repetition  of  the  tests  will  be  at 
the  option  of  the  inspector. 

Each  casting  requires  to  be  closely  examined  for  shrinkage 
cracks,  blow-holes,  large  ridges  tit  partings,  and  flaws  on  edges. 
Castings  that  are  incorrect  in  dimensions  or  warped  should  be 
rejected. 


METALS. — WROUGHT   IWtfHi  ;,  ,  . 

Wrought  Iron. 

Wrought  iron  in  its  perfect  condition  is  simply  pure  iron.  It 
falls  short  of  that  perfect  condition  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
owing  to  the  presence  of  impurities. 

Wrought  iron  may  be  produced  direct  from  the  ore,  but  is 
commonly  obtained  from  forge  pig  or  the  harder  varieties  of  pig 
iron. 

In  the  manufacture  of  "refined  iron"  or  "merchant-bar 
iron,"  the  object  to  be  attained  is  the  removal  of  the  carbon,  phos- 
phorus, silicon,  and  other  impurities. 

The  refining  process  is  performed  as  follows  : 

I.  PUDDLING. — The  pig  iron  mixed  with  oxidizing  substances, 
such  as  hematite  ore,  limestone,  salt,  etc.,  is  placed  in  a  rever- 
beratory  furnace  and  melted,  the  molten  metal  being  stirred  and 
agitated  with  a  rake  or  "rabble."   The  admission  of  air  during  the 
stirring  oxidizes  the  carbon  and  silicon,  which  pass  off  in  the  slag. 
As  the  iron  becomes  purer  it  becomes  less  fusible  and  stiffens.    It 
is  then  worked  by  the  puddler  into  lumps  or  balls  called  puddle- 
balls  or  blooms,  weighing  about  75  Ibs.  each.     These  balls  are  re- 
moved from  the  furnace  and  placed  either  under  a  tilt-hammer  or 
squeezer  to  be  shingled,  that  is,  to  have  the  cinder  forced  out,  and 
to  be  formed  into  suitable  shape  for  rolling  into  muck-bars. 

II.  ROLLING  MUCK-BARS. — The  shingled  iron  is  next  passed 
through  the  muck  rolls  and  reduced  to  bars  from  3  to  4  in.  wide, 
f  to  1  in.  thick,  and  10  to  12  ft.  long,  and  very  rough  in  appear- 
ance.     These  constitute  what  are   known  as  "  muck-bars "  or 
"  puddled  bars,"  or  the  lowest  grade  of  iron. 

The  muck-bars  are  cut  up  into  lengths  of  6  or  7  ft.,  depending 
upon  the  size  of  the  piece  to  be  rolled,  placed  in  an  oven  with 
waste  scrap,  reheated,  and  passed  through  the  rolls.  The  bars  so 
produced  are  called  refined  iron. 

For  Double  Refined  Iron  the  bars  of  refined  iron  are  cut  up, 
piled,  reheated,  and  again  rolled  into  fiat  bars.  These  are  repiled 
and  rolled  into  final  shapes.  This  iron  is  much  stronger  and  more 
homogeneous  than  ordinary  refined  iron. 

After  the  iron  is  rolled  to  final  shape  it  is  run  out  on  a  series  of 
skids  called  the  hot-bed,  where  it  is  allowed  to  cool.  From  here 
it  goes  to  the  straighteniug-machiue.  This  may  either  be  a  gag- 
press  or  a  train  of  rolls,  three  below  and  two  above.  The  latter 
is  much  the  better,  producing  straighter  bars  with  less  injury  to 
the  material. 


102 


METALS. — WROUGHT  IROK. 


The  heating  and  rolling  several  times  improves  the  quality  of 
the  iron,  but  it  will  not  stand  too  many.  The  fifth  reheating 
seems  to  be  the  limit. 

After  coming  from  the  straightening-rolls  the  material  is 
marked  and  sheared,  then  inspected,  and  each  piece  marked  with 
its  true  dimensions  in  white-lead  paint. 

Wrought  iron  is  distinguished  from  the  other  varieties  of  iron 
by  the  property  of  welding;  two  pieces,  if  raised  nearly  to  a  white 
heat  and  pressed  or  hammered  firmly  together,  adhere  so  as  to 
form  one  piece.  In  all  operations  of  rolling  or  forging  iron  of 
which  welding  forms  a  part,  it  is  essential  that  the  surfaces  to  be 
welded  should  be  brought  into  close  contact,  and  should  be  per- 
fectly clean  and  free  from  oxide  of  iron,  cinder,  and  all  foreign 
matter. 

TABLE  11. 

COMPOSITION  OF  WROUGHT  IRON. 

The  following  analyses  show  the  composition  of  some  standard 
brands  of  wrought  iron  : 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

Sulphur.  ...            

trace 

0  001 

0  008 

0  005 

0  004 

0  007 

Phosphorus  

0  084 

0  035 

0  231 

0  291 

0  067 

0  169 

Silicon    

0  105 

0.028 

0.156 

0  321 

0.065 

0  154 

Carbon 

0  512 

0  066 

0  015 

0  051 

0  045 

0  042 

Manganese    
Slag              

0.029 
0  452 

0.009 
1  214 

0.017 

0.053 
1  724 

0.007 
1  168 

0.021 

Tensile  strength  

66.598 

54.363 

52.764 

51.754 

51.134 

50,765 

Properties  of  Wrought  Iron. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY,  7.4  to  7.9. 

WEIGHT  PER  CUBIC  FOOT,  480  to  487,  usually  taken  at  480. 

ATOMIC  WEIGHT,  56. 

MELTING-POINT,  2732°  to  3000°  F. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT,  .1138. 

CONDUCTIVITY  of  heat,  11.9;  of  electricity,  12  to  14.8  (silver 
being  100). 

EXPANSION  BY  HEAT  in  bulk  between  32°  and  212°  F.  =  .0035. 
Bars  will  expand  or  contract  .000006614  of  an  inch,  or  the 
151,200th  part  of  their  length,  or  about  |  inch  in  1562  feet  for 
each  degree  of  heat.  Between  the  extremes  —20°  F.  and  +120°  F. 


METALS. — WROUGHT   IROK. 


103 


a  bar  will  expand,  or  contract  .000926,  or  the  1080th  part  of  its 
length,  a  variation  equivalent  to  a  strain  of  9£  tons  per  square 
inch  of  section.  For  a  variation  in  temperature  of  125°  a  bar 
100  feet  long  will  expand  or  contract  1.029  inches;  with  a  varia- 
tion of  15°  the  expansion  or  contraction  is  about  y^^nj  of  the 
length,  and  the  strain  thus  induced  if  the  ends  are  held  rigidly 
fixed  will  be  about  1  ton  per  square  inch. 

CONTRACTION. — When  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  is  heated  to  red- 
ness and  quenched  in  water  it  becomes  permanently  shorter  than 
before. 

EXTENSION  per  pound  of  tensile  force  =  .0000000357  of  the 
length,  or  about  1  inch  in  1000  feet,  or  £  inch  in  125  feet  for  every 
ton  of  tensile  strain  per  square  inch  up  to  the  elastic  limit. 

ULTIMATE  STRENGTH. 

Tensile 30,000  to    70,000  pounds 

Compressive 40,000  to  127,720 

Shearing 40,000      « ' 

WORKING  STRENGTH. 

Tensile 10,000  to  15,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Compressive 36,000"      "     "     " 

Shearing 6000  to     9000  "      "     "     " 

STRENGTH  OF  WELDS. 


Tie-bars. 
Pounds. 

Plates. 
Pounds. 

Chains. 
Pounds. 

Strength  of  solid  bar 
Strength  of  weld  

43,201  to  57,065 
17,816  to  44,586 

44,851  to  47,481 
26,442  to  38,931 

49,122  to  57,875 
39,575  to  48,824 

Welding  heat  is  about  2733°  F. 

ELONGATION  ranges  from  5  to  30  per  cent  of  the  original  length. 

REDUCTION  OF  AREA  AT  FRACTURE  varies  from  55  to  25  per 
cent. 

MODULUS  OF  ELASTICITY,  22,000,000  to  29,000,000. 

TENACITY  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURES.— The  strength  of  wrought 
iron  increases  with  temperature  from  0°  up  to  a  maximum  at 
from  400°  to  600°F.,  the  increase  being  from  8000  to  10,000  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  then  decreases  steadily  till  a  strength  of  only 
6000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  is  shown  at  1500°  F. 


104  METALS. — WROUGHT   IRON. 


Mill  Inspection  of  Wrought  Iron. 

In  the  mill  inspection  of  wrought  iron  no  tests  can  be  made 
before  the  material  is  rolled. 

With  the  same  kind  of  muck-bar  and  the  same  kind  of  scrap, 
each  pile  will  generally  be  found  to  differ  from  all  the  others; 
and  because  of  this  difference  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  ascertain 
its  fitness  for  a  specific  purpose,  to  subject  it  to  careful  and 
accurate  tests.  The  following  are  the  usual  requirements: 
It  must  be  tough,  ductile,  and  fibrous,  free  from  cinder- 
pockets,  flaws,  buckles,  blisters,  and  cracks  along  the  edges. 

Toughness  is  indicated  by  a  fine,  close,  and  uniform  fibrous 
structure,  free  from  all  appearance  of  crystallization,  with  a  clear 
bluish-gray  color  and  silky  lustre  on  a  torn  surface  where  the 
fibres  are  exposed. 

BADLY  REPINED  IRON  is  indicated  by  coarse  crystals,  blotches 
of  color,  loose,  open,  and  blackish  fibres.  Flaws  in  the  fractured 
surface  denote  that  the  piling  and  welding  processes  were  imper- 
fectly carried  out. 

GOOD  IRON  is  indicated  by  small  crystals  of  a  uniform  size  and 
color  and  fine,  close,  silky  fibres.  Good  iron  is  readily  heated, 
is  soft  under  the  hammer,  aud  throws  out  few  sparks. 

A  soft,  tough  iron,  if  broken  gradually  gives  long,  silky  fibres 
of  leaden-gray  hue,  which  twist  together  and  cohere  before 
breaking,  broken  rapidly  the  fracture  will  have  a  crystalline 
appearance. 

Iron  if  brought  to  a  white  heat  is  injured  if  it  be  not  at  the 
same  time  hammered  or  rolled. 

COLD-SHORT  IRON.  —  Iron  containing  phosphorus  is  brittle 
when  cold,  aud  will  crack  if  bent  double.  Cold-short  iron  is 
indicated  by  either  a  fine  grain  and  steely  appearance,  or  a  coarse 
grain  with  bright  crystalline  fracture,  and  discolored  spots. 

RED-SHORT  IRON. — Iron  containing  sulphur,  copper,  arsenic, 
and  other  impurities  will  crack  when  bent  at  a  red  heat,  but  has 
considerable  tenacity  when  cold.  It  cannot  be  welded.  Such 
iron  is  termed  "red-short."  Cracks  on  the  edge  of  a  bar  are 
indications  of  red-short  iron. 


METALS. — WROUGHT  IRON.  105 


Tests  for  Wrought  Iron. 

BENDING  TEST  (COLD). — Good  iron  should  bend  cold  180 
degrees  around  a  curve  whose  diameter  is  twice  the  thickness  of 
the  piece  for  bar  iron  and  three  times  the  thickness  for  plates  and 
shapes. 

BENDING  TEST  (HoT). — Irou  which  is  to  be  worked  hot  must 
be  capable  of  bending  sharply  to  a  right  angle  at  a  working  heat 
without  sign  of  fracture. 

NICKING  AND  BENDING. — Specimens  upon  being  nicked  on 
one  side  and  bent  should  show  a  fracture  nearly  all  fibrous. 

RIVET  iron  should  be  tough  and  soft,  and  be  capable  of  bend- 
ing cold  until  the  sides  are  in  close  contact  without  sign  of  frac- 
ture on  the  convex  side  of  the  curve. 

The  tensile  strength,  limit  of  elasticity,  and  ductility  are  deter- 
mined from  test-pieces  cut  from  the  full-sized  bar.  The  number 
and  size  of  the  test-pieces  will  be  governed  by  the  specification. 
Test-pieces  are  usually  cut  about  18  inches  long,  1  inch  in  width 
at  the  reduced  portion,  and  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  piece 
from  which  it  was  taken.  The  area  of  cross-section  ought  not  be 
less  than  half  a  square  inch. 

Iron  heated  and  suddenly  cooled  in  water  is  hardened,  and  the 
breaking  strain  (if  gradually  applied)  is  increased,  but  it  is  more 
likely  to  snap  suddenly.  If  heated  and  allowed  to  cool  grad- 
ually, it  is  softened,  and  its  breaking  strain  is  reduced. 


106 


METALS. — WROUGHT   IRON". 


TABLE  12. 

WEIGHT  OF  FLAT  BAB  IRON  PER  LINEAL  FOOT. 
At  480  IDS.  per  cubic  foot.    For  steel  add  1/48. 


Breadth, 
in  inches. 

THICKNESS,  IN  FRACTIONS  OP  INCHES. 

A 

i 

A 

* 

A 

f 

A 

i 

A 

1 

H 

1 

0.208 

0.417 

0.625 

0.833 

1.04 

1.25 

1.46 

1.67 

1.88 

2.08 

2.29 

11 

0.234 

0.469 

0.703 

0.938 

1.17 

1.41 

1.64 

1.87 

2.11 

2.34 

2.58 

1J 

0.260 

0.521 

0.781 

.040 

1.30 

1.56 

1.82 

2.08 

2.34 

2.60 

2.86 

i! 

0.286 

0.573 

0.859 

1.150 

1.43 

1.72 

2.01 

2.29 

2.58 

2.86 

3.15 

i* 

0.313 

0.625 

0.938 

.250 

1.56 

1.88 

2.19 

2.50 

2.81 

3.13 

3.44 

it 

0.339 

0.677 

1.020 

.360 

1.69 

2.03 

2.37 

2.71 

3.05 

3.39 

3.73 

i* 

0.365 

0.729 

1.090 

.460 

1.82 

2.19 

2.55 

2.92 

3.28 

3.65 

4.01 

ij 

0.391 

0.781 

1.170 

.560 

1.95 

2.34 

2.73 

3.12 

3.51 

3.91 

4.30 

2 

0.417 

0.833 

1.250 

1.670 

2.08 

2.50 

2.92 

3.33 

3.75 

4.17 

4.58 

2J 

0.443 

0.886 

1.330 

1.770 

2.21 

2.65 

3.10 

3.54 

3.98 

4.43 

4.87 

24 

0.469 

0.938 

1.410 

1.880 

2.34 

2.81 

3.28 

3.75 

4.22 

4.69 

5.16 

21 

0.495 

0.990 

1.480 

1.980 

2.47 

2.97 

3.46 

3.96 

4.46 

4.95 

5.44 

25 

0.521 

1.040 

1.560 

2.080 

2.60 

3.13 

3.65 

4.17 

4.69 

5.21 

5.73 

2* 

0.547 

1.090 

1.640 

2.190 

2.73 

3.28 

3.83 

4.38 

4.92 

5.47 

6.02 

23 

0.573 

1.150 

1.720 

2.290 

2.86 

3.44 

4.01 

4.58 

5.16 

5.73 

6.30 

2| 

0.599 

1.200 

1.800 

2.400 

3.00 

3.60 

4.20 

4.79 

5.39 

5.99 

6.59 

3 

0.625 

1.250 

1.880 

2.500 

3.13 

3.75 

4.38 

5.00 

5.63 

6.25 

6.88 

31 

0.677 

1.350 

2.030 

2.710 

3.39 

4.06 

4.74 

5.42 

6.09 

6.77 

7.45 

3£ 

0.729 

1.460 

2.190 

2.920 

3.65 

4.38 

5.10 

5.83 

6.56 

7.29 

8.02 

3| 

0.781 

1.560 

2.340 

3.130 

3.91 

4.69 

5.47 

6.25 

7.03 

7.81 

8.59 

4 

0.833 

1.670 

2.500 

3.330 

4.17 

5.00 

5.83 

6.67 

7.50 

8.33 

9.17 

*) 

0.885 

1.770 

2.660 

3.540 

4.43 

5.31 

6.20 

7.08 

7.97 

8.85 

9.74 

*2 

0.938 

1.880 

2.810 

3.750 

4.69 

5.63 

6.56 

7.50 

8.44 

9.38 

10.31 

4$ 

0.990 

1.980 

2.970 

3.960 

4.95 

5.94 

6.93 

7.92 

8.91 

9.90 

10.89 

5 

1.042 

2.080 

3.130 

4.170 

5.21 

6.25 

7.29 

8.33 

9.38 

10.42 

11.46 

5i 

1.090 

2.190 

3.280 

4.380 

5.47 

6.56 

7.66 

8.75 

9.84 

10.94 

12.03 

4 

1.150 

2.290 

3.440 

4.580 

5.73 

6.88 

8.02 

9.17 

10.31 

11.46 

12.60 

M 

1.200 

2.400 

3.590 

4.790 

5.99 

7.19 

8.39 

9.58 

10.78 

11.98 

13.18 

6 

1.250 

2.500 

3.750 

5.000 

6.25 

7.50 

8.75 

10.00 

11.25 

12.50 

13.75 

H 

1.300 

2.600 

3.910 

5.210 

6.51 

7.81 

9.11 

10.42 

11.72 

13.02 

14.32 

8 

1.350 

2.710 

4.060 

5.420 

6.77 

8.13 

9.48 

10.83 

12.19 

13.54 

14.90 

61 

1.410 

2.810 

4.220 

5.630 

7.03 

8.44 

9.84 

11.25 

12.66 

14.06 

15.47 

7 

1.460 

2.920 

4.380 

5.830 

7.29 

8.75 

10.21 

11.67 

13.13 

14.58 

16.04 

7J 

1.510 

3.020 

4.530 

6.040 

7.55 

9.06 

10.57 

12.08 

13.59 

15.10 

16.61 

7| 

1.560 

3.130 

4.690 

6.250 

7.81 

9.38 

10.94 

12.50 

14.06 

15.63 

17.19 

7^ 

1.610 

3.230 

4.840 

6.460 

8.07 

9.69 

11.30 

12.92 

14.53 

16.15 

17.76 

8 

1.670 

3.330 

5.000 

6.670 

8.33 

10.00 

11.67 

13.33 

15.00 

16.67 

18.33 

8| 

1.720 

3.440 

5.160 

6.880 

8.59 

10.31 

12.03 

13.75 

15.47 

17.19 

18.91 

81 

1.770 

3.540 

5.310 

7.080 

8.85 

10.63 

12.40 

14.17 

15.94 

17.71 

19.48 

8g 

1.820 

3.650 

5.470 

7.290 

9.11 

10.94 

12.76 

14.58 

16.41 

18.23 

20.05 

9 

1.880 

3.750 

5.630 

7.500 

9.38 

11.25 

13.13 

15.00 

16.88 

18.75 

20.63 

9} 

1.930 

3.850 

5.780 

7.710 

9.64 

11.56 

13.49 

15.42 

17.34 

19.27 

21.20 

U 

1.980 

3.960 

5.940 

7.920 

9.90 

11.88 

13.85 

15.83 

17.81 

19.79 

21.77 

9j{ 

2.030 

4.060 

6.090 

8.130 

10.16 

12.19 

14.22 

16.25 

18.28 

20.31 

22.34 

10 

2.080 

4.170 

6.250 

8.330 

10.42 

12.50 

14.58 

16.67 

18.75 

20.83 

22.92 

101 

2.140 

4.270 

6.410 

8.540 

10.68 

12.81 

14.95 

17.08 

19.22 

21.35 

23.49 

104 

2.190 

4.380 

6.560 

8.750 

10.94 

13.13 

15.31 

17.50 

19.69 

21.88 

24.06 

10J 

2.240 

4.480 

6.720 

8.960 

11.20 

13.44 

15.68 

17.92 

20.16 

22.40 

24.64 

11 

2.290 

4.580 

6.880 

9.170 

11.46 

13.75 

16.04 

18.33 

20.63 

22.92 

25.21 

111 

2.340 

4.690 

7.030 

9.380 

11.72 

14.06 

16.41 

18.75 

21.09 

23.44 

25.78 

114 

2.400 

4.790 

7.190 

9.580 

11.98 

14.38 

16.77 

19.17 

21.56 

23.96 

26.35 

llf 

2.450 

4.900 

7.340 

9.790 

12.24 

14.69 

17.14 

19.58 

22.03 

24.48 

26.93 

12 

2.500 

5.000 

7.500 

10.000 

12.50 

15.00 

17.50 

20.00 

22.50 

25.00 

27.50 

\ 

METALS.— WROUGHT   IRON.  107 

WEIGHT  OF  FLAT  BAR  IRON  PER  LINEAL  FOOT.    (Continued.) 


Breadth, 
in  inches. 

THICKNESS,  IN  FRACTIONS  OF  INCHES. 

a 

4 

H 

1 

8 

tt 

1 

llV 

H 

1ft 

H 

i$ 

li 

1 

2.50 

2.71 

2.92 

3.13 

3.33 

3.54 

3.75 

3.96 

4.17 

4.37 

4.58 

H 

2.81 

3.05 

3.28 

3.52 

3.75 

3.98 

4.22 

4.45 

4.69 

4.92 

5.16 

3 

3.13 

3.39 

3.65 

3.91 

4.17 

4.43 

4.69 

4.95 

5.21 

5.47 

5.73 

18 

3.44 

3.72 

4.01 

4.30 

4.58 

4.87 

5.16 

5.44 

5.73 

6.02 

6.30 

H 

3.75 

4.06 

4.38 

4.69 

5.00 

5.31 

5.63 

5.94 

6.25 

6.56 

6.88 

ijj 

4.06 

4.40 

4.74 

5.08 

5.42 

5.75 

6.09 

6.43 

6.77 

7.11 

7.45 

14 

4.38 

4.74 

5.10 

5.47 

5.83 

6.20 

6.56 

6.93 

7.29 

7.66 

8.02 

i| 

4.69 

5.08 

5.47 

5.86 

6.25 

6.64 

7.03 

7.42 

7.81 

8.20 

8.59 

2 

5.00 

5.42 

5.83 

6.25 

6.67 

7.08 

7.50 

7.92 

8.33 

8.75 

9.17 

21 

5.31 

5.75 

6.20 

6.64 

7.08 

7.52 

7.97 

8.41 

8.85 

9.30 

9.74 

2$ 

5.63 

6.09 

6.56 

7.03 

7.50 

7.97 

8.44 

8.91 

9.38 

9.84 

10.31 

2j 

5.94 

6.43 

6.93 

7.42 

7.92 

8.41 

8.91 

9.40 

9.90 

10.39 

10.89 

25 

6.25 

6.77 

7.29 

7.81 

8.33 

8.85 

9.38 

9.90 

10.42 

10.94 

11.46 

21 

6.56 

7.11 

7.66 

8.20 

8.75 

9.30 

9.84 

10.39 

10.94 

11.48 

12.03 

2J 

6.88 

7.45 

8.02 

8.59 

9.17 

9.74 

10.31 

10.89 

11.46 

12.03 

12.60 

!    2| 

7.19 

7.79 

8.39 

8.98 

9.58 

10.18 

10.78 

11.38 

11.98 

12.58 

13.18 

3 

7.50 

8.13 

8.75 

9.38 

10.00 

10.63 

11.25 

11.38 

12.50 

13.13 

13.75 

3J 

8.13 

8.80 

9.48 

10.16 

10.83 

11.51 

12.19 

12.86 

13.54 

14.22 

14.90 

33 

8.75 

9.48 

10.21 

10.94 

11.67 

12.40 

13.13 

13.85 

14.58 

15.31 

16.04 

3| 

9.38 

10.16 

10.94 

11.72 

12.50 

13.28 

14.06 

14.84 

15.63 

16.41 

17.19 

4 

10.00 

10.83 

11.67 

12.50 

13.33 

14.17 

15.00 

15.83 

16.67 

17.50 

18.33 

4i 

10.63 

11.51 

12.40 

13.28 

14.17 

15.05 

15.94 

16.82 

17.71 

18.59 

19.43 

a 

11.25 

12.19 

13.13 

14.06 

15.00 

15.94 

16.88 

17.81 

18.75 

19.69 

20.63 

43 

11.88 

12.86 

13.85 

14.84 

15.83 

16.82 

17.81 

18.80 

19.79 

20.78 

21.77 

5 

12.50 

13.54 

14.58 

15.63 

16.67 

17.71 

18.75 

19.79 

20.83 

21.88 

22.92 

&4 

13.13 

14.22 

15.31 

16.41 

17.50 

18.59 

19.69 

20.78 

21.88 

22.97 

24.0S 

i 

13.75 

14.90 

16.04 

17.19 

18.33 

19.48 

20.63 

21.77 

22.92 

24.06 

25.21 

51 

14.38 

15.57 

16.77 

17.97 

19.17 

20.36 

21.56 

22.76 

23.96 

25.16 

26.?)5 

6 

15.00 

16.25 

17.50 

18.75 

20.00 

21.25 

22.50 

23.75 

25.00 

26.25 

27.f-0 

61 

15.63 

16.93 

18.23 

19.53 

20.83 

22.14 

23.44 

24.74 

26.04 

27.34 

28.65 

ef 

16.25 

17.60 

18.96 

20.31 

21.67 

23.02 

24.38 

25.73 

27.08 

28.44 

29.79 

6J 

16.88 

18.28 

19.69 

21.09 

22.50 

23.91 

25.31 

26.72 

28.13 

29.53 

30.94 

7 

17.50 

18.96 

20.42 

21.88 

23.33 

24.79 

26.25 

27.71 

29.17 

30.62 

32.08 

71 

18.13 

19.64 

21.15 

22.66 

24.17 

25.68 

27.19 

28.70 

30.21 

31.72 

33.23 

72 

18.75 

20.31 

21.88 

23.44 

25.00 

26.56 

28.13 

29.69 

31.25 

32.81 

34.38 

73 

19.38 

20.99 

22.60 

24.22 

25.83 

27.45 

29.06 

30.68 

32.29 

33.91 

35.52 

8 

20.00 

21.67 

23.33 

25.00 

26.67 

28.33 

30.00 

31.67 

33.33 

35.00 

36.67 

8| 

20.63 

22.34 

24.06 

25.78 

27.50 

29.22 

30.94 

32.66 

34.38 

36.09 

37.81 

si 

21.25 

23.02 

24.79 

26.56 

28.33 

30.10 

31.88 

33.65 

35.42 

37.19 

38.96 

8| 

21.88 

23.70 

25.52 

27.34 

29.17 

30.99 

32.81 

34.64 

36.46 

38.28 

40.10 

9 

22.50 

24.38 

26.25 

28.13 

30.00 

31.88 

33.75 

35.63 

37.50 

39.38 

41.25 

9$ 

23.13 

25.05 

26.98 

28.91 

30.83 

32.76 

34.69 

36.61 

38.54 

40.47 

42.40 

9^ 

23.75 

25.73 

27.71 

29.69 

31.67 

33.65 

35.63 

37.60 

39.58 

41.56 

43.54 

of 

24.38 

26.41 

28.44 

30.47 

32.50 

34.53 

36.56 

38.59 

40.63 

42.66 

44.69 

10 

25.00 

27.08 

29.17 

31.25 

33.33 

35.42 

37.50 

39.58 

41.67 

43.75 

45.83 

10* 

25.62 

27.76 

29.90 

32.03 

34.17 

36.30 

38.44 

40.57 

42.71 

44.84 

46.98 

lof 

26.25 

28.44 

30.  &3 

32.81 

35.00 

37.19 

39.38 

41.56 

43.75 

45.94 

48.13 

iof 

26.88 

29.11 

31.35 

33.59 

35.83 

38.07 

40.31 

42.55 

44.79 

47.03 

49.27 

11 

27.50 

29.79 

32.08 

34.38 

36.67 

38.96 

41.25 

43.54 

45.83 

48.13 

50.42 

11J 

28.13 

30.47 

32.81 

35.16 

37.50 

39.84 

42.19 

44.53 

46.88 

49.22 

51.56 

11£ 

28.75 

31.15 

33.54 

35.94 

38.33 

40.73 

43.13 

45.52 

47.92 

50.31 

52.71 

111 

29.38 

31.82 

34.27 

36.72 

39.17 

41.61 

44.06 

46.51 

48.96 

51.41 

53.85 

12 

30.00 

32.50 

35.00 

37.50 

40.00 

42.50 

45.00 

47.50 

50.00 

52.50 

55.00 

108 


METALS. — WROUGHT   IRON   AND   STEEL. 


TABLE  13. 
WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL.— WEIGHT  OF  PLATES.  ROUND 

AND   SQUARE   BARS. 


Thickness  or 

Wt. 

Wt.  of 

Thickness 

Wt.  of  wt:  of 

Diam. 

Wt.  of 
Sq.aFt. 

of  a 
Square 
Bar  1ft 
long. 

a 
Round 
Bar  1  ft 
long. 

Wt.  of 
Balls. 

or  Diam. 

. 

of  a 
ft 

aSq. 
Bar 
1ft. 
long. 

i        a 
Round 
Bar 
1ft. 

long. 

Wt.-of 
Balls. 

In. 

Dec. 
of  a 

In. 

Dec. 
of  a 

Foot. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Foot. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

1/3', 

.0026 

1  .263 

.0033 

.0026 

gig 

.2604 

126.3 

33.86 

25.83 

4.484 

1/16 

.0053 

2.536 

.0132 

.0104 

M 

2708 

131.4 

35.57 

27.94 

5.045 

3/3-1 

.0078 

3.789 

.0296 

.0233 

.0001 

%  .3813 

136.4 

38.37 

30.13 

5.649 

H   i-0104 

5.053 

.0526 

.0414 

.0003 

%  .2917 

141.5 

41.26 

32.41 

6.301 

5/32 

.0130 

6.315 

.0823 

.0646 

.0005 

%  .3031 

146.5 

44.26 

34.76 

7.000 

3/16 

.0156 

7.578 

.1184 

.0930 

.0009 

%  .3135 

151.6 

47.37 

37.20 

7.750 

7/32 

.0133 

8.84! 

.1612 

.1266 

.0015 

% 

.3239 

156.6 

50.57 

39.72 

8.550 

*4 

.0308 

10.10 

.2105 

.1653 

.0023 

4 

.3333 

161.7 

53.89 

42.33 

9.405 

MS 

.03:34 

11.37        .2665 

.2093 

.0033 

^ 

.3438 

166.7 

57.31 

45.01 

10.32 

5/16 

.0360 

12.63 

.3290 

.2583 

.0045 

% 

.3543 

171.8 

60.84 

47.78 

11.28 

n/32 

.0387 

13.89 

.3980 

.3126 

.0000 

% 

.3646 

176.8 

64.47 

50.63 

12.31 

% 

.0313 

15.16 

.4736 

.3720 

.0078 

.3750 

181.9 

68.20 

53.57 

13.39 

iLyfcj 

.0339 

16.42 

.5558 

.4365 

.0098 

*g  1.3854 

180.9 

72.05 

56.59    14.54 

7/10 

.0365 

17.68 

.6446 

.5063 

.01231 

%  1.3958 

192.0 

76.99 

59.69    15.75 

16/82 

.0391 

18.95 

.7400 

.5813 

.0151! 

%!.4063 

197.0 

80.05 

62.87J   17.03 

9/16 

.0417 
0469! 

20.31 
22.73 

.8420 
1.066 

.6613 
.8370 

.0184! 
.0263 

5 
& 

.4167 
.4271 

303.1 
307.1 

84.20 
88.47 

66.13    18.37 
69.48    19.78 

% 

.0531! 

25.  *6 

1.316 

1.033 

.0359! 

%  .4375 

312.2 

92.83    72.91    21.26 

11/16 

.0573! 

27.79 

1.593 

1.250 

.0478 

%  .4479 

°17  ° 

97  31    76.43    22.82 

% 

.0635 

30.31 

1.895 

1.488 

.0620 

Y*,  .4583 

223!  8 

101.9 

80.02    24.45 

13/16 

.0677 

32.84 

3,  .223 

1.746 

.0788 

%  .4688 

227.3 

U.6.6 

83.70    26.16 

% 

.0739 

35.37 

2.579 

2.02.-) 

.0985 

%  1.4792 

232.4 

111.4 

87.46    27.94 

15/16  .0781  [ 

37.89 

2.960 

2.325 

.1311 

%i.4S96 

237.5 

116.3 

91.31    29.80 

1 

.0833 

40.42 

3.36S 

2.645 

.1470 

6 

.5000 

343.5 

121.3 

95.23    31.74 

1/16  .0885 

43.94 

3.803 

2.986 

.1763 

Y±  .5208 

253.6 

131.6 

103.3      35.88 

X 

.093S 

45.47 

4.263 

3.348 

.2093 

Jft  .5417 

263.7 

142.3 

111.8  !  40.36 

3/16  .0990 

48.00 

4.750 

3.730 

.2461! 

%  .5625 

373.8 

153.5 

120.5  i  45.19 

H      .1043 

50.52 

5.263 

4.133 

.2870 

7 

.5833282.9 

165.0 

129.6      50.40 

5/16  .1094 

53.05 

5.803 

4.557 

.3323 

.6042393.0 

177.0 

139.0      56.00 

%     M146 

55.57 

6.368 

5.001 

.3^20 

^ 

.6350303.1 

189.5 

148.8  ;  62.00 

7/16  .1198 

58.10 

6.960 

5.466 

.4365 

& 

.6458313.2 

202.3 

158.9      68.40 

« 

.1350 

60.63 

7.578 

5.952 

.4960 

8 

.6667 

323.3 

215.6 

169.3      75.24 

9/16 

.1303 

63.15 

8.223 

6.458 

.5606 

J4 

.6875 

333.4 

229.3 

180.1 

82.52 

% 

.  1354 

65.68 

8.893 

6.985 

.6306 

.7083 

343.5 

343.4 

191.1      90.25 

11/16 

.1406; 

68.30 

9.591 

7.5:33 

.7062 

?!  1.7292 

353.6 

347.9 

202.5      98.45 

% 

.1458 

70.73 

10.31 

8.101 

.7876 

9 

.7500 

363.8 

272.8 

214.3    107.1 

13/16 

.1510 

73.36 

11.07 

8.690 

.8750 

y±  .7708 

373.9 

288.2 

226.3    H6.3 

H 

.1563 

75.78 

11.84 

9.300 

.9688 

J|  ;7917 

384.0 

304.0 

238.7  :i26.0 

iyi6 

.1615 

78.31 

12.64 

9.930 

.069 

%!  .8125 

394.1 

320.2 

251.5    136.2 

2 

.1667 

80.83 

13.47 

10.58 

.176 

10 

.8333 

404.2 

336.8 

264.5    146.9 

^ 

.1771 

85.89 

15.21 

11.95 

.410 

.8542 

414.3 

353.9 

277.9    158.2 

M 

.1875 

90.94 

17.05 

13.39 

.674 

i2 

.8750 

424.4 

371.3 

291.6    170.1 

% 

.1979 

95.99 

19.00 

14.92 

.969 

%  .8958 

434.5 

389.2 

305.7    183.6 

Jis 

.3083  ] 

01.0 

31.05 

16.53 

2.296 

1 

.9167 

444.6 

407.5 

320.1    195.6 

% 

.2188 

06.1 

23.21 

18.23 

'.658 

.9375 

454.7 

426.3 

'334.8    209.2 

% 

.2292111.2 

35.47 

20.01 

.056 

^  .9583 

464.8 

445.4 

349.8    223.5 

% 

.2396  ] 

16.2 

27.84 

31.87 

.492 

%  .9792474.9 

65.0    365.2    238.4 

3            .2500131.3     130.31 

33  81        .968  J 

2     ilft  '485.0 

485.0  1380.9    253.9 

Wrought  iron  is  here  taken  at  485  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.  Very  pure  soft  wrought 
iron  weighs  from  488  to  492  Ihs.  per  cu.  ft.  Light  weight  indicates  impurities 
and  weakness.  Steel  weighs  about  490  Ibs.  per  ou.  ft.;  therefore  FOR  STEEL, 

AN    ADDITION    MOST    BE   MADE   TO   THE   TABULAR    AMOUNTS    OF    ABOUT    1    LB.   IN 
100  LBS. 

At  485  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.  a  cubic  inch  weighs  .28067  lb.;  a  Ib.  contains  3.5629 
cu.  in.,  and  a  ton,  4.6186  cu.  ft.;  and  this  is  about  the  average  of  hammered 
iron.  The  usual  assumption  is  480  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  which  is  nearer  the  aver- 
age of  ordinary  rolled  iron.  At  480  Ibs.  a  cubic  inch  weighs  .2778  of  a  lb.;  a 
lb.  contains  3.6  cu.  in.;  a  ton  4.6667  cu.  ft.;  a  rod  of  1  sq.  in.  area  weighs  10 
Ibs.  per  yard,  or  3^j  Ibs.  per  foot,  exactly. 


METALS. — STEEL.  109 

Steel. 

Steel  has  a  chemical  composition  intermediate  between  cast 
iron  and  wrought  iron.  It  is  produced  either  by  adding  carbon  to 
wrought  iron,  or  by  partly  removing  carbon  from  pig  iron. 

Steel  is  generally  distinguished  from  both  cast  and  wrought 
iron  by  the  property  of  tempering  which  it  possesses  ;  that  is  to 
say,  it  can  be  hardened  by  sudden  cooling  from  a  high  tempera- 
ture, and  its  degree  of  hardness  or  softness  can  be  regulated  with 
precision  by  suitably  fixing  the  temperature.  But  with  the  soft 
steels  now  produced  this  property  is  no  longer  a  distinguishing 
sign,  as  many  of  them  will  uot^take  a  temper. 

Steel  may  be  distinguished  from  wrought  iron  by  placing  a 
drop  of  nitric  acid  upon  it.  If  a  dark-gray  stain  is  produced  it  is 
steel. 

VARIETIES  OF  STEEL. 

Steel  is  made  by  many  processes,  of  which  the  following  are 
the  most  important : 

BLISTER  STEEL  is  made  by  a  process  called  cementation,  in 
which  bars  of  the  purest  wrought  iron  are  embedded  in  layers  of 
charcoal,  and  subjected  for  several  days  to  a  high  temperature. 
Each  bar  absorbs  carbon,  and  its  surface  becomes  converted  into 
steel,  while  the  interior  is  in  a  condition  intermediate  between  steel 
and  iron.  The  steel  receives  its  name  from  blisters  which  appear 
upon  the  surface  :  when  these  are  small  in  size  and  are  regularly 
distributed,  the  steel  is  of  good  quality  ;  when  they  are  large  and 
irregularly  distributed,  it  indicates  a  want  of  homogeneity  in  the 
iron  used. 

Blister  steel  cannot  be  used  for  ordinary  forging,  nor  for  cutting 
tools.  It  is  used  for  facing  hammers  and  for  making  other  varie- 
ties of  steel. 

SHEAR  STEEL  is  made  by  breaking  bars  of  blister  steel  into 
short  lengths,  making  them  into  bundles,  sprinkling  with  borax 
and  sand,  and  heating  them  to  a  welding  heat,  then  rolling  or 
hammering  them  until  a  near  approach  to  uniformity  of  compo- 
sition and  texture  lias  been  obtained.  The  product  is  termed  single- 
shear  steel,  and  if  repeated  the  product  is  termed  double-shear 
steel.  It  is  used  for  various  tools  and  cutting  implements. 

PUDDLED  STEEL  is  produced  by  stopping  the  puddling  process 
in  the  manufacture  of  wrought  iron  before  all  the  carbon  has 
been  removed.  It  is  of  inferior  quality,  used  for  making  plates 
for  ship-building. 


110  METALS.— STEEL. 

A  similar  product  resulting  from  imperfect  refining  is  known 
as  Natural  Steel  or  German  Steel. 

BESSEMER  PHOCESS. — In  this  process  pig  iron  of  a  dark-gray 
color,  containing  a  large  proportion  of  carbon,  with  but  a  small 
percentage  of  silicon  and  manganese  and  practically  no  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  is  melted  in  a  cupola,  or  run  direct  from  the 
blast-furnace  into  a  "converter,"  which  is  a  pear-shaped  vessel 
lined  with  fire-brick,  while  in  the  converter  a  strong  blast  of  air 
is"  forced  through  the  molten  metal  for  about  twenty  minutes. 
The  color  of  the  flame  indicates  to  the  experienced  eye  when  all 
the  carbon  is  removed,  or  more  accurately  determined  by  means 
of  a  spectroscope.  Then  from  54o  10  per  cent  of  spiegeleisen  is 
added.  The  molten  metal  is  again  agitated  by  the  air-blast,  and 
when  the  two  metals  are  thoroughly  incorporated  the  steel  is  run 
into  ladles  and  thence  into  the  moulds.  The  ingots  thus  obtained 
are  not  as  compact  as  required,  but  are  made  so  by  hammering. 
They  are  then  rolled  into  the  desired  sizes  and  shapes  for  use. 

THE  BASIC  PROCESS  is  similar  to  the  preceding.  The  con- 
verters are  lined  with  magnesian  limestone  or  some  refractory 
substance  which  contains  practically  no  silica.  In  this  process 
the  silicon,  carbon,  and  phosphorus  are  removed. 

SIEMENS  on  OPEN-HEARTH  PROCESS. — In  this  process  pig 
iron  and  ore  are  fused  on  the  open  hearth  of  a  regenerative  gas 
furnace.  The  pig  iron  is  first  melted  and  raised  to  a  temperature 
which  will  melt  steel;  rich  and  pure  ore  and  limestone  are  added 
gradually.  The  chemical  reactions  convert  the  silicon  into  silicic 
acid,  which  forms  a  fusible  slag  with  the  lime,  and  the  carbon 
passes  off  as  carbonic  acid.  A  modification  of  this  process  con- 
sists in  treating  the  iron  ore  in  a  rotary  furnace  with  carbonaceous 
matter,  by  which  both  sulphur  and  phosphorus  are  removed. 

SIEMENS-MARTIN  PROCESS. — In  this  process  a  bath  of  highly 
heated  pig  iron  is  prepared  in  a  furnace,  and  three  or  four  times 
its  weight  of  scrap-iron  and  steel  are  added  and  dissolved  in  the  bath 
with  enough  ore  to  reduce  the  carbon  to  about  0.1  per  cent.  The 
furnace  then  contains  a  fluid  malleable  iron,  to  which  is  added 
silicious  iron,  spiegeleisen,  or  ferro-manganese  in  such  proportions 
as  are  necessary  to  produce  a  steel  of  the  requisite  hardness. 

The  open-hearth  processes  require  from  7  to  10  hours  for  one 
heat,  while  the  Bessemer  blow  can  be  made  in  about  half  an 
hour. 

The  terms  acid  and  basic  process  refer  to  the  character  of  the 
lining  of  the  converter  or  hearth  of  the  furnace— acid  signifying 


METALS. — STEEL.  Ill 

that  a  silicious  material,  as  sandstone  or  quartz,  is  used  for  the 
lining,  and  basic  that  lime  and  magnesia  as  existing  in  calcined 
dolomite  are  used.  There  are  diverse  opinions  as  to  the  relative 
values  of  steel  made  by  the  acid  and  basic  processes.  In  the  acid 
open-hearth  process  the  stock  used  is  usually  very  low  in  phos- 
phorus at  the  start. 

The  terms  "  Bessemer  "  and  "  open-hearth  "  steels  have  refer- 
ence to  methods  and  processes,  and  not  to  qualities. 

CAST  STEEL  is  produced  by  various  processes,  either  by  melt- 
ing fragments  of  steel  produced  by  any  of  the  other  processes, 
or  by  melting  wrought  iron  made  from  the  purer  magnetic  ores 
with  carbon,  spiegeleisen,  oxide  of  manganese,  etc. 

Cast  steel  is  strong  and  hard,  can  be  forged  but  not  welded 
(made  by  Heath's  process  it  is  capable  of  being  welded  to  other 
portions  of  the  same  material  or  to  wrought  iron).  If  raised  be- 
yond a  red  heat  it  becomes  brittle. 

Blow-holes  may  be  diminished  if  not  entirely  prevented  by  the 
addition  of  manganese  and  silicon  in  sufficient  quantities,  but 
both  of  these  cause  brittleness. 


Classification  of  Steel. 

For  convenient  distinguishing  terms,  it  is  customary  to  classify 
steel  in  three  grades,  viz.,  "mild  or  soft,"  ''medium,"  and 
"  hard  "  ;  and  although  the  different  grades  blend  into  each  other 
so  that  no  line  of  distinction  exists,  in  a  general  sense  the  grades 
below  0.15  per  cent  carbon  are  considered  as  "soft,"  from  0.15 
to  0.30  per  cent  carbon  as  "medium,"  and  above  0.30  per  cent  of 
carbon  as  "  hard."  Each  grade  has  its  own  advantages  for  the 
particular  purpose  to  which  it  is  adapted. 

The  soft  steel  is  well  adapted  for  boiler-plate  and  similar 
purposes,  where  its  high  ductility  is  advantageous.  The  medium 
grades  are  used  for  general  structural  purposes,  while  the  hard 
grades  are  especially  adapted  for  axles  and  shafts,  and  any  ser- 
vice where  good  wearing  surfaces  are  desired.  Plate  steel  is 
usually  graded  as  follows  : 

TANK  STEEL  (the  cheapest).— Hard  and  brittle;  also  steel  plates 
rejected  from  the  higher  grades. 

SHELL  STEEL. — Soft  steel,  usually  made  by  the  open-hearth 
process,  and  used  for  boilers,  stand-pipes,  etc. 

FLANGE  STEEL.— A  superior  quality  of  soft  steel. 


112  METALS. — STEEL. 

ORDINARY  FIRE-BOX  STEEL  and  LOCOMOTIVE  FIRE-BOX 
STEEL  are  high  grades  of  soft  steel  possessing  special  properties 
which  fit  them  for  the  use  indicated  by  their  trade  designation. 

Properties  of  Steel. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.— Average  7.854.  The  specific  gravity  of 
steel  is  influenced  not  only  by  its  chemical  constituents,  but  by 
the  heat  to  which  it  is  subjected,  and  also  according  to  the  de- 
gree of  condensation  imparted  by  the  process  of  rolling  or  forg- 
ing. The  average  given  above  has  been  adopted  as  the  result  of 
a  number  of  careful  experiments. 

WEIGHT  PER  CUBIC  FOOT,  490  LBS.— This  figure  is  taken  for 
convenience.  The  weight  is  affected  by  the  same  causes  stated 
under  specific  gravity,  and  varies  from  489.6  to  489.77.  A 
weight  extensively  used  is  489.6  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  or  about  2 
per  cent  more  than  wrought  iron. 

MELTING-POINT.— Soft  steel,  2372°  to  2542°  F.;  hard  steel, 
2570°  F.;  mild  steel,  2687°  F. 

SPECIFIC  HEAT,  .1165. 

CONDUCTIVITY  OF  HEAT,  11.6. 

CONDUCTIVITY  OF  ELECTRICITY,  12  (silver  being  100). 

EXPANSION  AND  CONTRACTION. — Expansion  per  degree  Fahr. 
per  unit  of  length  =  0000064,  or  £  inch  in  1575  ft.  For  a  varia- 
tion in  temperature  of  100  degrees  F.  the  change  in  length  will 
be  about  one  inch  in  125  feet. 

EXTENSION  is  about  .1  inch  in  111  feet  for  every  ton  per 
square  inch  of  load. 

STRENGTH  OF  STEEL. — The  strength  of  steel  depends  largely 
on  the  amount  of  the  constituent  elements  that  are  associated  with 
the  iron,  and  each  of  which  affects  more  or  less  the  hardness  and 
strengtli  of  the  metal. 

The  principal  of  these  are  carbon,  manganese,  silicon,  phos- 
phorus, und  sulphur.  The  first  named  is  purposely  retained  as 
useful  or  necessary;  the  others  are  rejected,  as  far  as  practicable, 
as  objectionable  when  in  excess  of  certain  minute  proportions. 

The  tensile  strength  ranges  from  25,000  to  180,000  Ibs  per  square 
inch  ;  it  is  increased  by  reheating  and  rolling  up  to  the  second 
operation,  but  decreases  after  that. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  percentage  of  carbon  in  steel  del  ermines 
its  hardness  and  strength.  The  higher  the  carbon  the  hnidorthe 
steel,  the  higher  the  tenacity,  and  the  lower  the  ductility  will  be. 


METALS. — STEEL. 


113 


The  following  table  exhibits  the  average  physical  properties  of 
good  open -hearth  steel: 

TABLE  14. 

PHYSICAL    PROPERTIES    OF    OPEN  HEARTH    BASIC  STEEL. 


Grade. 

Percentage 
of 
Carbon. 

Tensile  Strength. 
Lbs.  per  Square  Inch. 

Ductility. 

Ultimate 
Strength. 

Elastic 
Limit. 

Elongation 
in  8  Inches. 

Reduction 
of  Frac- 
tured Area. 

Soft  

.08 

54,000 

32,500 

per  ceut. 
32 

per  cent. 
60 

.09 

54,800 

33,000 

31 

58 

.10 

55,700 

33,500 

31 

57 

.11 

56,  500 

34,000 

30 

56 

.12 

57,400 

34,500 

30 

55 

.13 

58,200 

35,000 

29 

54 

14 

59.100 

35,500 

29 

53 

Medium    ... 

.15 

60,000 

36,000 

28 

52 

.... 

.16 

60,800 

36,500 

28 

51 

.17 

61,600 

37,000 

27 

50 

.18 

62,500 

37,500 

27 

49 

.19 

63,300 

38,000 

26 

48 

.... 

.20 

64,200 

38,500 

26 

47 

.... 

.21 

65,000 

39,000 

25 

46 

.22 

65,800 

39,500 

25 

45 

.23 

66,600 

40,000 

24 

44 

.24 

67,400 

40,500 

24 

43 

.25 

68,200 

41,000 

23 

42 

.30 

77,000 

46,000 

20 

35 

Hard..   '.'."! 

.35 

82,000 

49,000 

18 

30 

.40 

87,000 

52,000 

16 

25 

WORKING  STRENGTH  in  tension  members  is  usually  taken  at 
16,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  for  angles  and  channels,  and  at  18,000 
Ibs.  for  round  or  flat  bars.  For  columns  the  compression  strain 
is  taken  at  from  12,000  to  14,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  section 
when  the  length  is  less  than  90  radii. 

TENACITY  AT  HIGH  TEMPERATURES. — The  strength  of  steel 
diminishes  as  the  temperature  increases  from  0°  until  a  minimum 
is  reached  between  200°  and  300°  F  ,  the  total  decrease  being  about 
4000  Ibs  per  square  inch  in  the  softer  steels,  and  from  6000  to  8000 
Ibs.  in  steels  of  over  80,000  Ibs.  tensile  strength.  From  this  mini- 
mum point  the  strength  increases  up  to  a  temperature  of  400°  to 


114  METALS.— STEEL. 

600°  F.,  the  maximum  being  reached  earlier  iu  the  harder  steel's, 
the  increase  amounting  to  from  10,000  to  20,000  Ibs.  per  square 
inch  above  the  minimum  strength  at  from  200°  to  300°.  From 
this  maximum  the  strength  of  all  steel  decreases  steadily  at  a 
rate  approximating  10,000  Ibs.  decrease  per  100°  increase  of  tem- 
perature. A  strength  of  20,000  Ibs.  per  square  inch  is  still  shown 
by  steel  containing  0.10  carbon  at  about  1000°  F.,  and  by  steel  con- 
taining 0.60  to  1.00  carbon  at  about  1600°  F. 

STRENGTH  OF  WELDS. — 

Strength  of  solid  bar 54.226  to  64.580  Ibs.  per  square  inch 

"welded  bar 28.553  to  46.019  "      " 

Mild  steel  has  superior  welding  property  as  compared  to  hard 
steel,  and  will  endure  higher  heat  without  injury. 

HARDENING. — Steel  containing  about  .40$  carbon  will  usually 
harden  sufficiently  to  cut  soft  iron  and  maintain  an  edge. 

Steel  Alloys. 

MANGANESE,  NICKEL,  CHROME,  AND  TUNGSTEN  STEELS  are 
made  by  adding  a  small  percentage  of  the  metals  named  to  the 
molten  steel,  the  result  in  each  case  being  a  steel  of  great  hard- 
ness and  tenacity. 

Manganese  steel  is  very  free  from  blow-holes ;  it  welds  with 
great  difficulty;  its  toughness  is  increased  by  quenching  from 
a  yellow  heat;  its  electric  resistance  is  enormous,  and  very 
constant  with  changing  temperature.  It  is  low  in  thermal 
conductivity.  Its  great  hardness  cannot  be  materially  less- 
ened by  annealing.  At  a  yellow  heat  it  may  be  forged  read- 
ily, but  at  a  bright  red  heat  it  crumbles  under  the  hammer.  But 
it  offers  great  resistance  to  deformation,  i.e.,  it  is  harder  when  hot 
than  carbon  steel. 

Nickel  steel  possesses  great  tensile  strength  and  ductility,  high 
elastic  limit  and  homogeneity,  great  resistance  to  cracking,  a  prop- 
erty to  which  the  name  non-fissibility  has  been  given.  It  forges 
readily,  whether  it  contains  much  or  little  nickel.  If  the  propor- 
tion of  nickel  rises  above  5%,  cold  working  becomes  difficult. 

The  tensile  strength  of  forged  bars  containing  §\%  nickel  ranges 
from  105,300  to  276,800  Ibs.  persq.  in.;  of  rolled  bars,  from 86,000 
to  143,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  The  strength  of  rolled  bars  containing 
27$  nickel  ranges  from  102,000  to  118,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  With 
27$  of  nickel  the  steel  is  practically  non-corrodible  and  non-mag- 
netic. 


METALS.  — STEEL.  115 

CHROME  AND  TUNGSTEN  STEEL  are  made  by  adding  a  small 
percentage  of  chromium  or  tungsten  to  steel,  the  result  pro- 
ducing a  steel  of  great  hardness  and  tenacity. 

Alloys  of  steel  with  silver,  platinum,  aluminum,  etc.,  are  made 
with  the  view  of  improving  the  fabrication  of  the  finer  grades  of 
surgicul  and  other  instruments. 

COMPRESSED  STEEL. — In  the  Whitworth  process  steel  is  sub- 
jected to  compression  while  fluid  under  a  pressure  of  from  4  to 
12  tons  per  square  inch.  The  pressure  is  applied  and  increased 
gradually  Within  half  an  hour  or  less  after  the  application  of 
the  pressure  the  column  of  fluid  steel  is  shortened  \\  inches  per 
foot,  or  about  one  eighth  of  its  length;  the  pressure  is  kept  on 
for  several  hours,  the  result  being  that  the  metal  is  compressed 
into  a  perfectly  solid  and  homogeneous  mass,  free  from  blow- 
holes. 

Terms  used  in  Steel-working-. 

BLED  INGOTS.— Ingots  from  the  centre  of  which  molten  steel 
has  escaped,  leaving  a  cavity. 

BURNED  STEEL.— Steel  that  has  been  partly  reduced  to  oxide 
by  overheating. 

CHECK.— A  small  rupture  caused  by  water.  It  may  run  in 
any  direction.  It  is  usually  invisible  until  the  steel  is  ruptured. 

CHEMICAL  NUMERATION. — The  chemical  quantities  of  carbon, 
etc.,  are  expressed  in  hundredths  of  one  per  cent.  In  the  mill 
the  steel  is  spoken  of  as  20  or  50  carbon,  or  8  phosphorus,  or  10, 
15,  or  25  silicon,  etc.,  meaning  that  the  steel  contains  twenty 
hundredths  of  one  per  cent  of  carbon,  etc. 

DEAD  MELTING  (synonym,  killing)  means  melting  steel  in  the 
crucible  or  open  hearth  until  It  ceases  to  boil  or  evolve  gases.  It 
is  then  dead, — it  lies  quiet  in  the  furnace, — and,  killed  properly, 
it  will  set  in  the  moulds  without  rising  or  boiling. 

GRADE  applies  to  quality — as  crucible,  Bessemer,  or  open- 
hearth  grade;  or,  in  the  crucible,  common  spring,  tool,  special 
tool,  machinery,  etc.,  etc.  It  does  not  indicate  temper  or  relative 
hardness. 

OVERBLOWN. — Steel  that  has  been  blown  in  a  Bessemer  con- 
verter after  the  carbon  is  all  burned ;  then  there  is  nothing  but 
steel  to  burn,  and  the  result  is  bad. 

OVERHEATED.— Steel  that  has  been  heated  too  hot;  its  fiery 
fracture  exposes  it.  The  grain  of  overheated  steel  may  be  re- 


116  METALS. STEEL. 

stored,  but  restored  steel  is  never  as  reliable  as  steel  that  has  not 
been  overheated.  Overheating  is  a  disintegrating  operation. 

OVEJIMELTED. — Steel  that  has  been  kept  too  long  in  fusion. 
The  finest  material  may  be  ruined  by  being  kept  in  the  furnace 
any  considerable  time  after  it  has  been  killed. 

POINT.— One  hundredth  of  one  per  cent  of  any  element,  as  10 
points  of  carbon,  or  10  carbon,  etc. 

RECALESCENCE. — The  name  given  to  the  phenomenon  which 
occurs  when  a  piece  of  steel  is  heated  above  medium  orange  and 
allowed  to  cool  slowly. 

RESTORING. — The  operation  of  reheating  overheated  steel  and 
allowing  it  to  cool  slowly,  by  which  operation  its  grain  becomes 
fine  and  its  fiery  lustre  disappears. 

SHORT  (Cold,  Red,  Hot).— Cold-short  steel  is  weak  and  brittle 
when  cold. 

Red-short  steel  is  brittle  at  dark-orange  or  medium-orange  heat 
or  at  the  common  cherry-red.  It  may  forge  well  at  a  lemon 
heat,  and  be  reasonably  tough  when  cold. 

Hot-short  steel  is  brittle  and  friable  above  a  medium-orange 
color.  It  may  forge  well  from  medium  orange  down  to  black 
heat. 

TEMPER. — Used  by  the  steel-maker,  it  means  the  quantity  of 
carbon  present.  It  is  low  temper,  medium,  or  high,  or  number 
so  and  so  by  his  shop  numbers. 

Used  by  the  steel  user  or  the  temperer,  it  means  the  color  to 
which  hardened  steel  is  drawn — straw,  brown,  pigeon-wing, 
blue,  etc.,  etc. 

Or,  it  is  the  steel-maker's  measure  of  initial  hardness,  and  it  is 
the  steel-user's  measure  of  final  hardness. 

WATER-CRACK. — A  crack  caused  in  hardening  ;  it  may  run  in 
any  direction  governed  by  lines  of  stress  in  the  mass.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  a  check  by  being  larger,  and  usually  plainly 
visible. 

WILD  STEEL. — Steel  in  fusion  that  boils  violently,  and  acts  in 
the  moulds  as  lively  soda-water  or  beer  does  when  poured  into 


METALS.— STEEL.  117 


Mill  Inspection  of  Steel. 

Steel  Ingots  are  examined  to  discover  the  following  defects : 

BLOW-HOLES  or  cavities  caused  by  the  escape  of  gas  evolved 
during  cooling  and  solidification.  These  under  some  conditions  of 
melting  and  composition  occur  throughout  the  mass,  but  espe- 
cially near  the  surface  and  toward  the  upper  part  of  the  ingot. 

PIPE. — A  cavity  caused  by  the  outside  of  the  ingot  cooling  more 
rapidly  than  the  inside.  This  defect  usually  concentrates  within 
conical  lines  in  about  the  upper  third  of  the  ingot,  but  may  occur 
anywhere  by  bad  teeming. 

EXTERNAL  CRACKS  caused  by  the  rapid  shrinkage  of  the  out- 
side or  skin  of  the  ingot,  and  at  times  due  to  hydrostatic  pressure 
of  the  internal  and  fluid  portion. 

INTERNAL  CRACKS  due  to  interior  strains  set  up  by  too  rapid 
cooling,  and  occurring  most  frequently  in  ingots  of  hard  steel. 

SEGREGATION. — The  separating  and  gathering  together  by 
themselves  during  cooling  of  certain  chemical  constituents — nota- 
bly phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  carbon,  and  to  a  less  degree  silicon 
and  manganese.  The  segregation  is  generally  toward  the  central 
and  upper  portion  of  the  ingot,  where  cooling  and  solidification  of 
the  metal  last  takes  place.  The  selection  of  the  most  highly  segre- 
gated spots  for  analysis  will  give  a  knowledge  of  the  worst  possi- 
ble condition  of  the  metal.  In  order  to  avoid  extreme  segregation 
no  ingot  should  be  cast  of  a  greater  weight  than  15,000  pounds. 

Ingots  should  be  bottom  cast,  and  should  not  be  disturbed  or 
moved  from  the  position  in  which  they  are  cast  until  sufficiently 
solidified  to  preclude  "  bleeding."  Bled  ingots  and  ingots  not 
bottom  cast  should  be  rejected. 

The  inspector  of  ingots  should  note  especially  casts  that  have 
been  too  violently  or  quickly  melted  or  burnt,  and  report  the 
same,  so  that  steel  rolled  therefrom  may  be  subjected  to  special 
examination. 

APPEARANCE  OF  GOOD  STEEL. — The  appearance  of  the  fresh 
fracture  of  an  iugot  will  give  an  indication  of  the  quality  of  the 
steel.  If  the  color  be  a  bluish  gray,  with  uniform  grain,  slight 
lustre,  and  silky  appearance,  it  is  an  indication  of  good  steel,  and 
the  steel-worker  will  say  that  it  is  "  sappy" — meaning  that  it  is 
just  right.  If  the  fracture  be  dull  and  sandy  looking,  without 
lustre  or  sheen,  and  without  the  bluish  cast  or  having  more  of 
a  shade  of  yellowish  sandstone,  it  is  an  indication  of  impurity  and 


118  METALS. — STEEL. 

weakness,  and  the  steel-worker  will  say  it  is  "dry."  If  the 
fracture  be  granular,  with  bright  flashing  lustre,  the  steel-worker 
will  say  it  is  "fiery."  This  condition  is  an  evidence  of  high  heat. 
If  the  grain  be  fairly  fine  and  of  a  bluish  cast,  it  is  not  neces- 
sarily bad.  In  mild  steel,  in  high  steel,  or  in  tool  steel  it  should 
not  be  tolerated.  If  the  grain  be  large  and  of  a  brassy  cast,  it  is 
an  evidence  of  bad  condition.  The  grain  should  be  restored  be- 
fore the  steel  is  used.  In  hardened  steel  it  is  always  bnd,  except 
in  dies  to  be  used  under  the  impact  of  the  drop-hammer;  in  this 
case  steel  must  be  so  hard  as  to  be  slightly  fiery. 

The  quality  of  the  steel  from  each  heat  or  blow  is  ascertained 
by  testing  specimens  obtained  by  casting  small  billets  about  4  in. 
square  and  rolling  them  down  into  a  f-in.  round. 

These  tests  will  usually  run  a  little  below  the  final  finished 
material  tests  in  elastic  limit  and  ultimate  strength,  and  a  little 
above  them  in  elongation  and  reduction.  Allowance  should  be 
made  for  this  variation  in  the  acceptance  of  the  heat. 

Tbe  amount  of  phosphorus,  etc.,  is  determined  from  the 
same  billets  before  the  ingots  are  rolled,  or  from  drillings  taken 
directly  from  one  of  the  ingots. 

The  samples  for  chemical  analysis  should  be  sent  to  the  labora- 
tory without  unnecessary  delay. 

MARKING  INGOTS. — Each  ingot  should  be  marked  plainly  with 
its  melt  number,  and  this  melt  number  must  be  stamped  or 
painted  on  all  blooms,  billets,  or  slabs  made  from  such  ingots,  in 
order  to  identify  the  material  through  its  various  processes  of 
manufacture,  and  the  melt  number,  together  with  the  furnace- 
heat  number,  must  be  plainly  marked  on  each  piece  of  finished 
material. 

MELT  RECORDS. — A  complete  record  of  each  melt  should  be 
kept,  showing  character  of  the  raw  materials,  the  number,  size, 
and  weight  of  each  ingot  cast,  the  number  of  ingots  rejected, 
and  the  reasons  therefor. 

Rolled  Steel.  — When  the  rolling  is  made  the  inspector 
should  be  on  hand  to  see  that  the  bars  are  of  the  required  size 
and  free  from  defects;  at  the  same  time  he  should  select  the  test- 
pieces. 

The  defects  causing  rejection  of  rolled  steel  are  as  follows  : 

BLOW-HOLES  and  PIPES  caused  by  the  non-removal  of  these 
defects  from  the  ingot. 

STARS. — Brilliant  spots  in  mid-section  showing  that  the  pipe 
was  not  all  cut  away  from  the  ingot. 


METALS. — STEEL.  119 

PITS.— Caused  by  burning;  they  occur  in  the  form  of  small 
cup-like  holes,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with  cinder  spots. 

CINDER  SPOTS  are  due  to  pieces  of  cinder  or  fire-brick  being 
rolled  into  the  metal. 

CRACKS.  —Due  to  rolled-out  blow-holes.  If  a  bar,  plate,  or 
beam  shows  cracks  on  the  surface  or  at  the  corners,  with  rough, 
torn  surfaces,  the  steel  has  either  been  superficially  burned  or  it 
is  red-short.  In  either  case  it  should  be  rejected,  for  the  cracks, 
although  they  may  be  small,  will  provide  starting-points  for  ulti- 
mate fractures. 

LAPS  on  LAMINATIONS. — A  lap  or  lamination  is  caused  by  care- 
less hammering,  or  by  badly  proportioned  grooves  in  rolls,  or  by 
careless  rolling.  A  portion  of  the  steel  is  folded  over  itself,  the 
walls  are  oxidized  and  cannot  unite.  A  lap  generally  runs  clear 
along  a  bar  practically  parallel  with  its  axis;  it  is  easily  seen. 

SEAMS. — A  seam  is  a  longer  or  shorter  defect  caused  by  a 
blow-hole  which  working  has  brought  to  the  surface  and  not 
eliminated.  It  usually  runs  in  the  direction  of  working.  Seams 
are  distinguished  from  laps  by  not  being  continuous;  they  are 
usually  only  an  inch  or  two  in  length. 

SNAKES  are  small  lines  twisting  in  every  direction  due  to  foreign 
substances  in  the  heat  separating  two  masses  of  pure  steel. 

COBBLES  are  irregularities  due  to  one  side  being  heated  more 
than  another. 

APPEARANCE  OF  FRACTURED  SURFACE. — The  appearance  of 
the  fractured  surface  of  steel  is  by  many  persons  considered  an 
index  to  the  quality.  With  great  experience  on  the  part  of  the 
observer  it  may  serve  as  a  guide,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  vague  and 
uncertain. 

The  appearance  of  the  fracture  is  influenced  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  metal  is  broken.  When  rupture  takes  place  slowly  the 
fracture  presents  a  silky  fibrous  appearance  with  an  angular  and 
irregular  outline.  When  ruptured  suddenly  the  fracture  presents 
a  granular  appearance  with  the  surface  usually  even  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  length. 

The  color  is  a  light  pearl-gray,  slightly  varying  in  shade  with 
the  quality;  the  granular  fractures  are  usually  almost  free  from 
lustre,  and,  consequently,  totally  unlike  the  brilliant  crystalline 
appearance  of  wrought  iron. 

The  last  highest  temperature  to  which  steel  was  subjected  can 
be  very  closely  judged  by  the  appearance  of  a  cold  fracture. 
.  • 


120  METALS. — STEEL. 

If  the  heating  and  working  were  uniform  the  fracture  will 
show  an  even  grain  throughout. 

A  proper  heat  is  indicated  by  a  fine  lustreless  grain  with  a 
steely  blue  or  gray  color. 

Too  high  heat  is  indicated  by  a  coarse  lustrousless  grain  with 
a  yellowish  cast. 

Too  low  a  temperature  is  shown  by  a  fine  grain  of  a  black  or 
decided  blackish  color. 

Uneven  heating  or  working,  or  both,  is  shown  by  an  uneven 
grain. 

If  the  outside  be  fine-grained  and  the  centre  part  be  coarse 
and  fiery  it  shows  high  initial  heat  modified  by  superficial  and 
insuflicient  working,  either  under  the  hammer  or  in  the  rolls. 

If  the  inside  be  fine-grained  and  the  outside  be  coarse  and 
fiery  it  shows  that  the  last  heat  was  too  high,  too  quick  and 
superficial. 

If  the  corners  be  coarse  and  fiery  and  the  body  of  the  piece  be 
of  proper  grain  it  shows  carelessness  in  heating,  allowing  the 
corners  of  the  piece  to  run  up  much  hotter  than  the  body. 

The  fracture  of  burned  steel  has  a  whitish  hue,  the  crystals 
show  bright  and  fiery,  and  show  distinct,  well-defined  faces, 
whether  large  or  small,  and  the  granular  or  crystalline  appear- 
ance of  the  fracture  is  very  marked  and  coarse. 

The  nicked  bending  fracture  of  soft  steel  not  burned  will  have 
a  bluish-gray  hue,  with  the  structure  not  sharply  defined  or  even 
"mushy  "  in  appearance. 

STEEL  FOR  BOILERS. — In  selecting  steel  for  boilers,  especially 
for  locomotive  boilers,  the  inspector  should  look  for  a  peculiar 
marking  which  will  appear  on  the  test-pieces  if  the  metal  has  the 
desired  quality.  This  marking  consists  of  a  series  of  faint  lines 
running  criss-cross  and  intersecting  at  the  same  angle.  Some 
call  it  the  skeleton  of  the  steel.  When  this  marking  is  found  in 
an  open-hearth  steel  specimen,  and  the  other  results  of  the  test 
are  satisfactory,  the  inspector  may  rest  assured  that  the  metal  is 
of  suitable  quality  for  boilers.  Why  steel  with  this  marking 
should  give  good  results  no  one  knows,  but  many  years  of  expe- 
rience and  investigation  have  shown  it  to  be  the  case.  If  the  steel 
is  entirely  uniform  and  the  test-piece  shows  no  marking  of  any 
kind  it  is  unsuited  for  boilers.  It  will  crack  and  break,  and 
become  "mushy"  or  honeycombed.  Good  boiler  steel  should 
not  show  a  sudden  reducliou  at  the  fracture,  there  should  be  a 
gradual  reduction,  and  the  occurrence  of  even  a  slight  shoulder 


METALS.— STEEL.  121 

on  the  contracted  part  should  cause  the  steel  to  be  looked  on  with 
suspicion. 

Steel  Castings.. — The  defects  to  be  looked  for  in  steel  cast- 
ings are  blow-holes,  shrinkage-cavities,  pits,  and  cracks. 

APPEARANCE  OF  FRACTURE. — The  fracture  of  cast  steel  should 
have  a  slaty-gray  tint,  almost  without  lustre,  the  crystals  being 
so  fine  that  they  are  hardly  distinguishable. 

The  behavior  of  an  unannealed  steel  casting  resembles  that  of 
an  overheated  forging ;  its  chief  characteristic  is  its  brittleness 
when  subjected  to  shock.  Hard  castings  have  this  property  to 
such  a  marked  degree  that  sinking-heads  are  often  broken  off  by 
the  shock  of  chipping  off  the  runner. 

The  strains  caused  by  shrinkage  in  cooling  are  frequently  so 
great  as  to  cause  rupture. 

SHRINKAGE  OP  STEEL  CASTINGS. — In  steel  castings  the  amount 
of  shrinkage  varies  with  the  composition  and  the  heat  of  the 
metal ;  the  hotter  the  metal  the  greater  the  shrinkage. 

The  allowance  for  shrinkage  is  from  T\  to  £  inch  per  foot  in 
length,  except  in  very  heavy  castings,  where  ^  inch  is  sufficient, 
and  |  inch  for  finish  on  all  machined  surfaces,  except  such  as  are 
cast  "up."  Cope  surfaces  which  are  to  be  machined  should,  in 
large  or  hard  castings,  have  an  allowance  of  from  f  to  £  inch 
for  finish,  as  a  large  mass  of  metal  slowly  rising  in  a  mould  is  apt 
to  become  crusty  on  the  surface,  and  such  a  crust  is  sure  to  be 
full  of  imperfections.  On  small,  soft  castings  |-  inch  on  drag  side 
and  £  inch  on  cope  side  will  be  sufficient.  No  core  should  have 
less  than  |-inch  finish  on  a  side,  and  very  large  ones  should  have 
as  much  as  |-inch  on  a  side. 

SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  STEEL  CASTINGS  (U.  S.  Navy  Depart- 
ment).— Steel  for  castings  must  be  made  by  either  the  open-hearth 
or  crucible  process,  and  must  not  show  more  than  0.06  of  phos- 
phorus. All  castings  must  be  annealed  unless  otherwise  directed. 

The  tensile  strength  of  steel  castings  shall  be  at  least  60,000 
IDS.,  with  an  elongation  of  at  least  15  per  cent  in  8  inches  for  all 
castings  for  moving  parts  of  machinery  and  at  least  10  per  cent 
in  8  inches  for  other  castings.  Bars  1  inch  square  shall  be  capable 
of  bending  cold,  without  fracture,  through  an  angle  of  90°  over  a 
radius  not  greater  than  \\  inches.  All  castings  must  be  sound, 
free  from  injurious  roughness,  spongiuess,  pitting,  shrinkage,  or 
other  cracks,  cavities,  etc. 

The  test-strip  should  be  poured  along  with  the  casting ;  its 
dimensions  should  be  £  inch  square  by  12  inches  long. 


122  METALS.— STEEL. 

Checking  and  Marking  Accepted  Material. — In  the  mill 
inspection  of  iron  and  steel  the  inspector  should  have  a  copy  of 
the  mill  order  and  check  off  such  as  he  accepts,  so  that  he  as  well 
as  the  mill  people  may  know  how  much  remains  to  be  done. 

Every  accepted  piece  of  material  should  be  marked  with  a  dis- 
tinguishing mark.  (The  best  form  of  marking-tool  is  a  small 
steel  hammer  with  a  mark  cut  on  one  end  )  The  imprint  on  the 
metal  should  be  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  white  paint  so  as  to  be 
readily  seen.  To  the  shopmen  this  stamp  should  be  the  signal 
that  they  can  proceed  with  the  required  shop  manipulations 
without  asking  questions. 

Tests  for  Steel. 

The  tests  to  which  steel  is  subjected  are  much  more  rigid  than 
for  wrought  iron  destined  for  similar  purposes.  The  reasons 
for  this  are  that  the  acceptable  qualities  of  one  melt  of  steel 
offer  no  absolute  guarantee  that  the  next  following  melt  from 
the  same  stock  will  be  equally  satisfactory.  Moreover,  steel  is 
much  more  affected  in  the  various  processes  of  hardening,  cold- 
rolling,  overheating,  etc.,  than  iron.  While  soft  steel  of  good 
quality  is  for  many  purposes  a  safe  and  satisfactory  substitute 
for  wrought  iron,  a  poor  steel  or  an  unsuitable  grade  of  steel  is 
a  dangerous  substitute,  for  it  may  range  from  the  brittleness  of 
glass  to  a  ductility  greater  than  that  of  wrought  iron. 

The  tests  usually  prescribed  by  specifications  to  determine  the 
quality  of  steel  are  : 

TENSILE  TESTS,  including  the  elastic  limit  and  ultimate 
strength  as  measures  of  tenacity,  together  with  the  percentage  of 
elongation  and  reduction  of  area  as  measures  of  ductility  ;  also 
bending,  drifting,  and  forging  tests,  and  chemical  analysis  to 
determine  percentage  of  phosphorus,  etc. 

The  number  of  tests  to  be  made  will  depend  upon  circum- 
stances and  the  specific  instructions  given  by  the  engineer.  Com- 
mon requirements  are  that  a  test-bar  must  be  rolled  from  every 
melt,  and  that  three  tests  of  each  kind  shall  be  made  from  differ- 
ent ingots  of  each  melt. 

BENDING  TEST  (Plot}.  —  Test-pieces  of  medium  steel  when 
heated  to  a  cherry-red  and  cooled  in  water  at  70°  F.  shall  bend 
180  degrees  round  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  equal  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  test-piece,  without  showing  signs  of  cracking  on  the 
convex  side  of  the  curve. 


METALS.— STEEL.  123 

BENDING  TEST  (Cold). — Specimens  of  rivet  or  soft  steel  shall 
bend  cold  through  180  degrees,  and  close  down  flat  upon  them- 
selves without  cracking. 

If  material  of  various  shapes  is  to  be  made  from  the  same  melt 
the  specimens  for  testing  are  to  be  so  selected  as  to  represent  the 
different  shapes  rolled. 

Bending  tests  are  usually  made  on  dat  strips  one  inch  wide 
and  of  the  finished  thickness  of  the  metal,  on  round  rods  as  they 
come  from  the  rolls. 

DRIFTING  TEST. — Made  by  striking  with  a  sledge  upon  a  steel 
drift-pin  in  punched  holes  and  noting  the  size  to  which  these 
holes  can  be  enlarged  under  different  circumstances  without 
fracture  of  the  material. 

A  hole  punched  for  a  f-iuch  rivet,  its  centre  being  1£  inches 
from  the  rolled  or  planed  edge,  is  required  to  be  capable  of  en- 
largement in  this  way  without  fracture  of  the  metal  until  it  will 
pass  a  rod  of  the  diameter  of  1  inch  for  wrought  iron,  1£  inches 
for  bridge  steel,  and  1*  inches  for  boiler-plate  steel. 

The  test-piece  should  be  supported  on  the  under  side  by  a  sur- 
face having  a  hole  with  a  rounded  edge,  slightly  larger  than  the 
punched  hole  to  start  with,  and  the  size  of  holes  increased  as  the 
drift-pin  is  driven  through.  Blank  nuts  make  a  very  good  sup- 
port. 

The  drift-pin  in  starting  should  be  entered  from  the  lower  side 
of  the  punched  hole  on  account  of  the  taper  in  the  hole  and  in 
order  that  the  fin  left  in  punching  may  be  drawn  in  by  the  drift- 
pin. 

The  results  of  this  test  are  affected  by  the  weight  of  the  sledge, 
the  number  of  blows,  the  height  of  fall  and  rapidity  of  the  blows, 
all  of  which  should  be  noted  and  recorded. 

HARDENING  TESTS. — These  are  made  by  heating  a  test-piece 
to  a  red  heat  and  plunging  into  water  at  32°  to  40°  F. ;  the  piece 
is  then  bent  and  the  results  compared  with  those  on  a  similar 
piece  not  hardened. 

FORGING  TEST. — This  test  is  chiefly  used  for  rivet- rods.  A 
part  of  the  rod  is  brought  to  a  fair  red  heat  and  hammered  until 
cracks  barely  begin  to  show  at  the  edge  of  the  piece.  The  amount 
of  flattening  which  the  piece  stands  before  cracks  appear  shows 
the  red-shortness  of  the  material. 

WELDING  TEST.— A  piece  of  metal  with  section  about  1  inch 
in  largest  dimension  is  to  be  prepared  for  a  single  scarf-weld  and 
heated  in  a  reducing  flame  in  a  clean  fire.  At  a  white  heat  it  is 


124  METALS. — STEEL. 

to  be  removed  aud  welded  with  an  8-  to  10-lb.  hammer,  then  upset 
while  still  hot,  and  finally  drawn  down  under  the  hammer  to  its 
original  size.  No  flux  and  no  water  are  to  be  used.  One  bar  welded 
in  this  way  is  to  be  tested  in  tension;  another  is  to  be  nicked  to 
the  depth  of  the  weld  and  bent  or  broken  if  possible  to  show  the 
character  of  the  welded  surfaces. 

HOMOGENEITY  TEST. — A  portion  of  the  test-piece  is  nicked 
with  a  chisel,  or  grooved  on  a  machine,  transversely  about  -^ 
inch  deep,  in  three  places  about  1£  inches  apart.  The  first  groove 
should  be  made  on  one  side  \\  inches  from  the  square  end  of  the 
piece;  the  second,  1J  inches  from  it  on  the  opposite  side;  and  the 
third,  1£  inches  from  the  last,  and  on  the  opposite  side  from  it. 
The  test-piece  is  then  put  in  a  vise,  with  the  first  groove  about  1£ 
inches  above  the  jaw,  care  being  taken  to  hold  it  firmly.  The 
projecting  end  of  the  test-piece  is  then  broken  off  by  means  of  a 
hammer,  a  number  of  light  blows  being  used,  and  the  bending 
being  away  from  the  groove.  The  piece  is  broken  at  the  other 
two  grooves  in  the  same  manner.  The  object  of  this  treatment  is 
to  open  and  render  visible  to  the  eye  any  seams  due  to  failure  to 
weld  up,  or  to  foreign  interposed  matter,  or  to  cavities  due  to  gas- 
bubbles  in  the  ingot. 

After  rupture  one  side  of  each  fracture  is  examined,  a  pocket- 
lens  being  used,  and  the  length  of  the  seams  and  cavities  is  de- 
termined. The  length  of  the  longest  seam  or  cavity  determines 
the  acceptance  or  rejection  of  the  plate.  (Any  seam  or  cavity  f 
inch  long  in  either  of  the  three  fractures  should  cause  rejection.) 

QUENCHING  TEST.— Steel  heated  to  cherry-red,  plunged  in 
water  at  82°  Fahr.,  then  bent  round  a  curve  1£  times  the  diameter 
of  the  plate,  should  show  no  signs  of  fracture  on  the  outside  of  the 
curve. 

Steel  below  .10  carbon  should  be  capable  of  doubling  flat  with- 
out fracture  after  being  chilled  from  a  red  heat  in  cold  water. 
Steel  of  .15  carbon  will  occasionally  admit  of  the  same  treatment, 
but  will  usually  bend  around  a  curve  whose  radius  is  equal  to 
the  thickness  of  the  specimen;  about  9  per  cent  of  specimens 
stand  the  latter  bending  test  without  fracture.  As  the  steel  be- 
comes harder  its  ability  to  endure  this  bending  test  becomes  more 
exceptional,  and  when  the  carbon  ratio  becomes  .20  little  over 
25  per  cent  of  specimens  will  stand  the  last-described  bending 
test. 

ACID  TESTS  FOR  IRON  AND  STEEL. — The  sample  to  be  tested  is 
filed  smooth  on  all  sides,  then  placed  in  dilute  nitric  or  sulphuric 


METALS. — STEEL.  125 

acid  from  12  to  24  hours,  then  washed  and  dried.  The  action  of 
the  acid  has  revealed  the  structure  of  the  material,  from  which 
its  quality  can  be  decided  with  great  precision . 

The  best  steel  presents  a  frosty  appearance,  ordinary  steel 
honeycombed;  the  best  iron  shows  the  finest  fibres.  Should  the 
iron  be  uneven  or  made  from  a  pile  of  different  kinds  of  iron  all 
are  exposed  by  the  action  of  the  acid.  Hammered  blooms  show 
slag  and  iron.  Gray  cast  iron  shows  crystals  of  graphitic  carbon; 
other  cast  iron  shows  different  figures,  all  with  marked  character- 
istics. 

Shop  Inspection  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

The  various  processes  in  the  shop  are  the  same  for  both  iron 
and  steel,  and  are  as  follows  :  (1)  Straightening  (when  necessary), 
(2)  marking  off  and  punching,  (3)  straightening,  (4)  reaming,  (5) 
assembling,  (6)  reaming,  (7)  riveting,  (8)  facing,  (9)  boring, 
(10)  finishing,  (11)  fitting  up,  (12)  oiling  and  painting,  (13) 
shipping. 

After  the  material  has  reached  the  shop  the  inspector  wants  to 
watch  the  work  as  it  proceeds  through  the  various  stages  to  see 
that  the  workmanship  is  good  and  that  the  material  is  not  mal- 
treated. He  should  have  in  his  possession  a  copy  of  the  specifi- 
cations, a  bill  of  the  material,  and  a  set  of  working  drawings. 

He  should  make  a  critical  examination  of  all  the  dimensions  of 
finished  parts,  location  of  rivet-  and  bolt-holes  for  field  connec- 
tion, and  have  all  errors  corrected. 

STRAIGHTENING. — The  inspector  should  see  that  any  of  the 
material  which  may  have  been  bent  in  transferring  from  the  mill 
to  the  shop  is  properly  straightened  before  being  laid  off  for 
punching.  After  punching  the  material  must  be  again  straight- 
ened, because  it  is  more  or  less  buckled  during  the  process.  If 
not  straightened  the  several  pieces  to  be  riveted  together  cannot 
be  made  to  fit  properly,  and  when  riveted  there  will  be  sufficient 
spring  between  the  pieces  to  distort  the  rivet,  and  many  of  them 
will  be  found  to  be  loose  on  cooling.  The  finished  member  also 
never  looks  as  well  as  if  the  material  had  been  straightened. 

RIVETING. — The  punch-dies  should  be  examined  occasionally 
to  see  that  the  edges  are  sharp  and  unbroken,  and  that  the 
difference  in  diameter  between  the  upper  and  lower  does  not 
exceed  T\  inch. 

If  the  rivet-holes  are  worked  with  templets  the  templets  must 
lie  flat  without  distortion  when  the  marking  is  done. 


126  METALS. — STEEL. 

Where  riveting  is  to  be  done  in  the  field  the  parts  must  DC 
fitted  together  in  the  shop  and  the  rivet-holes  reamed  out  while 
they  are  assembled,  or  an  iron  templet  should  be  made  and  both 
parts  reamed  to  fit  it. 

Web-splices  and  all  abutting  sections  should  be  made  to  close 
tightly  and  the  splice-plates  fitted  on  and  reamed  while  in  posi- 
tion. 

DRIFTING  for  any  purpose  other  than  bringing  the  piece  to  the 
proper  position  should  not  be  allowed.  After  the  work  is  bolted 
together  and  some  rivets  driven  the  use  of  the  drift-pin  is  dan- 
gerous, as  it  is  now  enlarging  the  rivet-hole  at  the  expense  of 
serious  compression  in  some  of  the  component  pieces;  there  can 
be  nothing  but  distortion,  as  the  work  is  held  by  the  rivets  already 
driven. 

The  inspector  should  see  that  a  sufficient  number  of  bolts  are 
used  to  hold  the  pieces  snugly  together  while  being  riveted;  also 
that  all  stiffeners  fit  tightly  and  that  all  surfaces  to  be  riveted 
together  are  painted  before  being  bolted  up. 

As  soon  as  the  riveting  is  done  each  rivet  should  be  examined 
to  see  that  it  is  properly  formed  and  tightly  driven.  (See  Rivet- 
ing, page  194.) 

FACING  AND  BORING. — In  facing  and  boring  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  ends  of  each  piece  are  planed  to  the  proper  length 
and  bevel,  and  that  pin-holes  are  of  the  proper  size  and  distance 
apart  from  centre  to  centre. 

The  inspector  should  supervise  the  laying  out  of  the  sections 
that  are  to  be  fitted  together  in  the  field,  and  see  that  everything 
goes  together,  so  that  no  unnecessary  work  will  have  to  be  done 
in  the  field. 

After  the  shop- work  is  completed,  and  before  painting  or  oiling 
is  commenced,  the  inspector  should  satisfy  himself  that  every- 
thing has  been  done  according  to  the  specifications  and  drawings; 
any  part  found  unsatisfactory  should  be  replaced  and  perfected. 
The  parts  found  satisfactory  should  be  marked. 

COMPARING  MEASURES. — The  steel  tape  and  other  measures 
used  by  the  inspector  should  be  compared  with  the  standard 
used  in  the  shop,  and  corrected  if  necessary. 


METALS.  — STEEL. 


127 


RECORDS. — A  daily  record  of  the  progress  of  the  shop-work 
must  be  kept,  and  especially  if  there  is  a  time-penalty  clause  in 
the  specifications.  A  record-book  ruled  as  below  will  be  found 
useful : 


[Left-hand  page.] 


i 

•a 

. 

No.  of 
Drawing. 

Name  of 
Piece. 

Date. 

A 
o 

a 

s 

1 

I 

—  — 

5 

[Right-hand  page."] 


Bolted. 

1 

o 
CQ 

Milled. 

Turned. 

Remarks. 

To  avoid  the  frequent  handling  of  a  large  number  of  sheets  of 
drawings,  tables  containing  all  of  the  important  descriptions  of 
the  several  pieces  should  be  prepared  in  note-book  form  some- 
what on  the  following  plan  : 

CHORDS  AND  POSTS. 


Remarks. 


128  METALS.— STEEL. 

For  floor-beams  and  stringers  the  table  would  be  as  follows  : 
FLOOR-BEAMS  AND  STRINGERS. 


§ 

Bevels. 

c 

E 

•o 

a 

•& 

9 

0 

Vertical. 

Horizontal. 

1 

i 

T5 

SB 
s 

CO 

•93 
«l 

1 

E 

1 

1 

|1 

£> 

4 

c 

'H 

a 

S 

o 

^ 

0 

H 

«a 

> 

| 

B 

S-d 

K 

"* 

•3 
| 

s 

Ml 

a 
J 

0 

§ 
33 

o 

1 

cc 

o 
6 

O 

1 

I 

1 

I 

F 

1 

E 

I1 

Tables  for  other  items,  as  pins,  rollers,  eye-bars,  bracing-rods, 
lateral  plates,  pedestals,  etc.,  are  easily  formed. 

The  keeping  of  a  complete  record  of  the  work  involves  consid- 
erable clerical  work,  which  has  to  be  done  at  odd  times  and  in 
the  evening.  But  the  time  and  labor  expended  are  paid  for  many 
times  over  by  the  sense  of  absolute  security  which  the  inspector 
is  thereby  enabled  to  enjoy. 

Where  possible  the  inspector  should  see  tnat  the  material  is 
properly  loaded  on  the  cars  for  shipment  in  order  to  prevent  its 
being  bent  or  twisted  in  transit.  He  should  also  approve  the 
itemized  bill  of  lading  of  each  car-load  of  material  which  he  has 
accepted. 


METALS.— STEEL.  129 


Notes  on  Working  Iron  and  Steel. 

Cold-rolling  of  iron  and  steel  increases  the  elastic  limit  and 
the  ultimate  strength,  but  decreases  the  ductilit}'. 

PUNCHING  AND  SHEARING. — The  physical  effects  of  punching 
and  shearing,  as  denoted  by  tensile  tests,  are  for  iron  or  steel  : 
Reduction  of  ductility  ;  elevation  of  tensile  strength  at  elastic 
limit ;  reduction  of  ultimate  tensile  strength. 

In  very  thin  material  the  disturbance  described  is  less  than  in 
thick.  In  material  having  a  thickness  of  half  an  inch  and  up- 
wards the  loss  of  tenacity  ranges  from  10  to  23  per  cent  in  iron 
plates  and  from  11  to  33  per  cent  in  mild  steel. 

The  effects  described  do  not  invariably  ensue.  For  unknown 
reasons  there  are  sometimes  marked  deviations  from  what  seems 
to  be  a  general  result. 

Annealing. — The  object  of  annealing  structural  steel  is  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  homogeneity  of  structure  that  is  supposed 
to  be  injured  by  unequal  heating  or  by  the  manipulation  attend- 
ant on  certain  processes-.  The  objects  to  be  annealed  should 
be  heated  throughout  to  a  uniform  temperature  and  uniformly 
cooled. 

The  temperatures  employed  vary  from  1000°  to  1500°  F.  and 
possibly  higher.  In  some  cases  the  heated  steel  is  withdrawn  at 
full  temperature  from  the  furnace  and  allowed  to  cool  in  the 
atmosphere;  in  others  the  heated  metal  is  removed  from  the  fur- 
nace, but  covered  under  a  muffle  to  lessen  the  free  radiation ;  or, 
again,  the  charge  is  retained  in  the  furnace,  and  the  whole  mass 
cooled  with  the  furnace,  and  more  slowly  than  by  either  of  the 
other  methods. 

Soft  steel  no  matter  how  low  in  carbon  will  harden  to  a 
certain  extent  upon  being  heated  red-hot  and  plunged  into  water; 
it  will  harden  more  when  plunged  into  brine  and  less  when 
quenched  in  oil. 

Unaunealed  soft  steel  for  a  strength  of  56,000  to  64,000  Ibs. 
may  be  worked  in  the  same  way  as  wrought  iron.  Rough  treat- 
ment or  working  at  a  blue  heat  must,  however,  be  prohibited. 
Shearing  is  to  tie  avoided  except  to  prepare  rough  plates,  which 
should  afterwards  be  smoothed  by  machine  tools  or  files  before 
using.  Drifting  is  to  be  avoided  because  the  edges  of  holes  are 
thereby  strained  beyond  the  yield-point.  Upsetting,  cranking, 


130  METALS. — STEEL. 

and  bending  ought  to  be  avoided,  but  when  necessary  the  material 
should  be  annealed  after  completion. 

Forging  consists  in  raising  metal  to  a  high  temperature  and 
hammering  it  into  any  form  that  may  be  required. 

In  the  operation  of  forging  care  must  be  exercised  to  avoid 
overheating  or  burning  the  metal.  Steel  requires  more  care  than 
iron.  Bach  variety  of  steel  differs  as  to  the  heat  to  which  it  can 
safely  be  raised. 

Shear  steel  will  stand  a  white  heat. 

Blister  steel  will  stand  a  moderate  heat. 

Cast  steel  will  stand  a  bright  red  heat.  ,>,;4,    , 

By  overheating  the  tensile  strength  and  ductility  are  both 
seriously  injured. 

After  reaching  the  proper  heat  the  metal  should  be  worked  as 
quickly  as  possible,  as  working  at  too  low  a  temperature  is  also 
injurious. 

Welding  is  the  process  by  which  two  pieces  of  metal  are 
joined  together  with  the  aid  of  heat. 

Wrought  iron  possesses  the  property  of  welding  to  a  high 
degree.  At  a  white  heat  it  is  so  pasty  that  if  two  pieces  at  this 
temperature  be  firmly  pressed  together-  and  freed  from  oxide  or 
other  impurity  they  unite  intimately  and  firmly. 

Steel  possesses  the  property  of  welding  in  an  indifferent  degree, 
which  diminishes  as  the  metal  approximates  to  cast  iron  with 
respect  to  the  proportion  of  carbon;  or,  what  amounts  to  the 
same  thing,  it  increases  as  the  metal  approximates  to  wrought 
iron  with  respect  to  the  absence  of  carbon. 

It  is  usually  specified  that  no  welding  shall  be  allowed  on  any 
steel  that  enters  into  structures. 

Hardening  Steel. — If  steel  at  a  red  heat  be  plunged  into  cold 
water  it  becomes  hard.  The  more  suddenly  the  heat  is  extracted 
the  harder  it  will  be. 

The  process  of  hardening,  however,  makes  the  steel  very  brittle, 
and  in  order  to  make  it  tough  enough  for  most  purposes  it  has  to 
be  tempered. 

Tempering  Steel. — The  process  of  tempering  depends  upon 
the  characteristic  of  steel,  which  is  that  if  (after  hardening)  the 
steel  be  reheated,  as  the  heat  increases  the  hardness  diminishes. 

In  order  to  produce  steel  of  a  certain  degree  of  toughness  it  is 
gradually  reheated,  and  then  cooled  when  it  arrives  at  that  tem- 
perature which  experience  has  shown  will  produce  the  limited 
degree  of  hardness  required.  -^ 


METALS. — STEEL.  131 

Heated  steel  becomes  covered  with  ti  thin  film  of  oxidation, 
which  becomes  thicker  aud  changes  color  as  the  temperature 
rises.  The  color  of  this  film  is  therefore  an  indication  of  the 
temperature  of  the  steel  upon  which  it  appears. 

Advantage  is  taken  by  the  workman  of  this  change  of  color.  He 
watches  for  the  arrival  of  the  color  due  to  the  required  tempera- 
ture. When  it  appears  he  withdraws  the  tool  from  the  fire  and 
plunges  it  into  cold  water  and  moves  it  about  until  the  heat  has 
all  been  extracted  by  the  water. 

It  is  important  that  considerable  motion  should  be  given  to  the 
surface  of  the  water  while  the  tool  is  plunged  in;  otherwise  there 
will  be  a  straight  line  of  demarcation  between  the  hardened  part 
and  the  remainder  of  the  tool,  and  the  metal  will  be  liable  to 
snap  at  this  point. 

Upsetting. — Enlarged  ends  on  tension-bars  for  screw-threads, 
eye-bars,  etc.,  are  formed  by  upsetting  the  material.  With 
proper  treatment  and  a  sufficient  increment  of  enlarged  sectional 
area  over  the  body  of  the  bar  the  result  is  entirely  satisfactory. 

The  upsetting  process  should  be  performed  so  that  the  properly 
heated  metal  is  compelled  to  flow  without  folding  or  bending. 

Calking. — All  calking-edges  should  be  bevelled  on  a  planer, 
and  the  calking  should  be  done  with  a  round-nosed  tool.  If  a 
square-edged  tool  is  used  it  creases  the  inner  plate,  aud  if  this 
should  prove  to  be  of  brittle  steel  it  might  cause  a  failure  along 
this  line. 

Blue-shortness. — Steel  and  wrought  iron  are  injured  and 
rendered  brittle  by  being  worked  at  a  blue  heat,  i.  e.,  the  heat  that 
would  produce  an  oxide  coating  ranging  from  light  straw  to  blue 
on  bright  steel  (430°  to  600°  F.). 

A  practice  among  boilermakers  for  guarding  against  failures 
due  to  working  at  a  blue  heat  consists  in  the  cessation  of  work  as 
soon  as  a  plate  which  had  been  red-hot  becomes  so  cool  that  Uie 
mark  produced  by  rubbing  a  hammer-handle  or  other  piece  of 
wood  will  not  glow.  A  plate  which  is  not  hot  enough  to  produce 
this  effect,  yet  too  hot  to  be  touched  by  the  hand,  is  most  prob- 
ably blue-hot,  and  should  under  no  circumstances  be  hammered 
or  bent, 


132  METALS.— COPPEE. 

Copper. 

Copper  is  obtained  from  the  ores  by  roasting,  calcining,  refin- 
ing, and  melting  them  with  certain  fluxes  and  oxidizing  agents. 

It  is  distinguished  from  all  other  metals  by  its  reddish  color. 

It  is  very  ductile  and  malleable  and  its  tenacity  is  next  to  iron. 

It  cannot  be  welded.     It  may  be  worked  either  hot  or  cold. 

It  oxidizes  very  slowly  in  the  air,  becoming  coated  with  a  thin 
film  of  the  carbonate  called  verdigris;  this  protects  it  from  further 
oxidation. 

It  is  corroded  by  salt  water  if  at  the  same  time  air  has  access  to  it. 

Copper  is  used  for  slate-nails,  pipes,  roofing-gutters,  lightning- 
rods,  and  in  the  form  of  sheets,  bars,  and  wire  is  extensively  used 
in  electrical  work  and  for  many  other  purposes. 

PROPERTIES  OP  COPPER. 
Specific  gravity . &.81  to  8.95 

Weight  per  cubic  foot . . -J    Cast'    537  lbs' 

<    Sheet,  555   " 

Melting-point 1930°  F. 

Atomic  weight 63.2 

Specific  heat 093 

Conductivity  of  heat  73.6 

"   electricity.. 99.95  (silver 

being  100) 

Expansion  between  32°  and  212°  F 0051 

Resistance  to  tension,  20,000  to  33,000  lbs.  per  square  inch,  being 
reduced  at  a  temperature  of  400°  F.  10  per  cent,  and  at  500° 
F.  16  per  cent. 

Resistance  to  crushing 117,000  lbs.  per  square  inch 

Tests  for  popper. — Copper  in  the  form  of  plates,  sheets,  or 
bars  is  subjected  to  a  tension  test  and  to  a  bending  test  both  hot 
and  cold.  Copper  wire  is  subjected  to  tension,  bending,  and 
winding  or  torsional  tests. 

TABLE  15. 

WEIGHT    OF    ROUND    BOLT   COPPEE. 

Diameter.  t^Foot         Diameter. 

Inches-  Pounds.' 

f 425 

£ 756 

f 1.18 

| 1.70 

2.31 

1 3.02 

H..  .  3.83 


11  

4.72 

If  

5  72 

6  81 

1£.  . 

7  99 

If  

9.27 

if.. 

10.64 

2*.. 

.  12.10 

METALS.— COPPER. 


133 


TABLE  16. 

COPPER  AND  BRASS.   GAUGE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  WIRE  AND  SHEET. 


No.  of 
Gauge. 

Size  of 
Each  No. 

Weight  of  Wire  per 
1000  Lineal  Feet. 

Weight  of  Plates  per 
Square  Fool  . 

Copper. 

Brass. 

Copper. 

Brass. 

Inch. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

0000 

.46000 

640.5 

605.28 

20.84 

19.69 

000 

.40964 

508.0 

479.91 

18.55 

17.53 

00 

.36480 

402.0 

380.77 

16.52 

15.61 

0 

.33478 

319.5 

301.82 

14.72 

13.90 

1 

.28930 

253.3 

239.45 

13.10 

12.38 

2 

.25763 

200.9- 

189.82 

11.67 

11.03 

3 

.2-2942 

159.3 

150.52 

10.39 

9.82 

4 

.20431 

126.4 

119.48 

9.25 

8.74 

5 

.18194 

100.2 

94.67 

8.24 

7.79 

6 

.ifrjoa 

79.46 

75.08 

7.34 

6.93 

7 

.14428 

63.01 

59.55 

6.54 

6.18 

8 

.12849 

49.98 

47.22 

5.82 

5.50 

9 

.11443 

39.64 

37.44     • 

5.18 

4.90 

10 

.10189 

31.43 

29.69 

4.62 

4.36 

11 

.090742 

24.92 

23.55 

4.11 

3.88 

12 

.080808 

19.77 

18.68 

3.66 

3.46 

13 

.071961 

15.65 

14  81 

3.26 

3.08 

14 

.064084 

12.44 

11.75 

2.90 

2.74 

15 

.057068 

9.86 

9.32 

2.59 

2.44 

16 

.0508-30 

7.82 

7.59 

2.30 

2.18 

.045257 

6.20 

5.86 

2.05 

.94 

18 

.040303 

4  92 

4.65 

1.83 

.72 

19 

.035890 

3.90 

3.68 

1.63 

.54 

20 

.031961 

3.09 

2.92 

1.45 

.37 

21 

.028462 

2.45 

2.317 

1.29 

1.22 

22 

.025347 

1.94 

1.838 

1.15 

.08 

23 

.022571 

1.54 

1.457 

1.02 

.966 

24 

.020100 

1.22 

1.155 

.911 

.860 

25 

.017900 

.699 

.916 

.811 

.766 

26 

.014940 

.769 

.727 

.722 

.682 

27 

.014195 

.610 

.576 

.643 

.608 

28 

.Olv>611 

.484 

.457 

.573 

.541 

29 

.011257 

383 

.362 

.510 

.482 

30 

.010025 

.304 

.287 

.454 

.429 

31 

.0089-J8 

.241 

.228 

.404 

.382 

32 

.007950 

.191 

.181 

.360 

.340 

33 

.007080 

.152 

.143 

.321 

.303 

34 

.006304 

.120 

.114 

.286 

.270 

35 

.005614 

.09(5 

.0915 

.254 

.240 

36 

.OC5000 

.0757 

.0715 

.226 

.214 

37 

.004453 

.0600 

.0567 

.202 

.191 

38 

.003965 

.0176 

0450 

.180 

.170 

39 

003531 

.0375 

.0357 

.160 

.151 

40 

.003144 

.0299 

.0283 

.142 

.135 

Specific  gravi 

t  v  .  . 

8.880 

8.386 

8.698 

8.218 

Weight  per  cubic  foot  

555. 

524.16 

543.6 

513.6 

134  METALS.— LEAD. 


Lead. 

Lead  is  obtained  by  smelting  the  various  lead  ores,  and  as 
a  by-product  in  the  smelting  of  silver  ores.  It  is  soft,  heavy, 
malleable,  and  ductile,  but  its  tenacity  is  such  that  it  can  be 
drawn  into  wire  with  great  difficulty.  Is  very  fusible;  melts  at 
about  625°  F.,  softens  and  becomes  pasty  at  about  617°  F.  If 
broken  by  a  sudden  blow  when  just  below  the  melting-point  it 
is  quite  brittle  and  the  fracture  appears  crystalline.  It  dissolves 
to  some  extent  in  pure  water,  but  water  containing  carbonates  or 
sulphates  forms  over  it  a  film  of  insoluble  salt  which  prevents 
further  action.  Lead  is  oxidized  by  rain-water,  vegetable  matter, 
lime,  damp  plaster,  and  wet  wood;  also  by  galvanic  action  when 
in  contact  with  other  metals  in  the  presence  of  moisture.  It  is 
also  rapidly  destroyed  by  ammonia,  acetates,  nitrites,  and  nitrates 
in  solution.  It  does  not  readily  decompose  on  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere,  being  usually  protected  by  the  first  coat  of  oxide 
which  forms  upon  its  surface. 

The  white  lead  of  commerce  is  formed  from  the  carbonate  of 
lead.  Red  lead  is  a  compound  oxide  of  lead. 

PROPERTIES  OF  LEAD. 

Specific  gravity 11.07  to  11.44 

Weight  per  cubic  foot |  Sjijg,^ 

Melting-point 625°  F. 

Atomic  weight 206.4 

Specific  heat .0314 

Conductivity  of  heat 8.5 

"   electricity  (silver  being  100) 8.3 

Expansion  between  32°  and  212°  F .0084 

Resistance  to  tension 1600  to  2400  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Resistance  to  compression 7730  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Sheet  Lead  is  either  cast  or  milled,  the  former  in  sheets  16  to 
18  feet  in  length  and  6  feet  in  width  ;  the  latter  is  rolled,  is  thinner 
than  the  former,  is  more  uniform  in  its  thickness,  and  is  made  into 
sheets  25  to  35  feet  in  length,  and  from  6  to  7i  feet  in  width. 

Sheet  lead  is  usually  described  according  to  the  weight  of  a 
superficial  foot  in  pounds.  The  thicknesses  corresponding  to  given 
weights  are  as  follows  : 


METALS. — LEAD. 


135 


TABLE   17. 

THICKNESS  AND  WEIGHT  OF  SHEET  LEAD. 


Thickness. 
Inches. 


Weight  per 

Square  Foot. 

Lbs. 

1 0.017 

2 0.034 

3 0.051 

4 0.068 

5 0.085 

6 0.101 

7..  .  0.118 


Weight  per 

Square  Foot. 

Lbs. 


Thickness. 
Inches. 

8 0.135 

9 0.152 

10 0.169 

11 0.186 

12.... 0.203 

14 0.237 

16..  .  0.271 


Sheet  lead  is  used  in  roofing  for  gutters,  flashings,  etc. ;  for 
lining  cisterns,  sinks,  etc.  The  weights  recommended  for  these 
purposes  are  as  follows  : 

Roofs  and  gutters 7  Ib.  lead 

Hips,  ridges,  and  small  gutters 6    "      " 

Flashings 4  and  5    "      " 

Cisterns  and  sink  bottoms 7    "      " 

"        "       "     sides 6   "      " 

Owing  to  the  great  expansion  and  contraction  of  lead  from  al- 
terations of  temperature  it  is  not  desirable  to  lay  it  in  greater 
lengths  than  10  or  12  feet  without  a  joint  roll  or  drip  to  allow  for 
the  changes  in  dimensions. 

Lead  Pipes  are  formed  by  drawing,  casting,  pressing,  or  roll- 
ing lead.  They  are  usually  described  by  the  diameter  and 
weight  per  foot,  as  shown  in  Table  65. 


136  METALS.— TIN. 


Tin. 

Tin  is  obtained  by  roasting  and  smelting  the  ores — usually  the 
binoxide  and  tin  pyrites — in  a  reverberatory  furnace,  whence  the 
liquid  metal  is  run  into  a  basin  and  thence  into  moulds.  The 
ingots  thus  produced  are  refined  and  boiled. 

Tin  is  a  soft,  malleable,  fusible,  white,  lustrous  metal  of  little 
strength.  It  resists  oxidation  better  than  any  of  the  metals 
except  gold  and  silver.  Its  chief  uses  are  for  coating  sheet  iron, 
called  "tin  plate,"  and  for  making  alloys  with  copper  and  other 
metals. 

Tin  may  be  distinguished  from  other  metals  by  the  peculiar 
crackling  sound  (termed  the  "  cry  of  tin")  produced  when  bent. 
Its  purity  is  tested  by  its  extreme  brittleness  at  high  tempera- 
tures. 

Tin  in  pigs  or  plate  is  subject  to  a  peculiar  form  of  disaggre- 
gation,  especially  when  exposed  to  extreme  cold  and  great 
changes  of  temperature.  Thin  sheet  tin  will  sometimes,  if  ex- 
posed to  the  cold  for  long  periods,  be  covered  with  blisters, 
become  brittle,  fall  to  pieces,  and  finally  to  powder.  The  cause 
of  the  decay  of  tin  has  not  been  definitely  settled,  but  the  pres- 
ence of  mercury  seems  to  aid  it. 

PROPERTIES  OF  TIN. 

Specific  gravity 7.293 

Weight  per  cubic  foot,  cast 456  Ibs. 

Melting-point... 442°  F. 

Atomic  weight 118 

Specific  heat 055 

Conductivity  of  heat 14.5 

' '  "  electricity  (silver  being  100) 12.4 

Expansion  between  32°  and  212°  F 0069 

Resistance  to  tension 3500  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Resistance  to  compression 15,500  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 

Tin  Plate  is  iron  or  steel  plate  covered  with  a  coating  of  tin 
or  an  alloy  of  tin  and  lead. 

Tin  plate  is  extensively  used  for  roofing,  leader-pipes,  flashing, 
and  other  purposes.  Such  plates  are  durable  until  a  hole  is  made 
in  the  coating,  when  galvanic  action  seis  up  between  the  tin  and 
iron;  the  tin  is  then  rapidly  eaten  away. 


METALS. — TIN.  137 

Tin  plate  is  made  of  sheet  iron  or  steel  coated  with  tin  or  a 
mixture  of  tin  and  lead.  Plates  of  the  first  class  are  designated 
"bright  tin  "  plate,  and  of  the  latter  class  "  terne"  (dull)  plate. 
Very  thin  sheets  which  run  be^ow  gauge  (30  or  lighter)  are  called 
"  taggers"  tin.  Imperfect  plates  are  called  "  wasters." 

The  plates  are  coated  by  various  processes:  1.  The  Dipping 
Process,  in  which  the  plates,  prepared  by  pickling  in  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  annealing,  and  again  pickling,  are  dipped  in  a 
bath  of  palm-oil,  then  in  a  bath  of  molten  tin,  from  which  they 
go  to  the  rollers.  "  Redipped  ''  plates  are  plates  dipped  a  second 
time  in  the  molten  tin.  Acid  Process:  In  this  process  the 
cleaned  and  pickled  plates  are  passed  through  a  solution  of  muri- 
atic acid  and  zinc  chloride  which  floats  on  top  of  the  molten  tin. 
The  zinc  causes  a  quick  galvanic  action,  and  as  the  plates  are 
immersed  in  the  molten  tin  the  tin  by  means  of  this  galvanic 
action  will  adhere  to  the  plates.  The  plates  thus  tinned  are 
drawn  through  an  oil  bath.  Plates  prepared  by  this  process  are 
not  as  durable  as  those  coated  by  the  palm-oil  process.  Roller 
Process:  In  this  process  the  plates  are  dipped  in  the  molten 
metal,  and  then  passed  through  rolls  which  work  in  a  large  vessel 
containing  oil.  The  rolls  are  adjusted  so  as  to  leave  a  coating  of 
greater  or  less  thickness,  which  determines  the  value  of  the  plate. 

Two  thicknesses  of  tin  roofing- plates  are  made,  namely,  1C,  or 
No.  29  gauge,  weighing  8  oz.  to  the  square  foot,  and  IX,  or  No. 
27  gauge,  weighing  10  oz.  to  the  square  foot. 

The  sizes  of  plates  generally  used  for  roofing  are  14  X  20  and 
20  X  28  in.  The  larger  size  is  more  extensively  used,  because  it 
requires  less  seams  and  consequently  cheapens  the  cost  of  putting 
on;  but  a  better  roof  is  obtained  by  using  14"  X  20",  because  the 
seams  are  closer  together,  thus  making  the  roof  stronger;  and  if 
put  on  with  a  standing  seam  there  is  more  allowance  for  expan- 
sion and  contraction. 

The  value  of  tin  roofing-plate  is  dependent  upon  five  things: 
1st.  The  quality  of  the  material  of  which  the  plate  is  made. 

The  best  plates  for  tinning  are  of  charcoal-iron,  which,  being 
tough,  bears  bending.  Coke-iron  is  used  for  cheaper  plates.  It 
is  inferior  as  regards  bending.  Open -hearth  and  Bessemer  steel 
plates  are  now  generally  used  in  place  of  iron.  The  former 
is  used  for  the  better  grades,  the  latter  for  inferior  grades. 

2d.  The  coating,  whether  it  is  tin  or  a  mixture  of  tin  and  lead; 
the  latter  is  not  so  durable  as  the  former.  The  thickness  of  the 
coating;  this  can  be  determined  by  trying  with  a  knife. 


138  METALS.— TIN. 

3d.  The  net  weight  of  the  hundred  and  twelve  sheets  in  the 
box.  The  standard  weight  of  an  ordinary  1C  14  X  20  inch  plate 
is  108  pounds  to  the  112  sheets,  but  there  are  many  boxes  im- 
ported that  run  all  the  way  from  90  to  120  pounds  in  weight. 
The  standard  weight  of  a  box  of  IX  14"  X  20"  is  136  pounds,  and 
of  IX  20"  X  28",  272  pounds.  There  are  IX  14  X  20  plates  im 
ported  that  do  not  weigh  over  120  pounds  per  box,  while  others 
weigh  as  much  as  150  pounds  for  the  same  size.  It  may  be  that 
the  lighter  sheets  have  as  heavy  a  coating  of  lead  and  tin  as  the 
heavier  sheets,  but  the  possibility  is  that  they  have  not.  The 
quantity  of  tin  required  for  coating  112  sheets  of  14"  X  20"  1C 
plate  is  3|  Ibs.,  but  as  low  as  2£  Ibs.  are  said  to  oe  used.  The 
amount  of  tin  used  in  coating  the  plates  is  very  irregular;  a  few 
years  ago  7  Ibs.  to  the  box  was  considered  the  average,  but  now 
as  little  as  2  Ibs.  per  100  Ibs.  of  iron  is  used. 

4th.  The  squareness  of  the  sheets. 

5th.  The  assortment  of  the  sheets.  In  the  manufacture  of  tin 
plates  there  occur  imperfect  sheets,  having  corners  and  edges 
broken,  spots  not  covered  with  tin,  etc.  These  are  packed  by 
themselves  in  separate  boxes,  and  denominated  as  "wasters," 
while  the  perfect  sheets  are  denominated  "prime"  plates.  The 
boxes  containing  "wasters"  or  imperfect  sheets  are  marked 
"ICW'or  " IX W,"  according  to  the  thickness;  so  that  where 
the  letter  "  W"  appears  on  a  box  it  shows  that  the  box  contains 
imperfect  sheets,  and  should  not  be  accepted  when  "prime"  tin 
is  specified. 

It  is  now  becoming  the  custom  to  stamp  every  sheet  with  the 
name  of  the  brand  and  thickness  before  leaving  the  factory. 


METALS. — TIN. 


139 


TABLE  18. 

TIN  PLATES  (TINNED  SHEET  STEEL). 


BRAND. 


1C 

IX 

IXX 

1C 

IX 

IXX 

IXXX 

IXXXX 

IX 

IXX 

THICKNESS,    B.  W.    GAUGE. 


29 

27 

26 

29 

27 

26 

25 

24.} 

27 

26 

NUMBER   OF   SHEETS    PER   BOX. 


225 

225 

225 

112 

112 

112  I   112 

112 

56 

56 

NET    WEIGHT   PER   BOX. 


Size. 
Inches. 

Pounds. 

Size. 
Inches. 

Pounds. 

1C  X  14 
12  X  12 
13  X  13 
14  X  14 
15  X  15 
16  X  16 
17  X  17 
10  X  20 
11  X  22 

108 
110 
132 
155 
178 
200 
230 
160 
190 

135 

138 
162 
193 
218 
248 
289 
195 
235 

160 
165 
192 
230 
260 
290 
340 
222 
275 

14  X  20 
20  X  28 
18  X  18 
20  X  20 
22  X  22 
24  X  24 
12  X  24 
13  X  26 
14  X  22 
14  X  24 
14  X  28 
14  X  56 
14  X  31 
14  X  60 
15  X  21 
16  X  19 
16  X  20 
16  X  22 

108 
216 
138 
160 
190 
220 
110 
132 
120 
130 
155 

i78 

120 
120 
127 
138 

1:35 
270 
158 
195 
235 
276 
138 
162 
148 
161 
193 

160 
320 
178 
222 
275 
330 
165 
192 
174 
190 
230 

180 

200 

180 

185 
200 

220 
240 

210 

240 

152 
147 
154 
170 

176 
170 
180 
200 

BRAND. 

DC 

DX 

DXX 

DXXX 

DXXXX 

THICKNESS,    B.  W.    GAUGE. 

28 

25 

24 

23 

22 

NUMBER  OF   SHEETS  PER  BOX. 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

NET   WEIGHT   PER  BOX. 

Size.     Inches. 

Pounds. 

12}  x   17 
15     X  21 

94 
130 

122 
180 

143 
213 

164 
244 

185 
275 

NUMBER   OF    SHEETS    PER    BOX. 

17  X  25   -j 

50 

50 

50 

50 

50 

94  IDs. 

122  Ibs. 

143  Ibs. 

164  Ibs. 

185  Ibs. 

140 


METALS. — TIN". 


W  B- 


1C"  X  20"  1C,    801bs.;    IX,   100  Ibs. 

X2°    IC'113    "       IX'   14°    " 
20    X  28    1C,  224    "       IX,   280    "  . 


10 


The  a  ea  of  roof  covered  by  any  sheet  is  less  by  2  inches  in 
width  and  1  incli  in  length  than  the  proposed  sheet. 


TABLE  19. 

WEIGHT  OF  SHEETS  OF  WROUGHT  IRON  AND  STEEL. 
WEIGHTS  PER  SQUARE  FOOT.     THICKNESS,  BIRMINGHAM  GAUGE. 


No. 
of 
Gauge. 

Thick- 
ness. 
Inches. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

No. 
of 
Gauge. 

Thick- 
ness. 
Inches. 

Iron. 

Steel. 

0000 

.454 

18  22 

18.46 

16 

.065 

2.61 

2.64 

000 

.425 

17.05 

17.28 

17 

.058 

2.33 

2.36 

00 

.38 

15.25 

15.45 

18 

.049 

1.97 

1.99 

0 

.34 

13.64 

13.82 

19 

.042 

1.69 

1.71 

20 

.035 

1.40 

1.42 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

.3 

.284 
.259 
.238 
.22 

12.04 
11.40 
10.39 
9.55 

8.83 

12.20 
11.55 
10.53 
9.68 
8.95 

21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

.032 
.028 
.025 
.022 
.02 

1.28 
1.12 
1.00 

.883 
.803 

1.30 
1.14 
1.02 
.895 
.813 

26 

.018 

.722 

.732 

27 

.016 

.642 

.651 

6 

7 
8 

.203 
.18 
.165 

8.15 
7.22 
6.62 

8.25 
7.32 
6.71 

28 
29 
30 

.014 
.013 
.012 

.562 
.522 

.482 

569 
.529 

.488 

9 
10 

.148 
.134 

5.94 
5  38 

6.02 
5.45 

31 
32 

.01 
.009 

.401 
.361 

.407 
.366 

33 

.008 

.321 

.325 

34 

.007 

.281 

.285 

11 

.12 

4.82 

4     a/f9 

4.88 

4      A  O 

35 

.005 

.201 

.203 

12 
13 

.109 
095 

.37 
3.81 

.4o 
3.86 

Si)    err 

7.704 

7.806 

14 

.088 

3.33 

3  37 

~jr*   & 

Wt.  cu 

.  ft..  . 

481.25 

487.75 

15 

.072 

2.89 

2.93 

in.  .  . 

.2787 

.2823 

METALS. — ZINC.  141 


Zinc. 

Zinc  is  obtained  from  tbe  carbonate,  sulphide,  tmd  red  oxide 
ores.  The  ore  is  roasted,  mixed  with  charcoal,  and  heated  in 
retorts.  The  zinc  is  converted  into  vapor,  which  is  condensed 
and  subsequently  fused. 

Zinc  is  a  rather  hard,  bluish-white  metal,  tough  and  not  easily 
broken  by  blows  of  the  hammer  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but 
when  heated  to  a  point  approaching  that  of  fusion  it  becomes  brit- 
tle. At  temperatures  between  210°  and  300°  F.  it  is  ductile  and 
malleable,  and  may  be  rolled  into  sheets,  and  drawn  into  moder- 
ately fine  wire,  which,  however,  possesses  but  little  tenacity. 

PROPEKTIES  OP  ZINC. 

Specific  gravity 7.14 

Weight  per  cubic  foot,  cast 428  Ibs. 

Melting-point,  780°  F.  ;  volatilizes  and  burns  in  the  air 
when  melted  with  bluish-white  fumes  of  zinc  oxide. 

Atomic  weight 65 

Specific  heat 096 

Conductivity  of  heat 36 

"   electricity 29  (silver  being  100) 

Tenacity 5000  to  6000  Ibs.  per.  sq.  in. 

Expansion  between  32°  and  212°  F 0.0088 

Zinc  is  used  for  making  brass  and  other  alloys,  and  for  coating 
iron  surfaces,  called  "galvanizing." 

For  the  purpose  of  galvanizing  the  iron  is  dipped  into  dilute 
sulphuric  ucid  to  remove  scale,  etc.,  and  then  plunged  into  a  bath 
of  molten  zinc  covered  with  sal-ammoniac. 

Combined  with  copper  it  forms  brass,  and  with  the  addition  of 
tin  and  other  metals  various  similar  alloys  are  formed,  which  are 
distinguished  by  specific  names. 

Zinc  forms  the  base  of  the  zinc  paints. 

Zinc  should  not  be  used  in  contact  with  copper,  iron,  or  lead, 
as  voltaic  action  is  set  up,  especially  when  moisture  is  present, 
thus  destroying  the  zinc.  Soot,  lime,  water  containing  lime,  and 
acid  woods,  such  as  oak,  are  also  very  destructive  of  it.  When 
first  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  it  is  speedily  cor- 
roded, but  the  film  of  carbonate  of  zinc  thus  formed  protects  it 
from  further  oxidation. 


142  METALS. — ALLOYS. 

Good  sheet  zinc  is  of  aii  uniform  color,  tough  and  easily  bent 
backwards  and  forwards  without  cracking. 

Inferior  zinc  is  of  a  darker  color  than  the  pure  metal  and  .of  a 
blotchy  appearance,  caused  by  the  presence  of  other  metals,  which 
set  up  a  galvanic  action  and  soon  destroy  the  zinc. 

Alloys. 

The  term  alloy  is  generally  applied  to  all  combinations  ob- 
tained by  fusing  metals  with  each  other,  except  when  mercury 
is  one  of  the  combining  metals,  in  which  case  the  compound  is 
called  amalgam.  Many  of  the  alloys  are  importantly  useful,  as 
brass,  bronze,  etc. 

The  specific  gravity  of  alloys  does  not  follow  the  ratio  of  that 
of  their  components;  it  is  sometimes  greater  and  sometimes  less 
than  the  mean,  showing  that  in  some  cases  expansion  has  taken 
place,  and  in  others  contraction. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  in  proportions  varying 
with  the  purpose  for  which  the  metal  is  required.  The  color  is 
dependent  upon  the  proportions.  It  is  rendered  brittle  by  contin- 
ued impacts,  is  more  malleable  than  copper  when  cold,  is  imprac- 
ticable of  being  forged,  as  its  zinc  melts  at  a  low  temperature. 
Its  malleability  is  decreased  as  the  proportion  of  zinc  is  increased. 
Its  tenacity  is  impaired  by  the  addition  of  lead  or  tin.  Its  fusi- 
bility is  governed  by  the  proportion  of  zinc. 

Bronze  is  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  the  proportions  being 
varied  for  different  purposes.  Large  castings  in  bronze  are  often 
not  homogeneous  throughout  their  mass  in  consequence  of  the 
difference  in  fusibility  of  the  copper  and  tin. 

Aluminum  Bronze  is  composed  of  from  90  to  95  per  cent  of 
copper  and  10  to  5  per  cent  of  aluminum. 

Phosphor  Bronze  is  any  bronze  or  brass  alloy  with  a  small 
proportion  of  phosphorus. 

Manganese  Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  pure  copper  with  from  2  to 
30  per  cent  of  manganese.  Its  color  is  usually  white. 


TABLE  20. 

ALLOYS  AND  COMPOSITIONS. 


143 


* 

Cu 

Zu 

Si. 

Ni 

Pb 

Sb 

Bi 

Al 

A            t 

55 
95 
3  7 

24 

89" 
10.5 

14.3 

7  8 

21 

Aluminum,  brown  

'7\Z 

.... 

5 

Brass,  common  

84.3 
75 
79.3 
92.2 
90 
80 
88.8 
74.3 
50 
88.9 
90 
10 
3 

rv 

5.2 
25 
6.4 

hard... 
"      instruments  
"       locom.  bearings 
"      Pinchbeck  
"      red  Tombac  
"      rolled 

.... 

1 
20 
11.2 
22.3 
31 
2.8 

80" 
90 

9 

'3'.  4 

'k'.k 
10 

10 

19 

"      very  tenacious.. 
"      wheels,  valves., 
white  

.... 

.... 

46" 

47 

.... 

.... 

Ik                        41 

67 
66 

33 
34 

"      yellow,  fine  
Britannia  metal  
When  fused  add 

25" 

25 
25 

25 

Bronze,  red  

87 
86 
67.2 
90 
93 
95 
80 
93 
92 
90 
91.4 
16 
58.1 
40.4 
80 
69 
87  5 
72 
33.3 
40  4 
49.5 
81.6 
90 
77 
80 
87  5 

13 
11.1 
31.2 

5^5 
1 
17.2 
25.4 
5.6 

2.9 
1.6 

10 

5 

20 

8 
10 
1.4 
1 

'2'6 
10.1 
31 
12  5 

.... 

"        yellow  
"       gun-met.,  large 
"          "      "     small 
"          "     "     soft.. 
"       cymbals    
"       medals  
phosphor  

"       statuary  
Bush-metal  
Chinese  silver  

Iron  :  r  :  Cobalt  of  Iron 

... 

u 
9 
> 

i 

2 

li'.e 

31.6 

T.7 
1 

4^3 

:::. 

"       white  copper. 
Church-bells  .... 

Clocks,  musical  bells. 
Clock-bells         

33^4 
25.4 
24 

3 

26.5 

ISA 
9 
23 
20 
12.5 

33.3 
31  6 
24 

1 

1.5 

German  silver  
"           "     fine.    .. 

— 

.... 

2.6 
2.5 

House-bells  
Lathe-bushes  .  .   

£ 

^ 
3 

8.3 

Arsen.:  :  :  : 

"    hard 
Metal  that  expands  i 
in  cooling  .  .  .  .  f 
Muntz  metal,10  oz.  leac 
Pewter  best  

77.4 

7 

15.6 

.... 

75 
26" 

16.7 

i4" 

60 

40 

86" 

80 

Sheathing-metal  

56 
66 
50 
86 
66.6 
33  4 

45 

21 
4 

22 

29 
6 
33.4 
66  6 

12 

Steam-metal  
Telescopic  mirrors    .  . 
Temper 

4 

.... 

rtar..6.5 
1.3 

Type-metal   and  ste-  j 
reotype  plates  1 
White  metal 

75 

87.5 

...4. 
ic.  .2.  5 

25 
12.5 
56.8 

Crear 

[Quid 

n  of  ta 
.lime 

'7  A 

25.8 

12.3 

28^4 
4.4 
I  Mai 
}Sal 

*nesia. 
arn'ui 

"     hard  
Oreide  

69.8 
73 

*  Cu  =  copper;  Zn  =  zinc;  Sn  =  tin;  Ni  =  nickel;  Pb  =  lead;  Sb  =  anti- 
mony; Bi  =  bismuth;  Al  =  aluminum. 


144 


METALS.— SOLDERS. 


Solders. 

SOLDER  is  the  name  given  to  several  different  alloys  used  for 
the  purpose  of  making  joints  between  pieces  of  metal. 

The  composition  of  the  solder  used  in  connection  with  the  dif- 
ferent metals  varies  immensely,  and  the  proportions  in  which 
each  different  kind  of  solder  is  mixed  also  vary  according  to 
circumstances. 

Solder  must  be  more  fusible  than  the  metals  it  is  intended  to 
unite. 

Hard  solders  are  those  which  fuse  only  at  a  red  heat. 

Soft  solders  melt  at  a  very  low  degree  of  heat. 

TABLE  21. 
COMPOSITION  OF  SOLDER. 


.59 

Name  or  Use. 

•s| 

1! 

Jl 

Bismuth. 
Parts. 

Brass. 
Parts. 

Pewter. 
Parts. 

Copper. 
Parts. 

482°  F 

Plumbers',  coarse  (hard) 

25 

75 

350    " 

'•         fine  (soft) 

67 

33 

372    " 

•'        fusible 

50 

50 

200    " 

"         very  fusible.  .  . 
For  brass  

25 

25 

'33' 

50 

'67' 

.... 

"    tin                      

161 

I6i 

67 

25 

75 

"   copper 

47 

53 

"         "      (hard) 

33 

67 

Soldering.— The  surfaces  to  be  united  must  be  perfectly  clean 
and  freed  from  oxide,  which  would  prevent  adhesion  and  the  for- 
mation of  an  alloy  between  the  solder  and  the  metal. 

As  the  surfaces  when  heated  are  very  easily  oxidized,  they  must 
be  protected  at  the  time.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  flux  which 
covers  the  surface  and  protects  it  from  the  air. 

Fluxes  for  Soldering. — The  flux  is  varied  according  to  the 
metals  to  be  united. 

Metals.  Fluxes. 

r\                A  \  \  Sal-ammoniac,  chloride  of 

Copper  and  brass j      zinc,  or  rosin 

Tinned  iron Chloride  of  zinc  or  rosin 

Zinc Chloride  of  zinc 

Lead Tallow  or  rosin 

Lead  and  tin.   Eosiu  and  sweet  oil 

Soldering-fluid  is  a  concentrated  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc. 


TESTS    OF   MATERIALS.  145 

Tests  for  Materials. 

The  tests  to  which  materials  used  for  specific  purposes  are  sub- 
jected are  ordiuarily.as  follows. 

AXLES. — Drop  test,  with  tension  test  if  further  knowledge  is 
desired. 

BOILEII  IRON. — Plates  by  tension,  forging,  and  punching 
tests,  and  bending  cold  and  hot.  Shapes,  the  same,  with  welding 
test  if  shape  is  to  be  welded  in  use.  Rivets,  by  tension,  bending, 
and  forging. 

BOILER  STEEL. — Tension,  hardening,  and  forging  tests,  and 
bending  hot  and  cold. 

HIGH  STRUCTURAL  STEEL. — Tension,  bending,  and  hardening. 

MILD  STRUCTURAL  STEEL. — Tension  and  bending  tests,  with 
welding,  hardening,  and  annealing  test  if  the  metal  is  to  be  used 
for  welded  members. 

STRUCTURAL  IRON. — Tension,  bending,  and  welding  tests. 

SHIP  MATERIAL. — Plates,  tension  and  cold  bending  tests. 
Shapes,  tension  and  hot  and  cold  bending  tests.  Rivets,  tension, 
bending,  and  forging  tests. 

RAILS.— Drop  test  and  bending  test,  with  tension  test  if  further 
information  is  desired. 

TIRES. — Drop  test,  with  tension  test  for  further  knowledge. 

WIRE. — Tension  and  winding  tests,  and  tests  by  bending  back 
and  forth  around  a  turned  stud  of  same  diameter  as  the  wire. 

WIRE  ROPK. — Tension  and  longitudinal  impact  tests. 

STEEL  PINS — Test -specimens  are  usually  cut  from  the  ends  of 
blooms  which  have  been  forged  into  sizes  convenient  for  the  pur- 
pose. Tested  by  tension  and  bending.  Pius  of  over  6  inches 
in  diameter  are  in  most  cases  drilled  through  their  larger  axis 
with  holes  from  £  inch  to  1|  inches  in  diameter,  for  the  purpose 
of  testing  the  soundness  through  the  entire  length. 

BOLTS  AND  RIVETS. — Tension,  shearing,  and  forging  tests. 

CAST  IRON. — Tension,  bending,  and  compression  tests. 

COPPER  ALLOYS  AND  SOFT  METALS. — Tension  and  compres- 
sion tests. 

WOODS. —Tension,  compression,  and  transverse  tests. 

CEMENTS  AND  MORTARS. — Tension  and  compression  tests. 

BUILDING  BRICKS  AND  STONES. — Compression  and  transverse 
tests. 

PAVING  BRICKS  AND-  STONES. — Compression,  transverse,  im- 
pact, and  abrasion  tests. 


146  TESTING    STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS. 


Testing  Strength  of  Materials. 

The  tests  to  which  structural  materials  are  subjected  iii  order 
to  ascertain  their  s'reugth  or  resistance  to  deformation  when  in 
use  are  :  tests  for  compression,  or  resistance  to  crushing;  tension, 
or  resistance  to  teaming  asunder  ;  and  flexion,  or  resistance  to 
breaking  under  transverse  strain. 

The  testing  is  performed  in  suitable  machines  provided  with 
apparatus  for  measuring  the  force  of  the  required  stress.  Several 
forms  of  these  machines  are  in  the  market  and  descriptions  can 
be  obtained  from  the  manufacturers. 

The  preparing  of  the  specimens,  carrying  out  the  test,  and 
interpreting  the  results  require  great  care  and  study  to  avoid  the 
reaching  of  erroneous  conclusions,  and  should  not  be  undertaken 
by  those  not  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  subject  and  with 
the  particular  material  to  be  tested. 

The  testing-machine  should  be  tested  to  determine  whether  its 
weighing  apparatus  is  accurate,  and  whether  it  is  so  made  and 
adjusted  that  in  the  test  of  a  properly  made  specimen  the  line  of 
strain  is  absolutely  in  line  with  the  axis  of  the  specimen.  If  it  is 
not  the  result  will  be  erroneous,  because,  the  stress  not  being 
uniformly  distributed  on  the  cross-section,  one  side  will  have  to 
yield  prematurety,  and  thus  the  resistance  of  the  specimen  will 
be  overcome  in  detail ;  for  want  of  attention  to  this  particular 
many  tests  do  not  afford  reliable  results. 

The  speed  with  which  the  load  is  applied  is  an  important  ele- 
ment and  should  be  carefully  noted  and  recorded. 

In  tensile  tests  wrought  iron  and  soft  steel  can  be  made  to  show 
a  higher  strength  by  keeping  them  under  strain  for  a  greater 
length  of  time.  The  pulling  speed  should  not  be  less  than  half 
an  inch  per  minute  and  not  more  than  three  inches  per  minute. 

In  testing  soft  alloys — copper,  tin,  zinc,  and  the  like — which 
flow  under  constant  strain  their  highest  apparent  strength  is 
obtained  by  testing  them  rapidly. 

Test-specimens. — In  determining  the  size  of  the  specimens 
for  tensile  tests  the  strength  of  the  machine  must  first  be  taken 
into  account.  It  is  extremely  convenient  and  it  simplifies  the 
subsequent  calculation  to  make  them  of  such  a  size  that  their 
sectional  area  will  be  a  convenient  multiple  or  fraction  of  a  square 
inch. 

Tension. — The  form  of  test-piece  generally  adopted  for  flat 
bars,  plates,  and  shapes  is  a  parallel  strip  which  varies  in  length 


TESTING    STRENGTH    OF    MATERIALS.  147 

according  to  the  capacity  of  the  machine  on  which  it  is  to  be 
tested.  The  ends  are  T-shaped  by  cutting  fillets  with  a  radius  of 
about  half  an  inch,  so  that  the  jaws  of  the  machine  can  take  a 
firm  grip.  In  some  cases  the  specimens  are  turned  in  a  lathe  to 
the  required  dimensions  and  forms.  The  section  should  be  uni- 
form for  not  less  than  five  inches  of  its  length. 

The  data  obtained  from  a  tensile  test  are  :  1.  Tensile  strength 
in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  original  area.  2.  Elongation  per 
cent  of  a  stated  length  between  gauge- marks,  usually  8  inches. 
3.  Elastic  limit  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  original  area. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  compare  records  of  elongation  it  is  nec- 
essary not  only  to  have  a  uniform  length  of  section  between 
gauge-marks,  but  to  adopt  a  uniform  method  of  measuring  the 
elongation  to  compensate  for  the  difference  between  the  apparent 
elongation  when  the  piece  breaks  near  one  of  the  gauge- marks 
and  when  it  breaks  midway  between  them.  The  following 
method  is  recommended  (Trans,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  XI,  p.  622); 

Mark  on  the  specimen  divisions  of  |  iucli  each.  After  fracture 
measure  from  the  point  of  fracture  the  length  of  eight  of  the 
marked  spaces  on  each  fractured  portion  (or  7  +  on  one  side  and 
8  -(-  on  the  other  if  the  fracture  is  not  at  one  of  the  marks).  The 
sum  of  these  measurements,  less  8  inches,  is  the  elongation  of  8 
inches  of  the  original  length.  If  the  fracture  is  so  near  one  end 
of  the  specimen  that  7  4"  spaces  are  not  left  on  the  shorter  por- 
tion, then  take  the  measurement  of  as  many  spaces  (with  the 
fractional  part  next  to  the  fracture)  as  are  left,  and  for  the  spaces 
lacking  add  the  measurement  of  as  many  corresponding  spaces  of 
the  longer  portion  as  are  necessary  to  make  the  7  -f-  spaces. 

During  the  performance  of  the  test  the  operator  has  to  watch 
carefully  the  behavior  of  the  specimen  in  order  to  note  its  gen- 
eral character.  Special  care  is  required  to  note  the  reaching  of 
the  elastic  limit,  or  the  point  at  which  the  rate  of  stretch  or  other 
deformation  begins  to  increase.  When  this  point  is  reached  the 
future  behavior  of  the  material  will  altogether  depend  on  its  pre- 
cise nature.  If  it  is  of  a  soft  and  ductile  nature  it  will  be  drawn 
out  to  a  small  diameter  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  point  of  frac- 
ture before  the  final  rupture  takes  place.  If  it  is  hard  and  rigid 
it  may  not  be  drawn  out  to  any  great  extent,  but  may  break,  with 
very  little  reduction  of  area,  and  exhibit  a  high  tenacity. 

As  the  critical  point  is  being  approached  the  utmost  care  has 
to  be  observed  to  avoid  rashness  in  the  application  of  the  weight 
and  to  secure  reliable  results. 


148          CONTRACTION    OR   SHRINKAGE    OF   METALS. 

Compression. — Specimens  for  ascertaining  the  resistance  to 
compression  are  generally  made  in  the  form  of  cylinders,  cubes, 
or  rectangular  prisms  with  square  ends,  of  such  dimensions  as 
can  be  overcome  by  the  power  of  the  testing-machine. 

The  dimensions  of  the  specimen  and  its  behavior,  i.e.,  how  it 
splits  or  fractures,  bulges,  bends,  buckles,  or  flattens,  and  the 
loads  which  produce  such  effects,  are  noted. 

Transverse  Strength — Tests  for  resistance  to  transverse  strain 
are  made  on  prismatic  bars,  whose  ends  rest  on  knife-edges,  and 
have  a  strain  imposed  at  the  centre,  either  by  loading  a  plate 
suspended  on  a  knife-edge  or  by  means  of  levers. 

The  dimensions  of  the  specimen,  distance  between  supports, 
deflection,  and  breaking  weight  are  the  points  to  be  noted. 

Impact  or  Drop  Tests  are  applied  on  full-sized  specimens 
by  means  of  a  weight  falling  through  a  given  distance  (usually  a 
weight  of  one  ton  falling  through  a  distance  of  from  20  to  30 
feet).  The  number  of  blows  required  to  cause  rupture,  the 
behavior  of  the  material  under  the  blows,  the  character  of  the 
fibre,  and  the  contraction  of  area  are  noted.  The  specimen  is  so 
arranged  that  the  blows  act  in  the  direction  of  its  length. 

Contraction  or  Shrinkage  of  Metals. 

The  allowance  necessary  for  shrinkage  varies  for  different 
kinds  of  metal  and  the  different  conditions  under  which  they  are 
cast.  For  castings  where  the  thickness  runs  about  one  inch,  c.'ist 
under  ordinary  conditions,  the  following  allowance  can  be  made  : 

For  cast  iron |  inch  per  foot 

"  "  brass iV  "  "  " 

"  "  copper T«ff     "  "  " 

"  "  steel £      "  "  " 

"  "  lead T5s     "  "  " 

"  "  malleable  iron |      "  "  " 

"  "  zinc •&     "  "  " 

"  "  tin  3*5     "  "  " 

"  "  aluminum T3g     "  "  " 

"  "  britanuia ^     "  "  " 

Thicker  castings  under  the  same  conditions  will  shrink  less 
nud  thinner  ones  more  than  this  standard.  The  quality  of  the 
material  and  the  manner  of  moulding  and  cooling  will  also  make 
a  difference. 


CONTRACTION   OR  SHRINKAGE   OF   METALS.         149 


To  COMPUTE  WEIGHT  OF  CAST  METALS  BY  WEIGHT  OF 
PATTERN.— Multiply  weight  of  pattern  by  the  following  coeffi- 
cients : 

CAST  IRON. 

Pattern  made  of  Coefficient. 

White  pine 14 

Oak 9 

Beech 9.7 

Birch 10.6 

Linden , 13.4 

Alder 12. 6 

Pear 10 

BRASS. 
White  pine 15 

LEAD. 

White  pine 22 

TIN. 
White  pine ...  14 

ZINC. 
White  pine 13.5 

Very  accurate  results  cannot  be  expected,  as  the  specific  gravity 
of  wood  as  well  as  of  the  metal  iluctuates. 

Reductions  for  Round  Cores  and  Core-prints.— Multiply  the 
square  of  the  diameter  by  the  length  of  the  core  in  inches,  and 
the  product  by  0.017  is  the  weight  of  the  pine  core  to  be  de- 
ducted from  the  weight  of  the  pattern. 

WEIGHT  OF  CASTINGS  DETERMINED  FROM  WEIGHT  OF  PATTERN. 


A  Pattern  Weighing  One 
Pound  made  of 


Will  Weigh  when  Cast  in 


Cast  Iron.     Z,nc.      Copper. 


Mahogany,  Nassau 

"          Honduras 

"          Spanish 

Pine,  red 

"     white 

"     yellow  


Lbs. 
10.7 
12.9 
8.5 
12.5 
16.7 


14. 


Lbs. 
10.4 
12.7 
8.2 
12.1 
16.1 
13.6 


Lbs. 
12.8 
15.3 
10.1 
14.9 
19.8 
16.7 


Lbs. 
12.2 
14.6 
9.7 
14.2 
19.0 
16.0 


Lbs. 
12.5 
15.0 
9.9 
14.6 
19.5 
16.5 


150  HISCELLAHEOUS  MATERIALS.— SAKD. 


VH.    MISCELLANEOUS  MATERIALS. 

Sand. 

Sand  is  an  aggregation  of  loose,  incoherent  grains  of  a  crystal- 
line structure,  derived  from  the  disintegration  of  rocks  and  other 
mineral  matter.  It  is  called  "silicious,"  "argillaceous/,"  or 
'•'  calcareous,"  according  to  the  character  of  the  rock  from  which 
it  is  derived.  It  is  obtained  from  pits,  beds  of  rivers,  the  sea- 
shore, or  may  be  made  by  grinding  sandstones.  The  sand 
derived  from  the  quartzose  rocks  is  the  most  preferred  for  build- 
ing purposes.  As  substitutes  for  sand,  scoriae,  slag,  cinder,  and 
burnt  clay  are  frequently  used. 

PIT-SAND  has  an  angular  grain  and  a  somewhat  rough  surface, 
but  often  contains  clay  and  organic  matter;  when  washed  and 
screened  it  furnishes  a  good  sand  for  general  purposes. 

RIVER-SAND  has  more  or  less  rounded  grains,  and  may  or  may 
not  contain  clay  or  other  impurities.  It  is  commonly  of  fine 
grain,  is  often  white  in  color,  and  when  clean  is  suited  for  plas- 
tering. 

SEA-SAND  has  also  more  or  less  rounded  grains.  It  contains 
alkaline  salts,  which  attract  and  retain  moisture  and  cause  efflor- 
escence when  used  in  brick  masonry. 

Both  sea-  and  river-sand  are  deficient  in  the  sharpness  required 
for  good  mortar  on  account  of  the  attrition  they  are  exposed  to, 
but  they  are  suitable  for  plastering,  and  in  many  localities  the 
lack  of  more  suitable  material  obliges  their  use  for  mortar,  in 
which  case  they  should  be  thoroughly  washed. 

USE  OF  SAND. — The  uses  of  sand  are  various,  as  for  mortar, 
for  distributing  the  pressure  of  structures  in  soft  soils,  as  a  founda- 
tion and  joint-filling  for  block  and  brick  pavements,  as  piles  in 
foundations,  for  plaster,  etc. 

The  use  of  sand  in  mortar  is  to  prevent  excessive  shrinkage, 
and  to  save  the  cost  of  lime  or  cement.  Ordinarily  it  is  not  acted 
upon  by  lime,  its  presence  in  mortar  being  purely  mechanical. 
Rich  lime  adheres  better  to  the  surface  of  sand  than  to  its  own 
particles,  hence  it  is  considered  to  strengthen  lime  mortar. 
With  cement  it  weakens  the  mortar. 


MISCELLANEOUS    M  ATE  It!  A.  LS.—  SAND. 


151 


SIZE  OF  SAND. — When  the  grains  of  sand  range  from  T1ff,  to  £ 
inch  it  is  called"  coarse  "  sand;  when  from  fa  to  ^¥,  "  fine  "  sand; 
and  from  ^  to  ^  "very  fine"  sand;  and  when  composed  of  sizes 
varying  within  these  limits,  "  mixed  "  sand. 

The  FINENESS  of  sand  is  measured  by  passing  through  sieves 
having  the  following  dimensions: 

TABLE  22. 

SIZE    OF    SIEVES    FOR    SIFTII\fG    SAND. 


Number  of 
Sieve. 

Number  of 
Holes  per 
Lineal  Inch. 

Number  of 
Holes  per 
Square  Inch. 

Length  of  Side 
of  Hole. 
Inch 

Diameter  of 
Wire. 
Inch. 

j 

20 

400 

.08101 

.01899 

2 

30 

900 

.02119 

.01214 

3 

50 

2500 

.01119 

.00881 

4 

80 

6400 

.00599 

.00051 

5 

170 

28900 

.00309 

.00279 

WEIGHT  OP  SAND. — Dry  sand  weighs  from  80  to  115  pounds 
per  cubic  foot,  or  about  one  to  one  and  a  half  tons  per  cubic 
yard. 

The  VOIDS  of  ordinary  sand  range  from  0.3  to  0.5  of  the  volume. 
The  more  uneven  the  grains  in  size  the  smaller  the  percentage  of 
voids. 

Testing  Sand.— The  CLEANNESS  of  sand  may  be  tested  by 
rubbing  a  little  of  the  dry  sand  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  after 
throwing  it  out  noticing  the  amount  of  dust  left  on  the  hand. 
The  cleanness  may  also  be  judged  by  pressing  the  sand  between 
the  fingers  while  it  is  damp;  if  the  sand  is  clean  it  will  not  stick 
together,  but  will  immediately  fall  apart  when  the  pressure  is 
removed. 

The  SHARPNESS  of  sand  can  be  determined  approximately  by 
rubbing  a  few  grains  in  the  hand  or  by  crushing  it  near  the  ear 
and  noting  if  a  grating  sound  is  produced;  but  an  examination 
through  a  small  lens  is  better. 

TO  DETERMINE  THE  PRESENCE  OF  SALT  AND  CLAY. — Shake  Up 

a  small  portion  of  the  sand  with  pure  distilled  water  in  a  perfectly 
clean  stoppered  bottle,  and  allow  the  sand  to  settle ;  add  a  few 
drops  of  pure  nitric  acid  and  then  add  a  few  drops  of  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver.  A  white  precipitate  indicates  a  tolerable 
amount  of  salt;  a  faint  cloudiness  may  be  disregarded. 

The  presence  of  clay  may  be  ascertained  by  agitating  a  small 
quantity  of  the  sand  in  a  glass  of  clear  water  and  allowing  it  to 


152  MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — GRAVEL. 

stand  for  a  few  hours  to  settle;  the  sand  aud  clay  will  separate 
into  two  well-defined  layers. 

Preparation  of  Sand.— SCREENING. — Sand  is  prepared  for 
use  by  screening  to  remove  the  pebbles  and  coarser  grains.  The 
fineness  of  the  meshes  of  the  screen  depends  upon  the  kind  of 
•work  in  which  the  sand  is  to  be  used. 

WASHING. — Sand  containing  loam  or  earthy  matters  is  cleansed 
by  washing  with  water,  either  in  a  machine  specially  designed 
for  the  purpose  and  called  a  sand-washer,  or  by  agitating  with 
water  in  tubs  or  boxes  provided  with  holes  to  permit  the  dirty 
water  to  flow  away. 

DRYING. — When  dry  sand  is  required  it  is  obtained  by  evapor- 
ating the  moisture  either  in  a  machine  called  a  sand-dryer,  or  by 
heating  the  sand  in  large  shallow  pans  of  wrought  iron  or  on 
sheets  of  boiler-plate  supported  on  stones  with  a  wood  fire  placed 
underneath. 


Gravel, 

£  Gravel  is  an  accumulation  of  small  rounded  stones  which  vary 
in  size  from  a  small  pea  to  a  walnut  or  something  larger.  It  is 
often  intermingled  with  other  substances,  such  as  sand,  loam 
clay,  etc.,  from  each  of  which  it  derives  a  distinctive  name. 

The  uses  of  gravel  are  various,  as:  for  concrete,  for  lining  at 
the  back  of  retaining  walls  and  slope  pavements,  as  a  filling  with 
bituminous  cement  for  the  joints  in  block  pavements  and  for  tar 
and  asphalt  roofs,  etc. 

For  use  it  is  assorted  into  different  sizes  by  screening  and  whec 
necessary  washed. 

WEIGHT  OF  GRAVEL. — A  cubic  yard  of  pit-gravel  weighs 
about  3300  pounds;  mixed  with  clay  it  weighs  about  155  pounds 
per  cubic  foot. 

Shingle  is  the  small  stones  found  on  the  shores  of  rivers  or  the 
sea. 

Grit  is  fine  gravel,  the  pebbles  of  which  do  not  exceed  one  half 
inch  in  diameter.  The  name  grit  is  also  applied  to  hard  sand- 
stone. 


MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — CLAY.  153 

Clay. 

Pure  clay  consists  of  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina  in  com- 
bination with  other  substances  derived  from  the  felspathic  rocks, 
which  by  their  disintegration  and  decomposition  have  formed 
clay.  The  purest  form  of  clay  containing  the  largest  proportion 
of  alumina  is  known  as  kaolin,  the  name  of  a  mountain  in  China 
where  a  pure  white  clay  is  worked;  it  is  a  pure  white,  dull, 
earthy,  unctuous  substance. 

Pure  clay  is  soft,  more  or  less  unctuous  to  the  touch,  white 
and  opaque,  and  when  breathed  upon  emits  a  characteristic  odor. 
It  is  infusible  and  insoluble  either  by  water,  nitric  or  hydrochloric 
acid.  It  may  be  converted  by  water  into  a  doughy,  tenacious, 
plastic  mass.  It  absorbs  water  with  avidity,  but  when  burned 
at  a  sufficiently  high  temperature  it  becomes  hard  and  brittle  and 
loses  almost  wholly  or  altogether  this  property  of  combining  with 
water. 

In  nature  the  greater  number  of  clays  are  found  intermingled 
with  other  substances  foreign  to  them  in  their  original  localities. 

The  usual  constituents  of  clay  are  alumina,  silica,  iron,  lime, 
magnesia,  and  alkalies,  all  of  which  modify  the  character  of  the 
clay  and  its  applications,  according  as  one  or  other  of  these  ingre- 
dients predominates. 

Clay  and  sand  mechanically  mixed  constitute  loam;  clay  and 
carbonate  of  lime  mechanically  mixed,  marl. 

Clay  is  of  various  colors,  as  red,  blue,  brown,  yellow  or  ochre, 
and  variegated.  The  color  is  due  to  the  presence  of  metallic 
oxides,  usually  iron  and  some  organic  substances. 

REFRACTORY  CLAYS  are  those  which  resist  fusion  by  the  great- 
est heat  of  an  ordinary  furnace.  They  consist  mainly  of  alumina 
and  silica,  the  silica  predominating.  They  are  used  for  the  manu- 
facture of  fire-bricks  and  crucibles. 


154     GYPSUM — PLASTER   OF    PARIS — MINERAL   WOOL. 


Gypsum — Plaster  of  Paris. 

Gypsum  is  a  compound  of  sulphate  of  lime  with  water.  It  is 
found  stratified  and  in  various  conditions  :  crystalline,  laminated, 
granular,  and  earthy.  It  is  translucent,  usually  white  or  gray, 
has  a  pearly  lustre,  and  can  be  easily  scratched  with  a  knife. 

By  calcining  g3^psum  the  water  is  expelled,  and  it  becomes  a 
dry  white  powder  of  sulphate  of  lime,  known  as  "plaster  of 
Paris."  When  this  powder  is  rapidly  mixed  with  water  so  as  to 
form  a  paste  it  immediately  begins  to  combine  with  a  part  of  the 
water,  so  as  to  reproduce  gypsum  in  a  compact  granular  state; 
heat  is  at  the  same  time  developed,  which  hastens  the  evaporation 
of  the  superfluous  water.  The  mixture  should  be  made  by  putting 
the  powder  into  the  water,  not  the  water  amongst  the  powder. 

The  principal  use  of  plaster  of  Paris  is  for  plastering  and  inte- 
rior decoration.  (See  under  Plastering.) 

Mineral  Wool. 

Mineral  wool,  slag  wool,  or  silicate  cotton  is  a  glass-like  fibre 
produced  from  blast-furnace  slag.  The  process  consists  in  sub- 
jecting a  small  stream  of  the  molten  slag  to  the  force  of  a  jet  of 
steam  or  compressed  air,  which  divides  it  into  innumerable 
small  shot  or  spherules,  forming  a  spray  of  spark-like  objects. 
Threads  are  formed  and  detached  from  the  main  body  of  the 
stream,  their  length  and  fineness  being  dependent  upon  the 
fluidity  and  composition  of  the  material  under  treatment.  When 
the  slag  is  of  the  proper  consistency  the  spherules  are  small  at 
the  outset,  and  are  to  some  extent  absorbed  into  the  fibre,  but 
in  no  case  will  they  entirely  disappear ;  so  that  a  great  portion 
of  the  wool  contains  them  they  are  separated  by  riddling.  That 
portion  of  the  thread  which  is  carried  away  and  separated  from 
the  shot  by  the  air  currents  is  very  light,  weighing  about  14 
pounds  per  cubic  foot,  and  forms  the  grade  called  "extra" 
grade;  the  balance  of  the  fibre  weighs  about  24  pounds  per  cubic 
foot,  and  is  called  "  ordinary  "  grade.  A  cubic  foot  of  the  slag 
weighs  about  192  pounds.  In  the  manufacture  of  mineral  wool 
slags  of  a  slightly  acid  composition  are  preferred,  though  it  is  said 
that  any  scoriaceous  substances  can  be  used. 

When  gathered  up  the  threads  and  fragments  appear  to  lie  in 
all  possible  directions  with  relation  to  each  other,  in  consequence 


MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — MINERAL   WOOL.    155 

of  which  there  is  no  parallelism  or  common  direction  to  the 
threads,  so  that  the  air-spaces  are  angular  in  shape  and  micro- 
scopic in  size.  The  wool  is  collected  in  a  large  chamber,  where  it 
settles  in  a  bulky  state,  having  a  fleecy  appearance.  About  80 
per  cent  of  the  product  has  to  be  riddled. 

The  fibres  or  threads  vary  in  thickness  from  that  of  common 
spun  glass  to  an  extreme  tenuity,  represented  by  fractions  of  a 
thousandth  of  an  inch.  The  bulbs  may  be  generally  described  as 
solid  bodies  containing  more  or  less  numerous  vesicles  or  hollows; 
the  more  solid  ones  are  transparent  or  show  iridescence. 

Mineral  wool  is  fire-  and  vermin-proof,  and  is  used  for  insulat- 
ing heated  surfaces,  for  protection  against  cold,  deadening  sound, 
fire-proofing,  vermin-proofing,  and  for  cleaning  galvanized  wire, 
etc.  It  is  applied  Joose.  But,  although  one  of  the  most  valuable 
non-conducting  substances,  it  requires  to  be  used  with  precaution 
against  the  absorption  of  moisture,  in  which  case  it  is  liable  to 
decompose,  the  sulphur  originally  contained  in  the  sing  oxidizing 
to  sulphuric  acid,  and  forming  soluble  sulphates,  which  attack 
the  metallic  surfaces  with  which  the  wool  is  in  contact.  It  has  been 
found  that  not  only  the  mineral  acids,  but  also  organic  acids,  are 
capable  of  decomposing  it  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and  heat, 
and  the  fine  fibrous  condition  of  the  wool  renders  it  still  more 
subject  to  decomposition  than  solid  slag.  As  the  non-conducting 
property  depends  upon  the  interstitial  air-space,  it  is  essential  that 
it  should  not  become  packed. 

One  ton  will  cover  about  1800  square  feet  one  inch  thick. 

"  Extra  "  grade  is  put  up  in  bags  containing  from  25  to  45 
pounds;  each;  "ordinary"  grade  is  put  up  in  bags  containing  from 
60  to  90  pounds. 


156    MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS.— ASBESTOS— TAR. 


Asbestos. 

Asbestos  is  a  fibrous  mineral  composed  principally  of  silica 
and  magnesia.  It  consists  of  fine  crystalline  fibres  which  vary 
greatly  in  character,  being  sometimes  of  a  long  staple  or  fibre, 
and  sometimes  flocculent  or  like  woody  fibre,  or  resembling  clay 
or  soapstone,  or  even  in  a  granular  form.  In  color  it  ranges 
from  white  with  greenish  and  metallic  reflections  through  many 
shades  of  yellow  to  dull  brown  or  reddish.  The  reddish  varieties 
appear  to  be  colored  with  an  admixture  of  oxide  of  iron.  The 
most  valuable  property  of  asbestos  is  its  power  to  resist  high 
temperatures,  which  is  indicated  by  its  name  "uncousuinable." 
Some  varieties  are  unaffected  by  a  heat  up  to  2000°  F.  Other 
kinds  can  only  be  fused  at  3000°  F.,  and  some  kinds  have  been 
submitted  to  a  temperature  of  5000°  F.  without  apparent  change. 
Some  kinds  when  heated  to  a  sufficient  temperature  to  drive  off 
the  contained  water  become  brittle  and  may  easily  be  crumbled 
between  the  finger  and  thumb.  As  a  rule  it  fuses  with  difficulty 
before  the  blowpipe.  It  feels  soft  and  greasy  to  the  touch,  like 
soapstone  or  talc,  but  is  clean,  and  in  the  form  of  flour  can  be 
rubbed  away  between  the  fingers  to  an  invisible  powder. 

The  mineral  when  consisting  of  long,  tough,  and  flexible  fibres 
is  usually  distinguished  from  the  commoner  varieties  of  asbestos 
by  the  name  "  chry sotile. "  Such  material  is  used  for  weaving 
into  fabrics. 

Tar. 

COAL-TAR  is  produced  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of 
gas  from  coal.  When  distilled  it  produces,  in  various  stages, 
first,  coal-naphtha,  which  is  useful  for  dissolving  rubber,  etc.; 
then  dead-oil  or  creosote,  used  for  preserving  timber  ;  and  lastly, 
tar  or  pitch,  which  is  used  for  roofing,  waterproofing  walls,  etc., 
and  as  an  ingredient  for  varnishes,  and  for  filling  the  joints  in 
stone-block  pavements,  coating  cast-iron  pipes,  etc. 

Coal-tar  is  very  brittle  at  the  freezing-point  and  softens  and 
flows  between  70°  and  115°  F.  It  has  a  strong  pungent  odor. 

Paving  Pitch,  used  for  filling  joints  in  stone-block  pavements, 
etc.,  is  the  residue  obtained  from  distilling  coal-tar,  and  is  desig- 
nated as  Distillate  No.  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  according  to  its  density  or 
specific  gravity.  The  character  of  the  distillate  varies  with  the 
system  and  temperature  employed. 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATE  III  A  LS.  —  CREOSOTE.  157 

WOOD  TAK  is  produced  by  the  distillation  of  pine  and  other 
resinous  trees;  the  residue  left  after  distillation  is  called  pitch. 

MINEHAL  TAR  is  obtained  by  distilling  bituminous  sbales  (see 
Asplialtum). 

Creosote. 

Creosote  oil  is  a  product  obtained  in  distilling  coal-tar.  It  is 
an  oily  liquid,  varying  in  composition  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  coal  from  which  it  is  obtained,  and  containing  hydro- 
carbons of  different  degrees  of  volatility  and  varying  antiseptic 
qualities. 

The  requisites  for  creosote  oil  used  in  the  preservation  of 
timber  are: 

To  contain  8  per  cent  of  tar  acids  by  analysis  with  caustic  soda 
and  sulphuric  acid. 

To  be  quite  liquid  at  100°  F.  and  without  deposit  until  the  tem- 
perature falls  to  95°  F. 

One  fourth  not  to  distil  over  in  a  retort  at  less  temperature 
than  600°  F.,  and  this  fourth  to  be  heavier  than  water. 

To  be  free  from  adulteration  with  bone-oil,  shale-oil,  or  any  oil 
not  distilled  from  coal-tar. 

The  minute  glistening  cubes  generally  observable  on  freshly 
creosoted  wood  consist  of  naphthaline,  a  substance  that  possesses 
considerable  antiseptic  properties  ;  when  this  substance  exists  in 
the  liquid  creos  >tein  moderate  quantities  it  thickens  and  confirms 
its  consistency,  but  when  there  is  a  very  large  proportion  it  makes 
the  creosote  too  solid. 

WOOD-CKEOSOTE  OIL  is  a  product  of  the  distillation  of  wood 
tar  obtained  from  the  resinous  woods,  as  Georgia  pine,  etc.  It 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.05,  is  still  fluid  at  15°  F.,  boils 
at  230°  F.,  contains  5  per  cent  of  tar,  45  per  cent  of  tar  acids,  50 
per  cent  oils,  has  a  peculiar  penetrating  odor  and  hot  taste. 

Patented  preparations  of  wood  creosote,  sold  under  the  names 
offernoline,  woodiline,  etc.,  are  extensively  used  as  a  preservative 
for  wood. 


158  SHEATHING-FELTS   AND   -PAPERS. 


Sheath  ing-felts  and  -papers. 

FELT. — The  better  qualities  of  felt  are  made  from  hair  cemented 
together  with  asphaltic  cement;  the  commoner  varieties  are  com- 
posed of  waste  vegetable  fibres  cemented  together  with  asphaltum, 
coal-tar,  or  rosin. 

ASPHALT  FELT  is  prepared  by  saturating  felt  with  asphaltum 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  petroleum  residuum.  It  is  black  or 
nearly  black  in  coloi  and  has  a  strong  odor  of  asphaltum. 

TAR  FELT  is  prepared  by  saturating  felt  with  coal-tar. 

ASBESTOS  FELT  is  prepared  from  fibrous  asbestos  cemented 
together  with  various  cementing  materials. 

PAPERS. — Sheathing- papers  are  made  from  Manila  hemp  and 
other  vegetable  substances  treated  with  various  compounds  (such 
as  certain  compounds  of  copper  and  ammonia),  the  effect  of  which 
is  to  coat  and  impregnate  them  with  a  varuish-like  substance 
(cupro-cellulose)  which  enables  them  to  resist  the  weather. 

The  papers  are  made  in  one,  two,  or  three  thicknesses  and  are 
designated  as  "one-ply,"  "two-ply,"  etc. 

The  cheaper  grades  of  paper  are  made  waterproof  by  saturat- 
ing them  with  various  rosins  and  some  earthy  material  as  a  filler. 
Waste  oils  are  also  used. 

ASBESTOS  PAPER  is  manufactured  from  asbestos  cemented  by 
various  cementing  materials. 

TARRED  PAPER  is  prepared  by  saturating  Manila  or  other  paper 
in  coal-tar  alone  or  mixed  with  lime  and  residuum  oils. 

ROSIN-SIZED  PAPERS  are  made  by  immersing  M;mila  or  other 
paper  in  a  mixture  of  rosin,  glue,  and  ochre. 


MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — GLUE.  159 


Glue. 

Glue  is  prepared  from  waste  pieces  of  skins,  horns,  hoofs,  and 
other  animal  offal. 

These  are  steeped,  boiled,  strained,  melted,  reboiled,  and  cast 
into  cakes,  which  are  then  dried. 

The  strongest  kind  of  glue  is  made  from  the  hides  of  oxen, 
that  from  the  bones  and  sinews  is  weaker ;  the  older  the  animal 
the  stronger  the  glue. 

Good  glue  should  be  hard  in  the  cake,  of  a  strong  dark  color, 
almost  transparent,  free  from  black  or  cloudy  spots,  and  with  lit- 
tle or  no  taste  or  smell. 

The  best  varieties  are  transparent  and  of  a  clear  amber  color. 

Inferior  kinds  are  sometimes  contaminated  with  the  lime  used 
for  removing  the  hair  from  the  skins  of  which  they  are  made. 

The  best  glue  swells  considerably  (the  more  the  better)  when 
immersed  in  cold  water,  but  does  not  dissolve,  and  returns  to  its 
former  size  when  dry. 

To  prepare  glue  for  use  it  should  be  broken  up  into  small 
pieces,  and  soaked  in  as  much  cold  water  as  will  cover  it  for 
about  twelve  hours. 

It  should  then  be  melted  in  a  double  glue-pot,  covered,  to  pro- 
tect the  glue  from  dirt.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  outer  vessel 
is  full  of  water,  so  that  the  glue  shall  not  burn  or  be  brought  to 
a  temperature  higher  than  that  of  boiling  water. 

The  glue  should  be  allowed  to  simmer  for  two  or  three  hours, 
then  gradually  melted  ;  then  a  small  quantity  of  boiling  water  is 
added  to  make  the  glue  liquid  enough  to  run  off  a  brush  in  a 
continuous  stream  without  breaking  into  drops. 

Freshly  melted  glue  is  stronger  than  that  which  has  been 
repeatedly  remelted. 

Frequent  remeltiug  impairs  the  quality  of  the  glue.  This  may 
be  known  to  be  the  case  when  it  becomes  of  a  dark  and  almost 
black  color. 

To  secure  the  full  effect  of  the  adhering  qualities  of  glue  it  is 
necessary  that  it  be  thoroughly  melted  and  used  while  boiling 
hot;  that  the  wood  to  be  united  be  perfectly  clean,  dry,  and 
warm ;  that  the  surfaces  of  each  piece  be  covered  evenly  with  a 
thin  film  and  then  brought  together  as  tightly  as  possible,  so  that 
the  superfluous  glue  may  be  squeezed  out. 


160  MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — ROPE. 


Hope. 

Rope  is  the  general  name  applied  to  cordage  over  one  inch  in 
circumference. 

The  materials  employed  for  making  rope  are  various  vegetable 
fibres.  The  strongest  rope  is  made  of  hemp,  Manila  hemp  and 
sisal  hemp.  For  cords  and  twines  phormium  or  New  Zealand 
hernp,  Russian  hemp,  and  jute  are  largely  used.  These  laiter 
varieties  are  also  frequently  employed  to  adulterate  the  stronger 
class  of  hemps.  Ropes  and  twines  of  cotton  are  extensively 
made. 

A  rope  is  composed  of  a  certain  number  of  "strands,"  the 
strand  being  itself  made  up  of  many  "yarns." 

Ropes  are  designated  by  the  method  followed  in  their  con- 
struction,  as  : 

Haw ser -laid :  Three  strands  of  yarn  twisted  te/Y-band,  the  yarn 
being  twisted  ri/7/iMiand. 

Cable-laid:  Three  strands  of  hawser-laid  rope  twisted  rigJit- 
hand. 

Shroud-laid  or  four-strand  consists  of  a  central  strand  or  core 
wilh  four  strands  twisted  around  it. 

The  twist  in  each  successive  operation  is  in  a  different  direc- 
tion from  the  preceding,  and  this  alternation  of  direction  serves 
to  some  extent  to  preserve  the  parallelism  of  the  fibres. 

A  good  hemp  rope  is  hard  but  pliant,  yellowish  or  greenish 
gray  in  color,  wilh  a  certain  silvery  or  pearly  lustre.  A  dark  or 
blackish  color  indicates  that  the  l;cmp  suffered  from  fermentation 
in  the  process  of  curing,  and  brown  spots  show  that  the  rope  was 
spun  while  the  fibres  were  damp,  and  is  consequently  weak  and 
soft  in  those  places.  Sometimes  a  rope  is  made  with  inferior 
hemp  on  the  inside,  covered  with  yarn  of  good  material.  This 
may  be  detected  by  dissecting  a  portion  of  the  rope.  Other  in- 
ferior ropes  are  made  from  short  fibres,  or  with  strands  of  un- 
equal length  or  unevenly  spun,  the  rope  in  the  first  place  appear- 
ing woolly,  on  account  of  ends  of  fibres  projecting,  and  in  the 
latter  case  the  irregularity  of  manufacture  is  evident  on  inspec- 
tion. 

A  test  for  ascertaining  the  purity  of  Manila  hemp  rope  con- 
sists in  forming  balls  of  loose  fibre  of  the  ropes  to  be  tested  and 
burning  them  completely  to  ashes  :  pure  Manila  burns  to  a  dull 
grayish-black  ash;  sisal  leaves  a  whitish-gray  ash.;  combinations 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — ROPE. 


161 


of  Manilla  and  sisal  yield  a  mixed  ash  resembling  the  beard  of  a 
man  turning  from  black  to  gray.  Manila  hemp  is  frequently 
adulterated  with  phormium  (New  Zealand  flax)  and  Russian 
hemp,  both  of  which  are  much  inferior  in  strength. 

To  compute  the  strain  that  can  be  borne  with  safety  by  new 
ropes,  hawsers,  and  cables  square  the  circumference  of  the  rope, 
etc.,  and  multiply  it  by  the»coefficient  given  in  Table  23. 


TABLE  23. 

COEFFICIENTS  FOR  COMPUTING  THE  SAFE  STRAIN  THAT  MAY  BE 
BORNE  BY  ROPES,  HAWSERS,  AND  CABLES. 


Description. 

Ropes. 

Hawsers. 

Cables. 

White. 

Tarred. 

White 

Tar'd 

White 

TarM 

| 

5 

00 

Lbs. 

1140 
1090 
1045 

4  Strands. 

CO 

T3 

I 

eo 

Lbs. 

•o 
•7 

Lhs. 

3  Strands. 

3  Strands. 

3  Strands. 

oj 

I 

1 

Circumference  in  ins. 
White  rope,  2.5  to  6  ins  
White  rope,  6  to  8  ins  
White  rope,  8  to  12  ins  
White  rope   12  to  18  ins 

Lbs. 
1830 
1260 
880 

Lbs. 
600 
570 
530 
550 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs, 

510 
530 
550 
560 

505 
525 
550 

White  rope,  18  to  26  ins  

Tarred  rope  2  5  to  5  ins    .... 

855 
825 

780 

1005 
940 
W20 

1 

460 
480 
505 

Tarred  rope,  5  to  8  ins  
Tarred  rope,  8  to  12  ins  .... 

Tarred  rope  12  to  18  ins 

Tarred  rope,  18  to  26  ins..  . 

Manila  rope,  2.5  to  6  ins  
Manila  rope,  6  to  12  ins  

810 
760 

950 
835 

440 

465 

.... 

'5)6 
535 
560 



Manila  rope   12  to  18  ins  

Manila  rope   18  to  26  ins 

.... 

When  it  is  required  to  ascertain  the  weight  or  strain  that  can  be 
borne  by  ropes,  etc.,  in  general  use,  the  above  units  should  be 
reduced  one  third,  in  order  to  meet  the  reduction  of  their  strength 
by  chafing  and  exposure  to  the  weather. 


162 


M1SCELLAN  EOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE. 


TABLE  24. 

STRENGTH  OF  MANILA  ROPE. 


Breaking  Load. 

Breaking  Load. 

Diam. 
Ins. 

Circ. 
Ins. 

VVt.  per 
Foot. 
Lbs. 

Diam. 
Ins. 

Circ. 
Ins. 

Wt.  pel- 
Foot. 
Lbs. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

.239 

% 

.019 

.25 

560 

1.91 

6 

1.19 

11.4 

25536 

.318 

1 

.033 

.35 

784 

2.07 

6% 

1.39 

13.0 

29120 

.477 

iy* 

.074 

.70 

1568 

2.23 

7 

1.62 

14.6 

32704 

.636 

2 

.132 

1.21 

2733 

2.39 

7%l  1,86 

16.2 

36288 

.795 

2y2 

.206 

1.91 

4278 

2.55 

8 

2.11 

17.8 

39872 

.955 

3 

.297 

2.73 

6115 

2.86 

9 

2.67 

21.0 

47040 

1.11 

3y2 

.404 

3.81 

8584 

3.18 

10 

3.30 

24.2 

54208 

1.27 

4 

.528 

5.16 

11558 

3.50 

11 

3.99 

27.4 

61376 

1.43 

4y2 

.668 

6.60  114784 

3.82 

12 

4.75 

30.6 

68544 

1.59 

5 

.825 

8.20 

18368 

4  14 

13 

5.58 

33.8 

75712 

1.75 

5& 

.998 

9.80 

21952 

4.45 

14 

6.47 

37.0 

82880 

The  strength  of  Manila  ropes  is  very  variable.  The  above  table 
supposes  an  average  quality.  Ropes  of  good  Italian  hemp  are 
considerably  stronger  than  Manila  ;  but  their  cost  excludes  them 
from  general  use.  The  tarring  of  ropes  is  said  to  lessen  their 
strength  ;  and,  when  exposed  to  the  weather,  their  durability 
also.  The  use  of  it  in  standing  rigging  is  partly  to  diminish 
contraction  and  expansion  by  alternate  wet  and  dry  weather. 

The  strengths  of  pieces  from  the  same  coil  may  vary  25  per  cent. 

A  few  mouths  of  exposed  work  weakens  ropes  20  to  50  per 
cent. 

Wire. 

A  rod,  thread,  or  filament  of  various  metals  of  uniform  section, 
usually  cylindrical;  but  various  forms,  such  as  oval,  half  round, 
square,  and  triangular,  are  also  made. 

The  sizes  of  wires  are  estimated  by  certain  more  or  less  recog- 
nized standard  wire  gauges.  The  most  commonly  quoted  is  the 
Birmingham  wire  gauge.  It  gives  forty  measurements,  which 
bear  no  definite  relation  to  each  other,  ranging  from  the  largest, 
No.  0000  =  .454  inch,  to  No.  36  =  .004  inch.  The  Brown  & 
Sharpe  gauge  is  also  extensively  recognized.  In  it  the  gradations 
are  uniform,  increasing  in  geometric  ratio,  so  that  the  size  of 
each  successive  number  is  found  by  multiplying  the  preceding 
by  1.123.  The  standard  is  calculated  from  wire  No.  36,  which 
represents  a  diameter  of  .005  inch. 

The  following  table  gives  the  dimensions  of  each  size  of  several 
of  the  gauges  in  ordinary  use: 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE. 


163 


TABLE  25. 
WIRE  AND  SHEET-METAL  GAUGES  COMPARED. 


Number  of 
Gauge. 

Birmingham 
Wire  Gauge. 

American  or 
Brown  & 
Sharpe  Gauge. 

Roebling's  and 
Washburn 
&  Moen's  Gauge. 

Trenton  Iron 
Co.'s  Wire 
Gauge. 

British  Imperial 
Standard 
Wire  Gauge. 

Legal  Standard 
in  Great  Britain 
since 
March  I,  1884. 

U.  S.  Standard 
Gauge  for 
Sheet  and  Plate 
Iron  and  Steel. 
Legal  Standard 
since  July  1,  1893. 

Number  of 
.Gauge. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Inch. 

Millim. 

Inch. 

0000000 

.49 

.5 

12.7 

.5 

7/0 

000000 



. 

.46 

.464 

11.78 

.469 

6/0 

00000 

.43 

!45' 

.432 

10.97 

.438 

5/6 

0000   .454 

!46'" 

.393 

.40 

.4 

10.16 

.406 

4/0 

000   .435 

.40964 

.362 

.36 

.372 

9.45 

.375 

3/0 

00   .38 

.3648 

.331 

.33 

.348 

8.84 

.344 

2/0 

0 

.34 

.32486 

.307 

.305 

.324 

8.23 

.313 

0 

1 

.3 

.28:i3 

.283 

.285 

.3 

7.62 

.281 

1 

2 

.284 

.25763 

.263 

.265 

.276 

7  01 

.266 

2 

3 

.259 

.22942 

.244 

.245 

.252 

6.4 

.25 

3 

4 

.238 

.20431 

225 

.225 

.232 

5.89 

.234 

4 

5 

.22 

.18194 

!207 

.205 

.212 

5.38 

.219 

5 

6 

.203 

.16202 

.192 

.19 

.192 

4.88 

.203 

6 

7 

.18 

.14428 

.177 

.175 

.176 

4.47 

.183 

7 

8 

.165 

.12849 

.162 

.16 

.16 

4.06 

.172 

8 

9 

.148 

.11443 

.148 

.145 

.144 

3.66 

.156 

9 

10 

.134 

.10189 

.135 

.13 

.128 

3.26 

.141 

10 

11 

.12 

.09074 

.12 

.1175 

.116 

2.95 

.125 

11 

12 

.109 

.08081 

.105 

.105 

.104 

2.64 

.109 

12 

11 

.095 

.07196 

.092 

.0925 

.092 

2.34 

.094 

13 

14 

.083 

.06408 

.08 

.08 

.OS 

2.03 

.078 

14 

15 

.072 

.05707 

.072 

.07 

.072 

1.83 

.07 

15 

16 

.065 

.0508-2 

.063 

.061 

.064 

1.63 

.0625 

16 

17 

.058 

.04586 

.054 

.0525 

.056 

1.42 

.0563 

17 

18 

.049 

.0403 

.047 

.045 

.048 

1.22 

.05 

18 

19 

.042 

.03:>89 

.041 

.04 

.04 

1.01 

.0438 

19 

20 

.035 

.03196 

.035 

.035 

.036 

.91 

.0375 

20 

21 

.032 

.02846 

.032 

.031 

.032 

.81 

.0344 

21 

22 

.028 

.02585 

.028 

.028 

028 

.71 

.0313 

22 

23 

.025 

.02257 

.025 

.025 

.024 

.61 

,0281 

23 

24 

.022 

.0201 

.023 

.0225 

.022 

.56 

.025 

24 

05 

.02 

.0179 

.02 

.02 

.02 

.51 

.0219 

25 

26   .018 

.01594 

.018 

.018 

.018 

.45 

.0188 

26 

27 

.016 

.01419 

.017 

.017 

.0164 

.42 

.0172 

27 

28 

.014 

.01261 

.016 

.016 

.0148 

.38 

.0156 

28 

29 

.013 

.01126 

.015 

0!5 

.0136 

35 

.0141 

29 

30 

.012 

01002 

.014 

.014 

.0124 

.31 

.0125 

30 

31 

.01 

.00893 

.0135 

.053 

.0116 

.29 

.0109 

31 

32 

.009 

.00795 

.013 

012 

.0108 

.27 

.0101 

32 

33 

.008 

.00708 

.011 

.011 

.01 

.25 

.0094 

33 

34 

.007 

.0063 

.01 

.01 

.0092 

.23 

.0086 

34 

35 

.005 

.00561 

.0095 

.0095 

.0084 

.21 

.0078 

35 

36 

.004 

.005 

.009 

.009 

.0076 

.19 

.007 

36 

37 

.... 

.00445 

.0085 

.0085 

.0068 

.17 

.0066 

37 

38 

.00396 

.008 

.008 

.006 

.15 

.0063 

38 

39 

.... 

.00353 

.0075 

.0075 

.0052 

.13 

.... 

39 

40 

.00314 

.007 

.007 

.0018 

.12 

40 

41 

.... 

.... 

.0044 

.11 

41 

42 

.004 

.10 

42 

43 

.  .  .  '. 

.0036 

.09 

43 

44 

.0032 

08 

44 

45 

.... 

.0028 

.07 

'..... 

45 

4f> 

0024 

.06 

46 

4?' 

002 

05 

47 

4^ 

.0016 

.04 



48 

1'.) 

.001  2 

.03 

. 

49 

Si) 

I 

.001 

.025 



50 

164 


MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — WIRE. 


TABLE  26. 
U.  S.  STANDARD  GAUGE   FOR  SHEET  AND  PLATE  IRON 

STEEL,    1893. 


AND 


Number  of 
Gauge. 

fl  °r  x  *" 
•§|§1 

§«'!« 

£32* 
£HEK 

&S  pS 

o> 

art 

IP! 

ill! 

£  3  =  O 

111 

J3  0>  to 

|P 

Weight  per 
Square  Metre 
in  Kilograms. 

Weight  pet- 
Square  Metre 
in  Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 

0000000 

W 

0.5 

12.7 

320 

20. 

9.072 

97.65 

215.28 

000000 

15/32 

0.46875 

11.90625 

300 

18.75 

8.505 

91.55 

201  .82 

00000 

7/16 

0.4375 

11.1125 

280 

17.5 

7.938 

85.44 

188.37 

0000 

13/32 

0.40625 

10.31875 

260 

16.25 

7.371 

79.33 

174.91 

000 

% 

0.375 

9.525 

240 

15. 

6.804 

73.24 

161.46 

00 

11/32 

0.34375 

8.73125 

2-20 

13.75 

6.237 

67.13 

148.00 

0 

5/16 

0.3125 

7.9375 

200 

12.5 

5.67 

61  03 

134.55 

1 

9/32 

0.28125 

7.14375 

180 

11.25 

5.103 

54.93 

121.09 

2 

17/64 

0.265625 

6.746875 

170 

10.625 

4.819 

51.88 

114.37 

3 

H 

0.25 

6.35 

160 

10. 

4.536 

48.8-2 

107.64 

4 

15/64 

0.234375 

5.953125 

150 

9.875 

4.252 

45.77 

100.91 

5 

7/32 

0.21875 

5.55625 

140 

8.75 

3.969 

42.7-2 

94.18 

6 

13/64 

0.203125 

5.159375 

130 

8.125 

3.685 

39.67 

87.45 

7 

3/16 

0.1875 

4.7625 

120 

7.5 

3.402 

36.62 

80.72 

8 

11/64 

0.171875 

4.365625 

110 

6.875 

3.118 

33.57 

74.00 

9 

5/32 

0.15625 

3.96875 

100 

6.25 

2.835 

30.5-2 

67.27 

10 

9/64 

0.140625 

3.571875 

90 

5.625 

2.552 

27.46 

60.55 

11 

y 

0.125 

3.175 

80 

5. 

2.268 

24.41 

53.82 

12 

7/64 

0.109375 

2.778125 

70 

4.375 

1.984 

21.36 

47.09 

13 

3/32 

0.09375 

2.38125 

60 

3.75 

1.701 

18.31 

40.36 

14 

5/64 

0.078125 

.984375 

50 

3.125 

1.417 

15.26 

33.64 

15 

9/128 

0.0703125 

.7859375 

45 

2.8125 

1.-276 

13.73 

30.27 

16 

1/16 

0.0625 

.5875 

40 

2.5 

1.131 

12.21 

26.91 

17 

9/160 

0.05625 

.42875 

36 

2.25 

1  .021 

10.99 

24.22 

18 

1/20 

0.05 

.27 

32 

2. 

0.9072 

9.765 

21.53 

19 

7/160 

0.04375 

1.11125 

28 

.75 

0.7938 

8.544 

18.84 

20 

3/80 

0.0375 

0.9525 

24 

.5 

0.6804 

7.324 

16.15 

21 

11/320 

0.034375 

0.873125 

22 

.375 

0.6237 

6.713 

14.80 

22 

1/32 

0.03125 

0.793750 

20 

.25 

0.567 

6.103 

13.46 

23 

9/3-20 

0.028125 

0.714375 

18 

.125 

0.5103 

5.493 

12  11 

24 

1/40 

0.0-25 

0.635 

16 

1. 

0.4536 

4.882 

10.76 

25 

7/320 

0.021875 

0.555625 

14 

0.875 

0.3969 

4.272 

9.4-2 

26 

3/160 

0.01875 

0.47625 

12 

0.75 

0.3402 

3.662 

8.07 

27 

11/640 

0.0171875 

0.4365625 

11 

0.6875 

0.3119 

3.357 

7.40 

28 

1/64 

0.015625 

0.396875 

10 

0.625 

0.2835 

3.052 

6.73 

29 

9/640 

0.0140625 

0.3571875 

9 

0.5625 

0.2551 

2.746 

6.05 

30 

1/80 

0.0125 

0.3175 

8 

0.5 

0.2268 

2.441 

5.38 

31 

7/640 

0.0109375 

0.2778125 

7 

0.4375 

0.1984 

2.136 

4.71 

32 

13/1280 

0.01015625 

0.25796875 

6^ 

0.40625 

0.1843 

1.983 

4.37 

33 

3/320 

J.  009375 

0.238125 

6 

0.375 

0.17C1 

1.831 

4.04 

34 

11/1280 

0.00859375 

0.21828125 

5^ 

0.34375 

0.1559 

.678 

3.70 

35 

5/640 

0.0078125 

0.1984375 

5 

0.3125 

0.1417 

.526 

3.36 

36 

9/1280 

0.007031-25 

0.17859375 

4Vj2 

0.28125 

0.1276 

.373 

3.03 

37 

17/2560 

0.006640625 

0.168671875 

4J4 

0.265625 

0.1205 

.297 

2.87 

38 

1/160 

0.00625 

0.15875 

4 

0.25 

0.1134 

.221 

2.69 

MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — WIRE. 


165 


TABLE  27. 
WIRE  :  IRON,  STEEL,  AND  COPPER. 

WEIGHT   OF   ONE  FOOT  IN  LENGTH. 


Diameters  by  the  Birmingham 
Gauge  for  Iron  Wire,  Sheet  Iron, 

Diameter  by  Brown  &  Sharpe's 
Gauge. 

and  Steel. 

~* 

$ 

<M*      S 

2| 

1 

Iron. 

Steel. 

Copper. 

di  I 

Iron. 

Steel. 

Copper. 

^3 

s 

o 

In 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

In. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

Pound. 

0000 

.454 

546207 

.5513(50 

623913 

0000  .46000 

.56074 

566030 

640513 

000 

.425 

478656 

.4S3172 

546752 

000  .40964 

.444683 

448879 

507946 

00 

.380 

382660   .386270 

437099 

00  .36480 

.352659 

355986 

402830 

0 

.310 

306340 

80W8  ) 

349921 

0  .32186 

.279665 

282303 

319451 

1 

.300 

240750 

272430 

1  .28930 

.221786 

223891 

253:342 

2 

.284 

218781 

315755 

244146 

2  .25763 

.175888 

177518 

200911 

3 

.259 

177765 

179442 

203054 

3  .22942 

.139480 

14<>:% 

159323 

4 

.238 

1501  07 

151523 

171461 

4  .20431 

.110616 

lilt  60 

126353 

5 

.220 

128260 

129470 

146507 

5  .18194 

.087720 

088548 

100200 

6 

.203 

109204 

110234 

124740 

6  .16202 

.0(9565 

070221 

079462 

7 

.180 

085860 

086667 

098075 

7.14428 

.055165 

055685 

063013 

8 

.165 

072146 

.072827 

082410 

8.12849 

.043751 

044164 

.049976 

9 

.148 

058046 

.058593 

066303 

9  .11443 

034699 

035026 

039636 

10 

.134 

047583 

.048032 

054353 

10.10189 

.027512 

027772 

.031426 

11 

.120 

038160 

038520 

04:3589 

11  '.09074-2 

.021820 

022026 

.024924 

12 

.109 

031485 

.031782 

.035964 

12  ONIS^ 

.017304 

017468 

.019766 

13 

.095 

0231)16 

.024142 

027319 

13io7196l 

.013722 

013851 

.015674 

14 
15 

.033 
.072 

018256 
013738 

.018428 
.013867 

020853 
015693 

14  .004084  .010886 
15.0570681.008631 

010989 
008712 

.012435 
.009859 

16 

.065 

011196 

.011302 

.012789 

16  .050820  .006845 

.006909 

.007819 

17 

.0.58 

00^915 

.008999 

010183 

17.045257 

.00:,427 

.005478 

.006199 

18 

.049 

006853 

.006423 

007268 

18  .040:303 

.004304 

.004344 

.004916 

19 

.042 

004675 

.004719 

005340 

19  .035890 

.00:3413 

.003445 

.003899 

20 

.035 

003246 

.003277 

.003708 

20  .031961 

.002708 

.002734 

.003094 

21 

.032 

002714 

.002739 

003100 

21  .028462 

.002147 

.002167 

.002452 

22 

.028 

002078 

.002097 

.002373 

22  .025347 

.001703 

.001719 

.001945 

23 

.025 

001656 

.001672 

001892 

23  .0-22571 

.001350 

.001363 

.001542 

24 

.022 

001283 

.001295 

001465 

24  .0-20100 

.001071 

.001081 

.001223 

25 

26 

.020 
.018 

001060 
0008586 

.001070 

.0008687 

.001211 
.0009807 

25  .01  7  900J.  0008491 
26  .015940!  .0006734 

.0008571 
.0006797 

.0009699 
.0007692 

27 

.016 

0006784 

.0006848 

.0007749 

27  .014195 

.0005340 

.OOC5391 

.0006099 

28 

.014 

0005194 

.0005243 

.00059:33 

28  012641 

.0004235 

.0004275 

.C004837 

29 

.013 

0004479 

.0004521 

.0005116 

29.011257.0003358 

.0008889 

.0003835 

30 

.012 

0003816 

.0003852 

.0004359 

30  .010025  .0002663 

.0002688 

.0003042 

31 
32 

.010 
.009 

0002650 
0002147 

.0002675 
.0002167 

.0003027 
.0002452 

31  .U08928  .0002113 
32  .007950  .0001675 

.0002182 

.0001691 

.0002413 
.0001913 

33 

.008 

.0001696 

.0001712 

.0001937 

33  .007080  .0001328 

.0001341 

.0001517 

34 

.007 

.0001299 

.0001311 

.0001483 

34  .006304  .0001053 

.0001063 

.0001204 

35 

.005 

.00006625 

.00006688 

.00007568 

35  .005614 

.00008366 

.00008445 

.0000956 

36 

.001 

.0000424 

.0000428 

.00004843 

36  .005000 

.000066-25 

.00006687 

.0000757 

Sp.  grav  .  . 

7.77 

7.85 

8.89 

37  .004453  .0000525: 

.00005304  '.00006003 

Wts.  of  a 

38  .008965  .0000416* 

.00004-205  .00004758 

Cubic  ft... 

485. 

490. 

555. 

39  .003531 

.0000330r 

.0000:-;88B  .00003775 

Cubic  in... 

.2807 

.2836 

.3212 

40  .003144 

.00002620 

.00002644 

.00002992 

1 

166 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE. 


TABLE  28. 
SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL  WIRE. 


£ 

1U 

§o 

£ 

*3 

cr! 

Og  . 

•Siipffl 

|||| 

£ 

ft  rt 

g 

w  ^ 

~t*  03  *— 

•*£  2 

C  S  rH  C> 

!> 

•9^ 

| 

~5 

"*£ 

£-sg 

CC  EHH 

£™S 

is?** 

i-  a- 

|| 

*° 
D_cc 

S  «* 

3| 

||§ 

y 

•s£l 

*£  «  £ 

£}  PM 

cS   S< 

iH| 

ll^l 

50 
fc 

§a 

q 

I* 

F~ 

if 

jltH 

hst 

u£l£ 

< 

I'c^l.H 

00000 

.450 

1.863 

.5366 

2833.248 

39.12 

.15904 

12598 

78903 

0000 

.400 

2.358 

.4240 

2238.878 

49.5-2 

.12566 

9955 

79326 

000 

.360 

2.911 

.3435 

1813.574 

61.13 

.10179 

8124 

79813 

00 

.330 

3.465 

.2886 

1523.861 

72  77 

.08553 

6880 

80437 

0 

.305 

4.057 

.2465 

1301.678 

85^20 

.073C6 

5926 

81110 

1 

.285 

4.645 

.2153 

1136.678 

97.55 

.OIS879 

5226 

'  81925 

2 

.265 

5.374 

.1861 

982.555 

112.85 

.05515 

4570 

82873 

3 

245 

6.286 

.1591 

839.942 

132.01 

.04714 

3948 

83750 

4 

•feK 

7.454 

.1342 

708.365 

156.53 

.03976 

3374 

8486-2 

5 

.205 

8.976 

.1114 

588  139 

188.50 

.03301 

2839 

86000 

6 

.190 

10.453 

.09566 

505.084 

219  51 

.02835 

2476 

87349 

7 

.175 

12.322 

.08115 

428.472 

258.76 

.02405 

2136 

88802 

8 

.160 

14  736 

.06786 

358.3008 

309.40 

.02011 

1813 

90153 

9 

.145 

17.950 

.05571 

294.1488 

376.95 

.01651 

1507 

91276 

10 

.130 

22.333 

.04477 

236.4384 

468.99 

.01327 

1233 

92890 

11 

.1175 

27.340 

.03658 

193.1424 

574.14 

.01084 

1010 

93194 

12 

.105 

34.219 

.02922 

154.2816 

718  00 

.00866 

810 

93530 

13 

.0925 

44.092 

.02268 

119.7504 

925.93 

.00072 

631 

93917 

14 

.080 

58.916 

.01697 

89.6016 

1237.24 

.00503 

474 

94299 

15 

.070 

76.984 

.01299 

68.5872 

1616.66 

.00385 

372 

96703 

16 

.061 

101.488 

.00985 

52.008 

2  131.  '-'5 

.00292 

292 

99922 

17 

.0525 

137.174 

.00729 

38.4912 

2880.65 

.00216 

222 

102740 

18 

.045 

186.335 

.00537 

28.3378 

3913.04 

00159 

169 

106343 

19 

.040 

235.084 

22.3872 

4936.76 

.0012566 

137 

109362 

20 

.035 

308.079 

17.1389 

6469.66 

.0009621 

107 

111184 

21 

.C81 

392.772 

13.44-29 

.0007547 

22 

.028 

481.231 

10.9718 

.0006157 

23 

.0-25 

603.803 

8.7437 

.0004909 

24 

.0225 

745.710 

7.0805 

.0003976 

.020 

943.396 

5.5968 

.0003142 

26 

.918 

1  1  64  .  689 

4  5334 



0002545 

27 

017 

1305.670 

4.0439 

.0002270 

28 

.016 

1476.869 

3.5819 

.0002011 

29  I  015 

1676.989 

3.1485 

.0001767 

30|  .014 

1925.321 

...... 

2.7424 

.0001539 



31!  .013 

2232.653 

2  3649 

.0001327 

3'2  .012 

2620.607 

2.0148 

.0001131 

33 

.011 

3119.092 

1.6928 

.0000950 

34 

.010 

3773  584 

1.3992 

.00007854 

35 

.  0095 

4182  508 

1  .  '2624 

.00007088 

36 

.009 

4657  .'728 

1.1336 

.00006362 

37 

.0085 

5222.035 

1.0111 

.00005675 

38 

.008 

5890.147 

.89549 

.00005027 

........ 

39 

.0075 

6724.291 

.78672 

.00004418 



40 

.007 

7698.253 

.68587 

.00003848 

The  strengths  given  in  the  last  column  of  the  above  table  are  based  upon 
tests  made  with  bright  (not  annealed)  charcoal-iron  wire.  The  strength  of 
Swedish  iron  is  about  10  per  cent  less,  and  that  of  mild  Bessemer  and 
ordinary  crucible  cast  steel  about  10  and  25  per  cent  respectively  greater, 
than  that  of  charcoal-iron.  Special  grades  of  crucible  cast  steel  vary 
between  30  and  100  per  cent  over  charcoal-iron.  Galvani/iug  reduces  the 
tensile  strength  by  about  10  awl  annealing  by  about  25  per  cent,  while 
tinning  and  coppering  exert  no  apparent  influence  upon  the  metal. 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS.— WIRE. 


16? 


TABLE    29, 
TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  WIRE. 

Pounds  per  Square  Inch. 

German  silver 81,735  to    92,224 

Bronze 78, 049 

Brass  (as  drawn) 81,114  "    98,578 

Copper"     "       37,607  "    46,494 

Copper  (annealed) 34,936  "    45,210 

Iron 59,246  "     97,908 

Steel...  ...  103,272  "  318,823 


TABLE  30. 

NUMBER  OF  YARDS   OF  IRON  WIRE  TO  THE  BUNDLE. 
(Bundle  weighs  63  Ibs.) 


B.  W. 
Gauge. 

No  0 

_ards  per 
Bundle. 

71 

B. 
Ga 

No. 
ii 

w. 

age. 
11 

Yards  per 
Bundle. 

...  529 

"   1 

91 

12  

700 

"   2 

105 

13  

893 

3  

.  .  .  .  121 

14  

1142 

*   4  

143 

15  

1465 

*   5  .  . 

170 

16  

1954 

"   6 

203 

17 

2540 

«-•   7 

239 

18 

3150 

•'   8  

286 

19  

4085 

"   9  . 

342 

20  

4912 

"  10.. 

.  420 

168        MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE    ROPES. 


Wire  Ropes. 

Ordinary  wire  rope  is  composed  of  six  strands,  each  containing 
seven  or  nineteen  wires,  laid  up  about  a  hemp  or  wire-strand 
centre,  and  is  commonly  known  as  "  seven-wire"  or  "  nineteen- 
wire  rope,"  as  the  case  may  be. 

Rope  made  with  a  hemp  centre  is  more  pliable  than  that  which 
has  a  wire  centre. 

For  special  purposes  ropes  of  twelve,  sixteen,  or  other  num- 
bers of  wire  to  the  strand  are  made. 

Hawser-ropes  are  made  of  six  strands,  each  of  which  is  com- 
posed of  twelve  wires  laid  about  a  hemp  centre. 

Wire  ropes  are  made  in  several  ways,  according  to  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  to  be  used.  Ordinary  wire  ropes  are 
made  with  a  long  or  short  twist  or  "  lay  ";  the  component  strands 
are  laid  up  into  rope  in  a  direction  opposite  to  that  in  which  the 
wires  are  laid  into  strands — that  is,  if  the  wires  in  the  strands  are 
laid  from  right  to  left  the  strands  are  laid  into  rope  from  left 
to  right.  In  the  Lang-lay  or  Unicersal-lay  rope  the  wires  are 
laid  into  strands  and  the  strands  into  rope  in  the  same  direction — 
that  is,  if  the  wire  is  laid  in  the  strands  from  right  to  left  the 
strands  are  also  laid  into  rope  from  right  to  left.  In  locked  wire 
rope  the  wires  of  the  exterior  strands  are  drawn  to  such  a  shape 
that  each  one  interlocks  with  its  neighbor  in  such  a  way  as  to 
present  a  smooth  cylindrical  surface  like  a  solid  round  bar.  This 
style  of  rope  cannot  be  spliced  in  the  ordinary  way ;  joints  are 
made  by  steel  couplings  of  suitable  form. 

Wire  rope  should  not  be  coiled  or  uncoiled  like  hemp  rope. 
When  it  is  wound  upon  a  reel  the  reel  should  revolve  on  a 
spindle  while  the  rope  is  paid  off  ;  when  laid  up  in  a  coil,  not  on 
a  reel,  roll  the  coil  on  the  ground  like  a  wheel,  and  pay  off  the 
rope  in  that  manner,  so  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of  untwist- 
ing or  "  kinking." 

To  preserve  wire  rope  laid  under  ground  or  under  water  it  is 
coated  with  a  mixture  of  mineral  tar  and  fresh-slaked  lime  in 
the  proportion  of  one  bushel  of  lime  to  one  barrel  of  tar.  The 
mixture  is  boiled  and  the  rope  saturated  with  it  while  hot;  saw- 
dust is  sometimes  added  to  give  the  mixture  body.  Wire  rope 
exposed  to  the  wea' her  is  coated  with  raw  linseed-oil,  or  with  a 
paint  composed  of  equal  parts  of  Sranish  brown  or  lampblack 
with  linseed-oil. 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE    ROPES.        1G9 


TABLE  31. 

STRENGTH  OF  IRON  ROPES. 
HOISTING-ROPE,  6  STRANDS  OF  19  WIRES  EACH. 


Trade 

No. 

Circum- 
ference 
in 
Inches. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
in  Lbs.  of 
Rope 
with 
Hemp 
Centre. 

Breaking 
Strain  in 
Tons  of 
2000  Lbs. 

Proper 
Working 
Load  in 
Tons  of 
2000  Lbs. 

Circum- 
ference 
of  Hemp 
Rope  of 
Equal 
Strength. 

Min. 
Size  of 
Drum 
or 
Sheave 
in  Feet. 

1 

6% 

2*4 

8.00 

74 

15 

15^ 

8 

2 

6 

0 

6.30 

65 

13 

1414 

7 

3 

5*4 

M 

5.25 

54 

11 

13 

6^ 

4 

5 

XX 

4.10 

44 

9 

12 

5 

5 

4% 

1^ 

3.65 

39 

8 

»1« 

4%   " 

5*4 

m 

% 

3.00 

33 

6^ 

io«4 

p., 

6 

4 

54 

2.50 

27 

5^ 

M 

4 

7 

*6 

2.00 

20 

4 

8 

3^ 

8 

31^ 

1.58 

16 

3 

7 

3 

9 

2% 

7^ 

1.20 

iiH 

2*£ 

6 

2% 

10 

2*4 

M 

0.88 

8.64 

1% 

5 

2}r^ 

10J4 

2 

% 

O.GO 

5.13 

1J4 

4^ 

2 

10j/£ 

% 

9/16 

0.48 

4.27 

% 

4 

1% 

10% 

*£ 

*6 

0  39 

3.48 

% 

3^ 

1  1.., 

10« 

% 

7/16 

0.29 

3.00 

Mi 

3 

114 

i55 

\A 

% 

0.23 

2.50 

% 

2»4 

l 

5/1  G 

0.16 

1.75 

5/16 

1% 

l 

H 

*4 

0.09 

1.00 

3/16 

Ifl 

% 

STANDING    HOPE,  16   STRANDS   OF    7   WIRES   EACH. 


11 

4% 

M 

3.37 

W 

9 

10% 

12 

33 

^6 

2.77 

iO 

7^4 

10 

13 

4 

/4 

2.28 

25 

6«4 

9*4 

.... 

14 

3>4 

^6 

1  82 

20 

5 

8 

.    .  . 

15 

yi^ 

1.50 

16 

4 

7 

. 

16 

2% 

% 

1.12 

12.3 

3 

6^ 

17 

2% 

ax 

0.92 

9 

2*4 

5*1 

.    .  . 

18 

2^ 

11/16 

0.70 

7.6 

2 

5 

19 

2 

% 

0.57 

5.8 

1^ 

4^ 

.    .  . 

20 

% 

9/16 

0.41 

4.1 

1 

4 

21 

i^> 

V6 

0  31 

2.83 

3£ 

3«4 

22 

% 

7/16 

0.23 

2.13 

/^ 

m 

23 

3/16 

% 

0.21 

1.65 

i^» 

24 

5/16 

0.16 

1.38 

M 

2*4 

25 

% 

9/32 

0.12 

1.03 

1/6 

1 

— 

170        MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — WIRE    ROPES. 

TABLE  32. 

STRENGTH  OF  STEEL  ROPES. 
CAST  STEEL  HOISTING- ROPE  WITH  6  STRANDS  OF  19  WIRES 

EACH. 


Trade 
No. 

Circum- 
ference. 

Inches. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Inches. 

Weight 
per  Foot 
in  Lbs. 

Breaking 
Strain  in 
Tons  of 
2000  Lbs. 

Proper 
Working 
Load  in 
Tons  of 
2000  Lbs 

Circum- 
ference 
of  Hemp 
Rope  of 
Equal 
Strength. 

Min. 
Size  of 
Drum 
or 

SI  leave 
in  Feet. 

1 

7 

2K 

8.00 

155 

» 

9 

0 

6M 

2  * 

6.30 

125 

25 

8 

•   3 

51^ 

5.25 

106 

21 

15% 

7j^ 

4 

5 

% 

4.10 

86 

17 

14}^ 

(; 

5 

4% 

% 

3.65 

77 

15 

lg£ 

?>y> 

5^*2 

4/4 

% 

3.00 

63 

12 

5J4 

6 

4 

L| 

2.50 

52 

10 

llj^ 

5 

7 

3^6 

!/•£ 

2.00 

42 

8 

10  " 

|1  .. 

8 

•% 

1 

1.58 

33 

6 

9V^ 

4    ' 

9 

2% 

% 

1  20 

25 

5 

8 

3% 

10 

2% 

% 

0.88 

18 

31^ 

6V^ 

io>4 

2 

% 

0  60 

14 

2J4 

5/4 

3 

10J4 

1% 

9/16 

0.48 

9 

1% 

4% 

2% 

10% 

H; 

0.39 

}/^B 

4J4 

2 

10a 

1% 

7/16 

0.29 

6 

1/4 

4 

1% 

106 

jix 

sk 

0.23 

4V£ 

7^C 

yiz 

1 

5/16 

0.16 

3 

% 

3 

1H 

STANDING  ROPE   FOR  DERRICKS,    ETC.,    WITH   6   STRANDS   OF  7 
WIRES   EACH. 


11/16 
9/16 

7/16 

5/16 
9/32 


3  37 
2.77 
2.28 
1.82 
1.50 
1.12 
0.92 
0.70 
0.57 
0.41 
0.31 
0.23 
0.21 
0.16 
0.12 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE    ROPES.         171 

TABLE  33. 
STRENGTH  OF  GALVANIZED  WIRE  ROPES. 


If    ' 

IS* 

*P 
MS 


1.75 
1.67 
1.60 
1.51 
1.43 

1  27 

i!ii 

1.04 
096 

0.88 


.   a 

if 

cS  tuDjj 

III 


4.42 
4.08 
3.67 
3.50 
3.17 
2  75 
2.38 
2.13 
1.79 
1.58 
1.33 
1.13 


p    s|| 

.IScw        a  £•  ^ 
wo  m    gSi: 

{£  CO    03         -•"''"> 

111 

S.s£ 

H 


10 


i* 


0.80 
0.72 
0  64 
0.56 
0.48 
0.40 
0.36 
0  32 
0.28 
0.24 
0.20 
0.16 


c 


0 


0  92 

0.75 

0.59 

0.42 

0.30 

0.21 

0.17 

0.14 

0.11 

0.085 

0.06 

0.045 


TABLE  34. 

STRENGTH  OF  FLAT  WIRE  ROPES. 


Breaking  Strain 

Breaking  Strain 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Approx- 
imate 
Weight 
per  Foot. 

(Approximate) 
in  Pounds. 

Size  in 
Inches. 

Approx- 
imate 
Weight 
per  Foot. 

(Appro*imate) 
in  Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Iron. 

Cast 
Steel. 

Pounds. 

Iron. 

Cast 
Steel. 

2     x% 

1.35 

20000 

40000 

3     xj$ 

2.40 

37500 

•    75000 

2M>x% 

1.70 

25COJ 

50000 

3^*14 

2.85 

43750 

87500 

3      x% 

2.05 

30000 

60000 

4     xj| 

3.30 

50000 

100000 

3^xg 

2.40 

35000 

70000 

5     x)^ 

4.20 

6-2500 

125000 

4     x% 

2.75 

40000 

80000 

6     x^ 

5.10 

75000 

150000 

5     x  % 

3.45 

50000 

100000 

7     x  J^ 

6.00 

87500 

175000 

«      x« 

4.15 

60000 

120000 

8     x^ 

6.90 

100000 

200000 

For  safe  working  load  allow  one  fifth  to  one  seventh  of  the  breaking 
strain. 


IT, 


MISCELLANEOUS   MATERIALS. — WIRE    ROPES. 


TABLE  35. 

STRENGTH  OF    GALVANIZED  STEEL  CABLES. 


Cables  laid  up  like  Wire  Rope. 

Cables  composed  of  Wires  laid 
Parallel  and  Bound  Together. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight 
per  Foot. 
Pounds. 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Tons  of 
2000  Lbs. 

Diameter 
in  Inches. 

Weight 
per  Foot. 
Pounds. 

Ultimate 
Strength 
in  Tons  of 
2000  Lbs. 

1 

11.7 
10.3 
9.2 
8.3 
6.5 
5.8 
5.6 
4.3 
3.7 

2-20 
200 
180 
155 
110 
100 
95 
75 
65 

4 

m 
1 

35.26 
30.78 
26.23 
18.34 
15.40 
12.88 

760 
665 
580 
400 
325 
262 



TABLE  36. 
STRAIN  ON  HOISTING-CHAINS  AND  CABLES  ON  INCLINED 

PLANES. 


Rise  per 

-  100  Feet 
Horizontal. 

Angle  of 
Inclination. 

Stra.u  in 
Lbs.  per 
Ton  of 
2000  Lbs. 

Rise  per 
100  Feet 
Horizontal. 

Angle  of 
Inclination. 

Strain  in 
Lbs  per 
Ton  of 
2000  Lbs. 

5. 

2°  52' 

112 

105 

46°  24' 

1456 

10 

5  43 

211 

110 

47  44 

1488 

15 

8  32 

308 

115 

49 

1517 

20 

11  19 

404 

120 

50  12 

1545 

25 

14   3 

497 

125 

51  21 

1569 

30 

16  42 

585 

130 

52  26 

1592 

35 

19  18 

672 

135 

53  29 

1614 

40 

21  49 

754 

140 

51  28 

1635 

45 

24  14 

832 

145 

55  25 

1654 

50 

26  34 

905 

150 

56  19 

1671 

55 

28  49 

975 

155 

57  11 

1687 

60 

30  58 

1039 

160 

58 

1702 

65 

33   2 

1100 

165 

58  47 

1716 

70 

35 

1157 

170 

59  33 

1730 

75 

36  53 

1210 

175 

60  16 

1743 

80 

38  40 

1259 

180 

60  57 

1754 

85 

40  22 

1304 

185 

61  37 

17<i6 

90 

42 

1347 

190 

62  15 

1776 

95 

43  32 

1387 

195 

62  52 

1785 

100 

45 

1422 

200 

63  27 

1794 

In  calculating  the  strains  on  the  chain  an  allowance  of  12  Ibs.  per  ton  has 
been  made  for  the  rolling  friction  of  the  load  on  a  level.  An  additional 
allowance  should  be  made  for  the  weight  of  the  chain,  depending  of  course 
on  its  size  and  length.  The  breaking  strain  of  the  chain  should  be  six  or 
seven  times  that  which  it  is  to  bear. 


MISCELLANEOUS    MATERIALS. — WIRE    ROPES.         173 


TABLE  37. 
STRENGTH  OF  CRANE-CHAINS. 


"  D.  B.  G."  Special  Crane. 

Crane. 

jjji 

*•  .5? 

o  *35 

W 

be  * 

1« 

|| 

Iri 

1. 

"S 

o  -2 

V,  «3  S 

1 

i"- 

P 

1IJ 

l» 

P 

t-i  s  a 
>>  P* 

«| 

j|| 

|I| 

'53  " 

O  O 

1! 

il* 

Jo 

II 

III 

3 

E^~ 

|*1. 

Is 

gfr, 

4}°° 

0  "" 

PH 

|W 

O 

v\ 

25/32 

% 

% 

1932 

3864 

1288 

1680 

3360 

1120 

5/16 

27/32 

1 

1  1/16 

2898 

5796 

1932 

2520 

5040 

1680 

% 

31/32 

1  7/10 

4186 

£372 

2790 

3640 

7280 

2427 

7/16 

1  5/32 

2 

1% 

5796 

11592 

3864 

5040 

10080 

3360 

ft, 

1  11/32 
1  15/32 

2^ 
3  2/10 

1  11/16 

7728 
9660 

15456 
19320 

5182 
6440 

6720 
8400 

13440 
16800 

4480 
5600 

%  i  1  23/32 

4Lg 

2  1/16 

11914 

23828 

7942 

10360 

20720 

6907 

11/16 

1  27/32 

5 

2J4 

14490 

28980 

9660 

12600 

25200 

8400 

13/16 

1  31/32 
2  3/32 

5% 

6  7/10 

2V6 
2  11/16 

17388 
20286 

34776 
40572 

11592 
13524 

15120 
17640 

30240 
35280 

10080 
11760 

%   8  7/32 

8 

2% 

22484 

44968 

14989 

20440 

40880 

13627 

15/16 

2  15/32 

9 

3  1/16 

25872 

51744 

17248 

23520 

47040 

15680 

4 

2  19/32 

10  7/10 

3)4 

29568 

59136 

19712 

26880 

53760 

17920 

1/16  2  23/32 

11  2/10 

3  5/16 

33264 

66538 

22176 

30240 

60480 

20160 

j4    2  27/32 

12V6 

394 

37576 

75152 

25050 

34160 

68320 

22773 

3/16  3  5/32 

13  7/10 

3% 

41888 

83776 

27925 

38080 

76160 

25387 

Y\   i  3  7/32 

16 

4*6 

46200 

92400 

30800 

42000 

84000 

28000 

5/16  3  15/32 

\§Y° 

4% 

50512 

101024 

33674 

45920 

91840 

30613 

1%    3% 

18  4/10 

4  9/16 

55748 

111496 

37165 

50080 

101360 

33787 

1  7/16  3  25/32 

19  7/10 

4% 

60368 

120736 

40245 

54880 

109760 

36587 

\Yz    3  31/32 

21  7/10 

5 

66528 

133056 

44352 

60480 

120960 

40320 

The  distance  from  centre  of  one  link  to  centre  of  next  is  equal  to  the  inside 
length  of  link,  but,  in  practice  1/82  inch  is  allowed  for  weld.  This  is  approxi- 
mate, and  where  exactness  is  required  chain  should  be  made  so. 

FOR  CHAIN  SHEAVES.— The  diameter,  if  possible,  should  be  not  less  than 
twenty  times  the  diameter  of  chain  used.  Example  ;  For  1-inch  chain  use 
20-inch  sheaves. 


174  FASTENINGS. — NAILS. 


VHI.    FASTENINGS. 
Nails. 

There  is  a  large  variety  of  nails,  named  chiefly  from  the  shape 
of  their  heads  or  points,  or  according  to  the  particular  use  for 
which  they  are  intended. 

In  former  times  nails  were  described  according  to  their  price 
per  100;  thus  "  teupenny  nails  "  and"  fourpeuny  nails"  were  those 
costing  tenpeuce  and  fourpence  per  100  respectively.  These 
terms  are  still  used,  but  their  meaning  is  indefinite  or  has  refer- 
ence to  nails  of  a  particular  length. 

CAST  NAILS,  made  by  running  iron  into  moulds,  are  brittle  and 
inferior  in  strength. 

WROUGHT  NAILS  are  forged  either  by  hand  labor  or  machine 
power.  They  are  frequently  designated  by  the  names  clasp  or 
clench  nails,  on  account  of  their  property  of  bearing  bending  with- 
out breaking. 

CUT  NAILS  are  made  by  machinery,  of  various  thicknesses  and 
in  lengths  from  |  to  6  inches. 

WIBE  NAILS  are  made  by  machinery.  They  are  round  or 
square  in  section  and  are  smooth  or  barbed.  They  are  made  in 
lengths  from  f  to  6  inches,  and  of  different  thickness,  varying 
from  Nos.  5  to  18  B.  W.  G. 

COPPER  NAILS  are  made  of  the  same  shape  as  iron  nails,  and 
are  used  in  positions  where  the  latter  would  be  subject  to  cor- 
rosion. 

COMPOSITION  NAILS  are  made  of  different  alloys  to  avoid  cor- 
rosion, or  to  prevent  galvanic  action  set  up  by  iron  when  in  con- 
.tact  with  zinc  or  other  metals.  They  are  varied  in  shape  accord- 
ing to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to  be  used. 

HOLDING  POWER  OF  NAILS. — In  holding  power  cut  nails  are 
superior  to  wire  nails. 

The  main  advantage  of  a  wire  nail  is  in  its  possessing  a  sharp 
point  and  in  being  easily  driven. 

If  cut  nails  were  pointed  their  efficiency  in  direct  tension  would 


FASTENINGS. — NAILS. 


175 


be  increased  by  about  30$;  wire  n;iils  without  points  have  but 
half  of  their  ordinary  holding  power. 

The  tenacity  of  wire  nails  decreases  with  time,  but  not  so  fast, 
probably,  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

The  nail's  surface  should  be  very  slightly  rough,  though  not 
granular  ;  should  not  be  galvanized  or  otherwise  made  smooth; 
and  should  not  bo  barbed,  and  especially  the  barbs  should  not  be 
sharp  and  angular.  Barbing  decreases  the  efficiency  of  cut  nails 
about  32%. 

Nails  to  be  used  in  tension  should  be  about  three  times  the 
thickness  of  the  thinnest  piece  nailed  in  length,  and  when  used 
in  shear  about  twice  the  same. 

The  relative  holding  power  of  nails  in  the  common  woods  is 
about  as  follows  :  white  pine  1  ;  yellow  pine  1.5  ;  white  oak  3  ; 
chestnut  1.6;  beech  3.2;  sycamore  2  ;  elm  2;  basswood  1.2; 
laurel  2.8. 

Nails  usually  hold  about  50$  more  when  driven  perpendicular 
to  the  grain  than  when  driven  along  the  grain. 

When  subject  to  impact  nails  hold  less  than  ^  the  strain  they 
can  stand  when  weight  is  gradually  applied. 


TABLE  38. 

WROUGHT-IRON   OR   CLINCH   NAILS. 
LENGTH   AND   NUMBER   TO    THE   POUND. 


Title. 

Length. 

Number 
per  Pound. 

Title. 

Length. 

Number 
per  Pound. 

6d. 

2  in. 

95 

12d. 

3J  in. 

42 

7d. 

2£" 

74 

16d. 

3*" 

38 

8d. 

if* 

62 

20d. 

4    " 

33 

9d. 

2|" 

53 

30d. 

4*" 

20 

lOd. 

3    " 

46 

176 


FASTENINGS. — NAILS. 


TABLE  39. 

CUT  NAILS. 
LENGTH   AND   NUMBER   TO    THE   POUND. 


ORDINARY. 

CLINCH. 

FINISHING. 

Size. 

Length, 
in  inches. 

No.  to 
pound. 

Length, 
in  inches. 

No.  to 
pound. 

Size. 

Length, 
in  inches. 

No.  to 
pound. 

2(2 
3(2  fine 

3(2 
4(2 
5(2 
6(2 
7(2 
8(2 
10(2 
12(2 
20(2 
30(2 
40(2 
50(2 
60(2 

*i 

S5 

H 

2 
2J 
2ff 

23 
rf 

3f 

4| 
5 
5± 

716 
588 
448 
336 
216 
166 
118 
94 
72 
50 
32 
20 
17 
14 
10 

2 
2± 
2£ 
2f 
3 
3i 

152 

133 
92 
72 
60 
43 

4(2 
5(2 
6(2 
Sd 
10d 
12(2 
20cZ 

ii 

If 
2 
9| 

3 
3g 
31 

384 
256 
204 
102 
80 
65 
46 

FENCE. 

COKE. 

2 
2i 
2* 
23 
3 

96 
66 
56 

50 
40 

Qd 
8d 

10(2 
12(2 
20(2 
30(2 
40(2 

WH 
\V  H  L 

2 
tt 

i 

31 

4 

4| 

2| 
3 

143 

68 
60 
42 
25 
18 
14 

69 

72 

LIGHT. 

SPIKES. 

4(2 
5(2 
6(2 

11 

i! 

2 

373 

272 
196 

jH 

4i 
5 
K* 

6 

10 
15 
13 

10 
9 

7 

BRADS. 

SLATE. 

3(2 
4(2 
5(2 
6(2 

1A 
1A 

1! 

288 
244 
187 
146 

6(2 
8(2 
10(2 
12(2 

2 
21 
2! 
3j 

163 
96 
74 

50 

BOAT. 

1± 

206 

TABLE  40. 

TACKS. 
8IZE   AND   NUMBER   PER   POUND. 


Size. 

i 
| 

Number 
to 
pound. 

Size. 

^ 

UD 

s 

Number 
to 
pound. 

Size. 

1 
J 

Number 
to 
pound. 

1  OZ. 

H  " 

2  " 

2i  " 
3  " 

i 

! 
t 

16000 
10066 
8000 
6400 
5333 

4  oz. 
6   " 

8   " 
10  " 
12   " 

?f 

A 

4 

i 

4000 
2666 
2000 
1600 
1333 

14  oz. 
16    " 
18   " 
20   " 
22   " 

ii 

H 
iiV 

1143 

1000 

888 
800 

727 

FASTENINGS. — NAILS. 


177 


TABLE  41. 

WIRE  NAILS. 

LENGTH  AND  NUMBER  TO  THE  POUND. 


1 

§ 

u 

5.  a 

tub 

-S 

an 

i 

S  T3 

VJ 

a 

*§ 

'5 

s 

m 
W 

02  Oi 

1 

? 

i—  i 

fc 

s   . 

1 

1 

1*     ' 

JS 

it 

« 

1 

—  " 
| 

?f 
II 

1 

1 

1 

1 

c 

SJD    ^ 

_JS  C8'~ 

a 

1 

£ 

a 

p 

J 

q 

n 

0 

fe 

CO 

to 

S 

CO 

W 

a 

~~y 

714 

% 

469 

2d. 

1200 

876 

710 

1558 

1550 

1350 

.... 

41: 

411 

3d. 

\& 

11-10 

3d. 

M 

720 

:.68 

429' 

980 

913 

25 

251 

4d. 

/^ 

432 

357 

274 

760 

"60 

584 

vO 

165 

5d. 

% 

300 

•,'35 

235 

142 

575 

410 

j  ^ 

270 

6d. 

2 

252 

204 

157 

124 

350  ' 

310 

'l57 

103 

204 

7d. 

186 

139 

139 

92 

275 

. 

238 

189 

is.. 

8d. 

2^ 

102 

99 

99 

82 

190 

170 

99 

125 

9d. 

2% 

105 

90 

90 

62 

173 

'.'. 

150 

90 

114 

..'.'. 

10d. 

3 

87 

69 

83 

50 

137 

121 

67 

83 

12d. 

O1/ 

66 

53 

64 

38 

98 

97 

53 

16d. 

3>fc 

51 

43 

59 

30 

81 

72 

43 

..  .  . 

20d. 

4 

35 

31 

43 

23 

71 

54 

30d. 

27 

24 

46 

.... 

40d. 

5 

21 

18 

30 

50d. 

Rl/ 

15 

60d. 

6  ~ 

12 

•'••• 

178 


FASTENINGS.— SPIKES. 


TABLE  42. 

WROUGHT  SPIKES. 
SIZE    AND   NUMBEll   IN    KEG   OF    150    POUNDS. 


Length 
3  in. 

s* 

4 
4* 

5 
6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 


i/4  In. 

5/16  In. 

3/8  In. 

7/16  In. 

1/2  In. 

2250 

1890 

1208 

.... 

.... 

1650 

1135 

.... 

.... 

.... 

1464 

1064 

.... 

.... 

.... 

1880 

930 

742 

.... 

.... 

1292 

868 

570 

.... 

1161 

662 

482 

'445 

306 

.... 

635 

455 

384 

256 

.... 

573 

424 

300 

240 

.... 

.... 

391 

270 

222 

.... 

.... 

.... 

249 

203 



.... 

.... 

236 

180 

TABLE  43. 
WIRE  SPIKES. 

SIZE   AND   NUMBEli   TO    THE   POUND. 


Title. 

No.  of  Wire. 

Length. 

No.  per  Pound. 

10d. 

7 

3  in. 

50 

16d. 

6 

34    ' 

35 

20d. 

5 

4     ' 

26 

30d. 

4 

41   ' 

20 

40d. 

3 

5     ' 

15 

50d. 

2 

5i   ' 

12 

60d. 

1 

6     ' 

10 

6*  in. 

1 

6i    ' 

9 

7    " 

0 

7     ' 

7 

8     " 

00 

8     ' 

5 

9     " 

00 

9     < 

4* 

FASTENINGS. — SPIKES. 


179 


TABLE  44. 

TRACK-SPIKES. 
SIZE   AND   NUMBER  PER  KEG. 


Rails  Used. 

Spikes.    Inches. 

Number  in   Keg, 
200  Pounds. 

Kegs  per  Mile. 
Ties  24  Inches  be- 
tween Centres. 

45  to  85  Ibs. 

51  X  h 

380 

30 

40  "  52  " 

K         v,      9 

o    X  fa 

400 

27 

35  "  40  " 

5    X  i 

490 

22 

24  "  35  " 

44  X  -i 

550 

20 

24  "  35  " 

4i  X  ft 

725 

15 

18  "  24  " 

820 

13 

16  "  20  " 

gl        NyJ-         3 

1250 

9 

14  "  16  " 

3X1 

1350 

8 

8  "  12  " 

2^  X  f 

1550 

7 

8  "  10  " 

2J  X  ft 

2200 

5 

TABLE  45. 

STREET-RAILWAY  SPIKES. 
SIZE  AND   NUMBER  PER   KEG. 


Spikes. 
Inches. 

Number  in  Keg, 
200  Pounds. 

Kegs  per  Mile.    Ties  24  I  n 
between  Centres. 

'  -H  x  A 

5    X   I 
4|  X  A 

400 

575 

800 

30 
19 
13 

180 


FASTENINGS.— SCREWS. 


Screws. 

Screws  for  screwing  into  wood  are  made  of  metal  with  sharp 
or  bevelled  threads.  The  points  are  generally  made  sharp,  so 
that  they  may  penetrate  the  wood;  the  body  of  the  screw  is 
tapered,  so  that  the  deeper  it  is  driven  the  more  tightly  it  will 
fill  the  hole;  the  thread  does  not  extend  throughout  the  length 
of  the  screw,  but  a  considerable  portion  below  the  head  is  left 
smooth. 

Screws  are  made  in  various  lengths  and  diameters.  They  are 
classified  according  to  the  shape  of  their  heads,  and  in  some  cases 
according  to  their  use.  The  principal  forms  of  the  heads  are  the 
flat  and  the  button  or  round  head.  The  former  are  used  when  the 
thickness  of  the  material  is  sufficient  to  permit  the  head  of  the 
screw  being  countersunk;  the  latter  are  used  where  the  material 
is  too  thin  to  admit  of  countersinking,  and  also  for  ornamental 
purposes. 

Screws  to  be  used  in  damp  places  should  be  of  brass. 

TABLE  46. 
DIMENSIONS  OF  WOOD  SCREWS. 


Threads 

Diameter 

Diameter 

^f   T?l«*- 

Diameter 

Diameter 
of 

Lengths. 

Inches. 

No. 

per  Inch. 

of  Body. 

or  r  lat 
Head. 

of  Round 
Head. 

Filister 
Head. 

From 

To 

2 

56 

.0812 

.1631 

.1544 

.1332 

3/16 

i> 

3 

48 

.0973 

.1894 

.1786 

.1545 

3/16 

M 

4 

32,  36,  40 

.1105 

.2158 

.2028 

.1747 

3/16 

M 

5 
6 

32,  36.  40 
30.  32 

.1236 
.1368 

.2421 
.2684 

.2270 
.2512 

.1985 
.2175 

3/16 
3/16 

% 

7 

30,  32 

.1500 

.2947 

.2754 

.2392 

M 

L/C 

8 

30,  32 

.1631 

3210 

.2936 

2610 

M 

54 

9 

24,  30.  32 

.1763 

.3474 

.3238 

.2805 

/4 

% 

10 

24,  30,  32 

.1894 

.3737 

.34  SO 

.3035 

V4 

8 

12 

20,24 

2158 

.4263 

.3922 

3445 

% 

% 

14 

20,  24 

.2421 

.4790 

.4364 

.3885 

% 

2 

16 

16,  18,20 

.2684 

.5316 

.4866 

.4300 

% 

2*>4 

18 

16,  18 

.2947 

.5842 

.5248 

.4710 

Via 

2L£ 

20 

16,  18 

.3210 

.6368 

.5690 

.5200 

Jij 

2% 

22 

16.  18 

.3474 

.6894 

.6106 

.5557 

L^ 

3 

24 

14,  16 

.3737 

.7420 

.6522 

.6005 

L£ 

3 

26 

14,  16 

.4000 

.7420 

.6938 

.6525 

% 

3 

28 

14,16 

.4263 

.7946 

.7354 

.6920 

H 

3 

30 

14,  16 

.4520 

.8473 

.7770 

.7240 

l 

3 

Lengths  vary  by  16ths  from  3/16  to  ^;  by  8ths,  from  ^  to  1^;  by  4ths, 
from  1L£  to  3. 

LAG-  OR  COACH-SCREWS  are  large  heavy  screws  used  where 
great  strength  is  required  in  heavy  woodwork,  and  for  fixing  iron- 
work to  timber.  They  have  square  heads,  so  that  they  can  be 
screwed  home  with  a  wrench. 


FASTENI NGS.—  SCREWS. 


181 


TABLE  47. 

SIZE  AND   WEIGHT  OF  LAG-SCREWS. 
(The  figures  represent  pounds  per  hundred.) 


Length. 
Inches. 

Diameter.    Inches. 

% 

7/16 

y»           % 

% 

1% 
¥ 

% 

3 

? 

4% 
5 

& 

7 
8 
9 
10 

6.88 
7.50 
8.25 
9.25 
9.62 
10.82 
11.50 
13.31 
14.82 
16.50 
17.37 
18.82 

11.75 
12.62 
12.88 
13.28 
16.62 
18.18 
18.88 
19.50 
21.25 
23.56 
25.31 

16  88 

17.18 
18.07 
19.18 
22.00 
24.00 
26.82 
28.25 
30.37 
33.88 
35.37 
38.94 
44.37 

34.07 
35.88 
39.25 
42.62 
47.75 
51.62 
55.12 
61.88 
68.75 
77.00 
90.00 

"e'i'.oo* 

67.88 
71.37 
73.37 
86.62 
92.75 
97.50 
108.75 
124.75 

TABLE  48. 

HOLDING  POWER  OF   LAG-SCREWS. 

(Diameter  of  holes  equal  to  'diameter  of  the  screw  at  the  base  of  the 
thread ;  depth  of  holes  1  inch  less  than  the  screw  is  to  be  sunk.) 


Diameter.    Inches. 


1 

Ys 

% 

% 

M 

7/16 

% 

5/16 

a 

Hemlock.  . 
Oak  

5150 
9270 

4730 
1)040 

5090 
8350 

4840 
7410 

3130 
4300 

2660 
4030 

2100 
31"0 

1790 
2400 

650 
1400 

Pine,  white  
Georgia  
Norway  

5410 
7050 
7700 

4710 
6240 
6740 

4380 
6860 
6690 

4350 
6410 
5980 

4670 
4560 
3730 

3900 
4060 
3240 

20-^0 
3410 
2930 

2110 
2470 
2250 

650 
1150 
1000 

182  FASTENINGS.— PINS— WEDGES. 

Screws  for  Metal  are  made  in  different  forms  from  wood 
screws.  The  diameter  of  the  screw  is  the  same  throughout.  The 
threads  are  close  together  and  V  shaped. 

The  great  difference  between  screws  for  metal  and  those  for 
wood  is  that  the  latter,  by  the  pressure  of  their  threads  against 
the  fibres,  make  a  hole  into  which  they  will  fit  exactly,  whereas 
in  metal  the  hole  has  to  be  tapped  of  the  exact  size  to  receive  the 
screw. 

Unless  the  internal  thread  of  the  nut  or  of  the  metal  into  which 
the  screw  is  to  be  driven  exactly  fits  the  thread  of  the  screw  one 
or  the  other  will  become  distorted  in  screwing,  they  will  bear  un- 
equally upon  one  another,  and  great  loss  of  strength  will  ensue, 
together  with  difficulties  in  working. 

Pins— Wedges. 

PINS  are  round  pieces  of  iron  or  wood  passed  through  the 
framing  of  a  joint  in  timbers  to  prevent  them  from  separating,  or 
through  a  tenon  to  keep  it  from  drawing  out  of  the  mortice. 

TRENAILS  are  pieces  of  hard  wood  used,  like  iron  nails,  for 
fastening  boards  to  beams,  for  forming  strong  joints,  etc.,  and 
occasionally,  like  pins,  merely  to  secure  joints  formed  in  some 
other  way.  They  are  useful  in  positions  where  iron  nails  would 
rust  and  injure  the  work,  and  where  copper  nails  would  be  too 
expensive. 

They  are  made  of  different  diameters  and  lengths  according  to 
the  dimensions  of  the  pieces  they  unite,  and  slightly  tapering  in 
form  to  facilitate  driving. 

WEDGES  AND  KEYS  are  made  of  hard  wood  inserted  in  a  joint 
or  between  the  sides  of  a  tenon  and  the  sides  of  a  mortice.  They 
are  used  for  tightening  up  joints  or  forcing  parts  into  position 
before  inserting  bolts,  etc.  They  should  be  dipped  in  white  lead 
before  using. 


ASTENIKGS. — BOLTS   AND    NUTS.  183 


Bolts  and  Nuts. 

Bolts  are  manufactured  either  "rough"  or  "finished."  The 
finished  bolt  is  the  rough  bolt  turned  to  exact  dimensions. 
Rough  bolts  are  generally  used  for  all  woodwork.  Finished  bolts 
are  only  used  in  those  cases  where  a  close  fit  is  absolutely  essential. 
Where  they  are  used  the  holes  for  them  must  be  drilled  to  an 
exact  fit  with  the  bolts.  They  are  often  used  as  a  substitute  for 
rivefs.  In  cases  where  rivets  would  be  subjected  to  direct  tension 
tending  to  pull  off  the  rivet-heads  finished  bolts  are  more  reliable. 

Bolts  are  classed,  first,  according  to  the  shape  of  the  head,  as 
round  or  button,  square,  Jiexagon,  octagon,  saucered,  countersunk- 
headed,  clinch,  collared,  chamfered,  diamond,  convex,  etc. 

Second,  by  some  structural  peculiarity  of  the  head,  as  eye, 
double-headed,  hook,  ring,  T-headed,  etc. 

Third,  by  the  mode  of  securing,  as  screw,  fox,  forelock,  clinch, 
rivet,  ray,  bay,  barb,  jag  key,  etc. 

Fourth,  by  the  nature  and  purpose  of  their  application,  as  as- 
sembling, fish,  foundation,  anchor,  drive,  fender,  lewis,  set,  shackle, 
king,  sc'irf,  etc. 

A  DOUBLE-ENDED  BOLT  has  a  thread  and  nut  on  each  end. 

A  FLUSH  BOLT  is  one  whose  head  is  let  down  even  with  the  sur- 
face. 

A  FOUNDATION,  ANCHOR,  OR  HOLDING-DOWN  BOLT  is  a  long, 
heavy  bolt  holding  machinery  or  a  structure  down  to  masonry. 
The  hole  is  generally  filled  with  sulphur,  lead,  or  Portland 
cement. 

A  Fox  BOLT  is  one  with  a  split  end  into  which  a  wedge  is 
driven. 

A  HOOK-BOLT  is  one  with  a  hook  head. 

A  KEY- BOLT  is  secured  by  a  cotter  or  wedge  passing  through  a 
slot  in  the  shank. 

A  LEWIS-BOLT  is  used  for  lifting  large  blocks  of  stone. 

A  RING-BOLT  is  one  which  has  an  eye  for  receiving  a  ring. 

A  SCREW-BOLT  is  one  having  a  screw-thread  on  the  whole  or  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  length. 

A  DRIFT-PIN  is  one  used  to  expel  another.  Used  also  in  rivet- 
ting  to  bring  the  holes  fair  for  the  entrance  of  the  rivet. 

DRIFT- BOLTS  are  made  both  round  and  square. 

Round  drift-bolts  are  superior  to  square  bolts. 

Round  drift-bolts  should  be  driven  in  holes  \%  of  their  diame- 
ter, and  square  drift-bolts  {$  of  their  width. 


184 


FASTENINGS.— BOLTS   AND    NUTS. 


TABLE  49. 

EFFECT   OF   DIAMETER  OF   HOLES   ON   HOLDING   POWER  OF 
DRIFT-BOLTS. 


Diameter  of 
Hole. 

Tenacity  per  1  Inch  Length  in  Wood. 

Yellow  Pine. 

White  Oak. 

Round  . 

Square. 

12/16 
13/16 
14/16 
15/16 

400 
788 
633 
375 

600 
675 

777 
710 

1133 
2499 
1778 
1301 

WASHERS  are  flat  disks  of  iron  placed  under  the  nut  of  a  bolt. 

The  average  relative  holding  power  of  drift-bolts,  yellow  piue 
being  one,  is  in  oak  3.1. 

The  resistance  to  drawing  a  drift-bolt  varies  very  nearly  with 
the  depth  to  which  it  is  driven, 

NUTS  must  fit  snugly,  and  the  thread  must  pass  through 
the  nut  and  project  at  least  one  quarter  of  an  inch. 

The  heads  and  nuts  must  rest  squarely  upon  the  surface  of  the 
material  which  they  unite.  When  the  nuts  or  heads  come  against 
inclined  surfaces  bevelled  washers  of  cast  iron  are  used. 

The  inspector  must  see  that  bolts  of  sufficient  length  are  fur- 
nished and  used.  Cases  are  on  record  where  bolts  too  short  to 
pass  through  the  nuts  have  been  given  a  correct  appearance  by 
screwing  threaded  bolt-ends  into  the  exposed  sides  of  the  nuts. 
Dummy  bolts,  that  is,  heads  and  screwed  ends  inserted  in  each  side 
of  the  material  to  be  joined,  have  been  used  to  save  both  labor  and 
material.  Inspectors  should  keep  a  close  watch  for  this  practice. 


FASTENINGS. — BOLTS   AND   NUTS. 

TABLE  50. 
STANDARD  DIMENSIONS  OF  SCREWS,  HEADS,   AND  NUTS. 


1/2 
19/32 
11/16 
25/32 

7/8 
31/32 

IP 


If 

J" 


3J 
41 


5f 
5f 


I* 


Short 
diam. 
Finish. 


7/16 
17/32 

5/8 
23/32 
13/16 
29/32 

1 

ly8* 
If 


4T9, 
ffl 


Long 
diam. 
Rough. 


Long 
diameter 
Rough. 


7/10 
10/12 
63/64 


Thick- 
ness. 

Rough 
Nut. 


1/4 

5/16 

3/8 

7/16 

1/2 

9/16 

5/8 

3/4 

7/8 

1 
H 

11 
14 
H 
H 


24 
2f 


34 
8f 


5 

5} 

54 

51 
6 


Thick- 

ness 

Rough. 

Head. 


1/4 
19/64 
11/32 
25/64 

7/16 
31/64 
17/32 

5/8 
23/32 

13/16 
29/32 

i* 

It 

HI 


IT* 

24 


4 
4f 


186 


FASTENINGS. — BOLTS   AND   NUTS. 


TABLE  51. 
WEIGHT  AND  DIMENSIONS  OF  BOLTS  AND  NUTS. 


11 

Size  of  Nut. 

Weight  of  Head  and 
Nut  or  Two  Nuts. 

Weight  of 
Bolt  Bodies 

5 

per  Inch  of 

1? 

Width. 

Thick. 

Hole. 

Square. 

Hexagonal. 

Length. 

W 

£ 

M 

7/32 

.034 

.031 

.014 

5/16 

% 

5/16 

9/32 

.067 

.055 

.021 

% 

?S 

% 

11/32 

.110 

.105 

.031 

7/16 

% 

7716 

13/32 

.181 

.171 

.042 

YZ 

1 

x4 

7/16 

.280 

.233 

.055 

9/16 

9/16 

& 

.369 

.335 

.069 

% 

]i^ 

% 

9/16 

.545 

.475 

.085 

H 

1% 

% 

21/32 

.776 

.673 

.123 

% 

1% 

% 

25/32 

1.34 

1.14 

.167 

1% 

1 

% 

1.75 

1.48 

.218 

^ 

2 

1^6 

15/16 

2.47 

.276 

J4 

2J4 

1J4 

1  1/16 

3.74 



.341 

% 

2% 

\y 

1  3/16 

5.85 

.412 

i^j 

3 

\y> 

5/16 

7.59 

.491 

^ 

354 

1% 

7/16 

9.48 

.576 

% 

3^ 

!^ 

9/16 

11.9 

..    . 

.668 

l£g 

3% 

]% 

11/16 

14.1 

.767 

2 

4 

2 

13/16 

18.6 

.872 

2/^6 

4 

2J^ 

% 

18.9 

.985 

*M 

4 

2^ 

2 

19.3 

..   . 

1.104 

In  ordering  bolts  give  the  diameter,  length  under  head,  and  length  of 
thread  required. 


FASTENINGS. — BOLTS  AND   NUTS. 


187 


TABLE  52. 

WEIGHT  AND  STRENGTH  OF  BOLTS. 


Ends  Enlarged,  or  Upset. 

Ends  Not 
Enlarged. 

Ends  Enlarged,  or  Upset. 

Ends  Not 
Enlarged. 

OM 

!§ 

be 

a  ~ 

be 

c   • 

•8* 

*§" 

**-*    M 

i* 

bo 
c   • 

.5  c 

ijjj 

N 

a* 
ll 

|f 

*1 

11 

ll 

S3 

^c 

aStfj 

.2.  o 

11 

il 

a« 

5*0 

gCG 

P 

&" 

$& 

Q    , 

»   3 
^  '<** 

Q 

0)  O 

*« 

MM 

a 

|£ 

In. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

In. 

Lbs. 

In. 

Lbs. 

Tons. 

Lbs. 

In. 

Lbs. 

1Z 

.0414 

.245 

549 

8.10 

45.7 

102368 

2.14 

12.0 

3/11) 

.093 

.553 

1239 

13/16 

8.69 

49.0  j  109760 

2-22 

12.9 

M 

.105 

.983 

2202 

"!3:V 

is-ii 

% 

9.30 

52.5 

117000 

2  30 

13.8 

5/16 

.258 

1.53 

3427 

.43 

4V 

15/16 

9.93 

56.0 

125440 

2.38 

14.7 

% 

.372 

2.21 

4950 

.50 

[654 

2 

10.6 

59.7  1133728 

8.45 

15.7 

7/16 

.506 

3.00 

6720 

.58 

.897 

M 

12.0 

63.8  j  14291  2 

2.59 

17.5 

H 

.601 

3.U3 

8803 

.66 

1.14 

13.4 

71.6    160384 

2.73 

19.5 

9/16 

.837 

4.97 

11133 

.73 

1.41 

% 

14.9 

79.7  [178528 

2.88 

21.6 

% 

1.03 

6.14 

13754 

.80 

1.67 

L£ 

16.5 

88.4 

198016 

3.02 

23.9 

11/16 

1  .  25 

7.42 

16621 

.88 

2.03 

% 

18.2 

97.4 

218176 

3.16 

26.1 

N 

1.49 

8.83 

19779 

.96 

2.41 

M 

20.0 

106.9 

239456 

3.30 

28.5 

13/16 

1.75 

10.4 

232% 

1.04 

2.81 

% 

31.9 

116.8 

261632 

3.45 

31.1 

% 

2.03 

12.0 

308*0 

1.12 

3.26 

3 

23  8 

127.2 

284928 

3.60 

33.9 

15/1  0 

2.33 

13.8 

30012 

1.20 

3.77 

27.9 

141.0 

315840 

3.86 

39.1 

lin. 

2.65 

15.7 

35168 

1.27 

4.27 

/^ 

32.4 

163.6 

366464 

4.12 

44.4 

1/10 

2.99 

16.8 

87682 

1.35 

4.77 

M 

37.2 

187.7 

420448 

4.41 

51.0 

'•{  35 

18.9 

42336 

1.42 

5.28 

4 

42.3 

213.6 

478464 

4.70 

57.8 

3/K) 

3.73 

21.1 

47264 

1.49 

5.81 

^4 

47.8 

227.0 

508480 

4.98 

65.2 

1.13 

23.3 

52192 

1.55 

6.39 

^l 

53.6 

254.5 

570080 

5.25 

72.9 

5/1(5 

4.56 

25.7 

57568 

1.64 

7.04 

•At 

59.7 

283.5 

635040 

5.53 

80.5 

% 

5.00 

28.2 

631  tfr 

1.72 

7.74 

5 

66.1 

314.2 

703808 

5.80 

88.1 

7/16S5.47 

30.8 

68992'  1.80 

8.48 

/4 

72.9 

324.7 

727328 

6  08 

97.0 

H  J5.95 

33.6 

75264 

1.87 

9.20 

i^ 

80  0 

356.4 

798336 

6.36 

106. 

9/16  6.46 

36.4 

81536 

1  94 

9.88 

3/J 

87.5 

389.5 

872480 

6.63 

116. 

% 

6.99 

39.4 

88256 

2.00 

10.6 

6 

95.2 

424  1 

949984 

6.90 

126. 

11/16 

7.53 

42.5 

95200 

2.07 

11.3 

TABLE  53. 

PLATE-IRON  WASHERS. 


Diameters. 

Diameters. 

Thick- 
ness   Bir- 
mingham 
Wire 
Gauge. 

Number 
of  Wash- 
ers per 
Pound. 

Thick- 
ness   Bir- 
mingham 
Wire 
Gauge. 

Number 
of  Wash- 
ers pei- 
Pound. 

Washer. 
Inches. 

Bolt- 
hole. 
Inches. 

Washer 
Inches. 

Bolt- 
hole. 
Inches. 

II 

5/16 

18 
16 

543 

228 

m 

11/16 
13/16 

10 
10 

17. 
10.7 

*K 

5/16 

16 

147 

2*4 

15/16 

9 

8.7 

% 

% 

16 

123 

2/^5 

1  1/16 

9 

6.3 

1 

7/16 

14 

70 

2% 

1/4 

9 

4.7 

1/4 

y 

14 

50 

3 

1% 

9 

3.7 

1% 

9/16 

12 

30 

% 

1/4 

9 

3.0 

lg 

% 

12 

25.7 

188  FASTENINGS. — fclVETS. 


Rivets. 

Rivets  are  cylindrical  pieces  of  metal  with  a  solid  hea  1  at  one 
end,  made  of  wrought  iron,  mild  steel,  or  copper,  either  by  hand 
or  machinery. 

Iron  and  steel  rivets  are  chiefly  used  to  connect  plates  of  iron 
and  steel.  They  are  preferable  to  small  bolts,  because,  being 
hammered  close  to  the  face  of  the  plate,  they  hold  more  tightly, 
and  the  shanks  of  rivets  are  not  so  likely  to  become  oxidized  as 
those  of  bolts;  moreover,  as  rivets  are  nearly  always  fixed  when 
hot,  they  contract  in  cooling  and  draw  the  plates  together  with 
great  force. 

SIZE  OF  RIVETS. — The  size  of  the  rivet  shown  on  the  plans  is 
the  size  of  the  cold  rivet  before  heating.  The  diameter  of  the 
finished  rivet  should  not  be  more  than  y1^  inch  greater  than  the 
cold  rivet.  The  heated  rivet  should  not  drop  into  the  hole,  but 
should  require  a  slight  pressure  to  force  it  in. 

Rivets  are  described  by  the  diameter  and  length  in  even  eighths 
of  an  inch. 

The  length  of  a  rivet  is  determined  by  adding  together  the  grip 
of  the  rivet,  i.  e. ,  the  thickness  of  the  plates  or  parts  through  which 
the  rivet  is  to  be  driven,  the  length  of  metal  required  to  form  one 
h°ad,  and  •£%  of  an  inch  for  each  joint  between  tlie  plates  to  allow 
for  uneven  surfaces  which  prevent  closer  contact.  The  length 
thus  found  must  be  increased  by  about  9  per  cent  to  allow  for 
filling  the  rivet-hole,  which  is  usually  T^  inch  larger  in  diameter 
than  the  rivet;  thus  the  length  of  rivet  required  to  join  three 
half -inch  plates  would  be  2|  inches. 

For  countersunk  heads  add  one  half  the  diameter  of  the  rivet 
for  the  head. 

The  height  of  the  head  of  a  snap-rivet  should  be  about  f  of  the 
diameter  of  the  shank,  and  the  diameter  of  the  head  should  be 
from  1|  to  twice  that  of  the  shank. 


FASTENINGS. — RIVETS.  189 

TABLE  54. 

LENGTH  OF  RIVET-SHANK  REQUIRED  TO  FORM  HEAD. 


PLAIN  RIVETS. 


Diameter  in  Inches. 


H 


Length  in  Inches. 


COUNTERSUNK  RIVETS. 


Diameter  in  Inches. 


H 


Length  in  Inches. 


Iff 


190  FASTENINGS. — RIVETS. 

Form  of  Rivets. — There  are  various  names  given  to  rivets 
according  to  the  shape  to  which  the  point  is  formed. 

Button  or  cup  ended  rivets  are  names  given  to  rivet-heads  formed 
with  the  "snap." 

Hammered  rivets  have  points  finished  to  a  conical  form  by 
hammering  only. 

Countersunk  rivets  are  those  in  which  the  point  is  hammered 
down  while  hot  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  plate. 

PITCH  OP  RIVETS.— The  "  pitch  "  of  rivets  is  their  distance 
from  centre  to  centre. 

SINGLE- RIVETING  consists  of  a  single  row  of  rivets  uniting 
plates  in  any  form  of  joint. 

DOUBLE-RIVETING  is  that  in  which  the  plates  are  united  by  a 
double  row  of  rivets.  Double-riveting  is  designated  as  chain, 
staggered,  or  zigzag.  Chain  riveting  is  formed  by  parallel  lines  of 
rivets.  Staggered  or  zigzag  riveting  consists  of  lines  of  rivets  so 
placed  that  the  rivets  in  each  line  divide  the  spaces  between  the 
rivets  in  the  adjacent  line  or  lines. 

Triple-  and  quadruple-riveting  are  formed  by  3  or  4  rows  of 
rivets,  and  may  be  either  chain  or  staggered. 

The  joints  made  in  riveting  are  termed  lap-joints  when  the 
plates  overlap  one  another;  fish-  and  butt  joints  when  the  ends 
of  the  pieces  to  be  united  meet  or  butt  evenly  against  one 
another,  the  joint  being  made  with  a  cover-plate  on  either  one  or 
both  sides. 


FASTENINGS. — RIVETS    AND    BOLTS. 


191 


TABLE  55. 
WEIGHT  OF  RIVETS  AND  ROUND-HEADED  BOLTS  WITHOUT 

NUTS  PER  100. 
Length  from  under  bead.  One  cubic  foot  weighing  480  Ibs. 


Length 
of  rivet 
under 
head. 

Diameter  of  rivet  in  inches. 

% 

\i 

H 

¥4. 

% 

1 

ifc 

i# 

u 

5.4 

12.5 

21.2 

28.0 

42.5 

64.6 

91.0 

121.8 

If 

5.9 

13.1 

22.4 

29.5 

44.6 

67.3 

94.5 

127.0 

H 

6.3 

13.7 

23.5 

31.0 

46.7 

69.9 

97.9 

132.4 

H 

67 

14.4 

24.7 

32.7 

48.9 

72.8 

101.2 

137.2 

if 

7.0 

15.1 

26.0 

34.2 

51.0 

75.0 

104.0 

141.1 

H 

7.3 

15.8 

27.1 

35.6 

53.3 

77.8 

107.3 

145.0 

r 

7.6 

16.5 

28.3 

37.0 

55.2 

81.3 

110.6 

149.2 

3f 

7.9 

17.2 

29.6 

38.4 

57.5 

84.1 

113.9 

151.0 

»i 

8.3 

17.8 

31.0 

39.8 

59.5 

86.9 

118.2 

158.2 

2f 

8.8 

18  4 

32.1 

41.5 

61.7 

89.5 

122.1 

163.0 

4 

9.1 

19.1 

33.2 

43.2 

63.9 

92.2 

125  5 

168.1 

2| 

9.5 

19.8 

34.4 

44.8 

66.0 

94.8 

129.0 

172.0 

2| 

98 

20.5 

35.4 

46.1 

68.2 

97.3 

132.4 

176.0 

2| 

10.2 

21.2 

36.1 

47.7 

70.1 

100.0 

135.9 

180.  15 

3 

10.6 

21.9 

37.0 

49.0 

72.1 

102.5 

139.4 

184.9 

3£ 

11.0 

22.7 

38.2 

50.6 

74.0 

105.1 

142.5 

189.0 

a 

11.3 

23.4 

39.1 

52.1 

76.2 

107.8 

146.1 

194.1 

i 

11.7 

24.0 

40.2 

53.7 

78.5 

110.4 

149.6 

198.1 

8* 

12.1 

24.7 

41.0 

55  2 

80.2 

112.9 

153  0 

202.0 

3f 

12.5 

25.8 

42.0 

56.7 

82.4 

115  5 

156.5 

206.1 

3J 

12.8 

26.0 

42.9 

58.1 

84.3 

118.0 

160.1 

210.2 

3| 

13.2 

26.6 

44.1 

60.0 

86.5 

120.6 

163.4 

214.1 

4 

13.6 

27.2      45.1 

61.5 

88.7 

123.2 

166.9 

218.0 

4* 

14.0 

28.0 

46.2 

63.2 

91.0 

125.7 

170.2 

221.9 

ft 

14.4 

28.9 

47.1 

65.1 

93.4 

128.3 

173.6 

225.8 

4| 

14.9 

29.5 

48.0 

66.6 

95.1 

131.0 

176.9 

229.5 

4| 

15.3 

30.2 

48.9 

68.0 

97.3 

133  6 

180.3 

234.9 

4| 

15.7 

30.9 

49.8 

69.2 

99  5 

136.2 

183.8 

239.0 

4| 

16.1 

31.6 

51.0 

70.9 

101.1 

138.8    187.2 

244.0 

41 

16.5 

32.2 

52.1 

72.5 

103.4  1141.3    191.0 

248.2 

5 

17.0 

32.9 

53.3 

74.2 

105.2  ;  144.0    194  5 

252.1 

5* 

17.6 

33.  9 

55  6 

77.2 

109.8     150.0    201.3    260.9 

6* 

18.2 

35.1 

56.8 

80.3 

114.1     155.7    208.1    269.7 

5f 

18.9 

36.6 

58.0 

83.2 

118.0    161.0    214.9 

278.3 

6 

19.7 

37.7 

59.9 

86.1 

122.7    166.1     222.0 

287.1 

7 

22  3 

42.8 

67.0 

98.4 

141.1     188.0    250.0 

319.0 

8 

24.7 

48.0 

76.1 

112.2 

157.9    213.0    278.1 

353.4 

9 

27.4 

53.9 

83.9 

124.0 

172  5    234.0    304  9 

388.4 

10 

31.0 

59.0 

90.8 

135.9 

188.1     254.3    332.1 

421.0 

12 

37.7 

70.9 

108.4 

160.0 

221.5    298.3    387.9 

490.0 

For  length  of  shank  required  to  form  rivet-head  see  p.  568. 


192  FASTENINGS.— RIVETS. 

Field-rivets  are  those  driven  in  a  structure  after  it  is  in 
place.  Wrought  iron  is  generally  used  for  field-rivets,  because  it 
is  less  liable  tj  injury  from  overheating  and  from  the  decrease 
in  temperature  due  to  the  loss  of  time  in  passing  from  the  forge 
to  the  riveters.  Steel  properly  heated  would  cool  to  a  point  below 
which  it  is  not  advisable  to  do  any  work  upon  it,  and  if  heated 
to  a  temperature  sufficient  to  compensate  for  the  cooling  it  would 
be  subjected  to  such  oxidation  as  would  make  ii  "red-short." 

Conventional  Rivet-signs. — The  size  and  location  of  rivets 
are  usually  marked  on  the  working  drawings  in  figures,  but  the 
form  of  the  head,  as  well  as  whether  they  are  to  be  driven  in  the 
shop  or  field,  are  indicated  by  conventional  signs  as  shown  by  the 
following  figures: 

Shop-Ri-vets »k Field-Rivets J 

!«.  _  -Countersunk -»|< Flattened 4-tPlain^H Countersunk j 


y 

^5  ^     J 

^      I      j 

I 

^'      * 

CONVENTIONAL  RIVET-SIGNS. 

Riveting. — The  process  of  riveting  is  performed  either  by 
hand  or  by  machines,  operated  by  air-,  steam-,  or  water-power.  In 
either  method  it  consists  of  heating  the  rivet,  passing  it  through 
the  holes  in  the  pieces  to  be  united  while  hot,  and  then  forging 
another  head  out  of  the  projecting  shank. 

HAND-RIVETING. — In  hand-riveting  the  forging  is  performed 
with  hammers  having  flat  faces.  The  end  of  the  shank  is  upset 
and  hammered  until  it  forms  a  convex  point.  This  is  generally 
finished  with  a  tool  called  a  "snap,"  which  is  hollowed  out  to 
form  a  cup  that  will  fit  the  point  of  the  rivet.  A  heavy  sledge- 
hammer called  a  "cupping "-hammer  is  used  to  strike  the  snap. 
The  snap  is  generally  used  just  as  the  rivet  is  losing  its  red  heat. 
During  the  forging  the  rivet  is  held  in  place  by  an  iron  bar  or 
"dolly,"  one  end  of  which  is  hollowed  out  in  the  form  of  a  cup 
that  fits  on  the  head  of  the  rivet.  "  Spring  "-dollies  should  be 
used  where  possible,  especially  for  heavy  pieces.  For  light  work 
simple  hand-dollies  weighing  from  15  to  25  pounds  are  used. 
The  man  who  holds  the  dolly  is  called  the  "  holder  up." 


FASTENINGS. — RIVETS.  193 

MACHINE-RIVETING  is  cheaper  and  superior  to  hand-riveting. 
The  steady  pressure  brought  by  the  machine  upon  the  rivet  not 
only  forms  the  head,  but  compresses  and  enlarges  the  shank,  so 
that  it  is  squeezed  into  and  thoroughly  tills  up  all  the  irregulari- 
ties of  the  holes.  The  superiority  of  machine- riveting  is  strik- 
ingly shown  when  rivets  have  to  be  taken  out.  After  the  head 
is  cut  off  a  hand-forged  rivet  may  be  easily  driven  out,  but  a 
machine-driven  rivet  must,  as  a  rule,  be  drilled  out. 

Machiue-d  riven  rivets  can  generally  be  easily  distinguished 
from  those  formed  by  hand;  the  latter  are  covered  with  marks 
caused  by  the  hammer  and  shifting  of  the  snap  during  the  forg- 
ing, while  on  a  machine-riveted  head  there  is  generally  a  burr, 
caused  by  the  die  having  caught  the  rivet  a  little  out  of  the 
centre. 

PRESSURE  REQUIRED  FOR  RIVETING. — It  has  been  found  in 
girder-work  that  for  red-hot  rivets  of  iron  or  soft  steel,  with 
length  of  grip  not  exceeding  three  diameters,  a  pressure  of  50 
tons  per  square  inch  of  rivet-section  has  been  sufficient  to  com- 
pletely fill  the  hole.  Longer  rivets  require  higher  pressure,  and 
iii  extreme  cases  this  pressure  may  be  doubled  to  secure  solidity. 

For  cold- riveting  the  pressure  required  is  about  300,000  Ibs. 
per  square  inch  of  rivet-section. 

The  pressures  usually  employed  are  as  follows : 

Inches:    %  %  %  1  Ifc  1J$ 

Tons:    25  33  50  66  75  100 

CALKING  is  a  process  adopted  when  it  is  found  that  the  rivets 
are  loose,  or  that  the  head  or  point  of  the  rivet  is  not  quite  close 
to  the  plates,  or  that  an  opening  exists  between  the  plates  them- 
selves. The  process  consists  in  hammering  down  the  edges  of 
the  head  or  point  of  the  rivets  until  they  indent  and  slightly 
penetrate  the  surface  of  the  plates. 

COLD  RIVETING. — Very  small  iron  and  copper  rivets  are  closed 
cold  The  iron  used  must  be  of  the  best  quality. 


194  FASTENINGS.— RIVETS. 


Inspection  of  Riveting. 

RIVET-METAL. — The  requirements  of  specifications 
vary  considerably  in  regard  to  the  properties  of  rivet-metal;  a 
usual  specification  is  as  follows: 

"  Steel  for  rivets  shall  have,  in  test-pieces  f  inch  in  diameter, 
an  ultimate  tensile  strength  of  from  48,000  to  50,000  pounds  per 
square  inch;  an  elongation  in  8  inches  of  26  per  cent. 

"  Heated  uniformly  to  a  light  yellow  and  cooled  in  water  at 
82°  F.,  it  shall  bend  round  a  circle  of  diameter  equal  to  one  and 
a  half  times  the  thickness  of  the  specimen  without  fracture. 

"  Full-size  rivet-bars  shall  bend  cold  and  double  flat  on  them- 
selves without  sign  of  fracture  on  the  convex  side." 

U.  S.  NAVY  DEPARTMENT  TEST.— From  each  lot  (ton)  twclvj 
rivets  are  to  be  taken  at  random  and  submitted  to  the  following 
tests:  Four  rivets  to  be  flattened  out  cold  under  the  hammer  to 
a  thickness  of  one  half  the  diameter  without  showing  cracks  or 
flaws.  Four  rivets  to  be  flattened  out  hot  under  the  hammer  to 
a  thickness  of  one  third  the  diameter  without  showing  cracks  or 
flaws;  the  heat  to  be  the  working  heat  when  driven.  Four  rivets 
to  be  bent  cold  into  the  form  of  a  hook  with  parallel  sides  with- 
out showing  cracks  or  flaws. 

Iron  for  rivets  must  be  tough  and  soft,  and  specimens  of  the 
full  diameter  of  the  rivet  must  be  capable  of  bending  cold  until 
the  sides  are  in  close  contact  without  sign  of  fracture  on  the  con 
vex  side  of  the  curve. 

A  rivet  of  good  iron  when  cut  out  of  the  work  with  a  cold- 
chisel  and  hammer  should  show  tough  and  fibrous  and  should  not 
"  fly  ";  if  it  does  it  indicates  brittleness. 

Essentials  of  Good  Riveting.— Rivet-holes. — The  holes  in 
material  to  be  riveted  are  either  punched  or  drilled. 

In  whichever  way  they  are  formed  it  is  important  that  they 
should  be  cut  clean  and  true,  and  should  fit  exactly  over  one 
another.  If  they  do  not,  irregularities  are  formed,  which  have  to 
be  forcibly  removed  by  driving  a  steel  "  drift-pin  "  into  them 
before  inserting  the  rivet,  thus  injuring  the  material,  enlarging 
the  hole,  and  causing  the  rivet  to  fit  loosely. 

In  punching  holes  examine  the  punches  and  dies  and  see  that 
they  are  sharp  and  in  perfect  condition;  good  metal  may  be  badly 
damaged  by  the  use  of  imperfect  punches  and  dies. 

Holes  should  be  punched  from  the  side  of  the  material  that 


FASTENINGS. —  RIVETS.  195 

will  be  exposed  in  the  work;  that  is,  the  bevel  of  the  hole  must  be 
away  from  the  surfaces  that  are  to  be  in  contact. 

It  is  the  current  practice  to  punch  the  holes  y1^  inch  larger  than 
the  rivet  diameter.  For  work  to  be  reamed  it  is  usual  to  punch 
the  holes  from  £  to  r3f  inch  smaller  than  the  finished  diameter, 
the  holes  being  reamed  to  the  proper  size  after  the  various  parts 
are  assembled. 

The  sharp  edges  or  burr  on  the  sides  of  the  holes  should  be  re- 
moved so  as  to  form  a  fillet  at  the  junction  of  the  body  and  head 
of  the  finished  rivet. 

After  reaming  the  hole  should  be  entirely  smooth,  showing 
that  the  reaming  tool  has  everywhere  touched  the  metal. 

Heating  Rivets — The  heating  of  rivets  requires  watching  to 
prevent  burning.  There  is  no  way  of  telling  after  a  rivet  has  been 
driven  whether  ii  is  burned,  for  the  head  may  look  perfectly  good 
while  the  shank  is  badly  damaged. 

The  burning  of  rivets  is  not  always  accidental ;  often  if  the 
rivet  is  so  long  as  to  more  than  till  the  snap  the  heater  will 
'•  waste  "  the  end.  that  is  to  say,  he  will  burn  it  so  badly  that  it 
will  crumble  off 

Steel  rivets  require  careful  handling  to  prevent  overheating  and 
to  avoid  working  them  at  too  low  a  heat,  or  at  what  is  called  a 
"  blue  heat  "  They  should  be  heated  uniformly  to  a  dull-red  heat 
and  the  orange  color  should  not  be  passed  ;  they  should  be  placed 
in  the  work  immediately  the  proper  temperature  is  reached  and 
the  head  forced  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Iron  rivets  can  be  heated  to  the  "  waste  "  or  "wash"  heat,  a 
temperature  at  which  the  intermingled  slag  in  the  metal  begins 
to  soak  out  from  it  without  serious  injury.  Iron  rivets  should  not 
be  worked  at  a  blue  heat. 

Iron  rivets  should  not  be  raised  above  a  dull  red  (by  daylight), 
and  should  not  be  twice  heated.  Burned  rivets  are  weak  and 
brittle.  A  large  number  of  rivets  should  not  be  put  into  the  fire 
at  once  to  save  trouble,  they  are  liable  to  be  left  too  long  and  con- 
sequently burned. 

For  riveting  by  hand  it  is  desirable  that  the  head  of  the  rivet 
should  be  even  hotter  than  the  point;  otherwise  the  blows  which 
are  sufficient  to  expand  the  rivet  and  make  it  fill  the  hole  near  the 
point  will  not  have  much  effect  at  the  other  end,  and  the  rivet 
will  not  quite  fill  the  hole  near  the  head. 

The  forge  in  which  the  rivets  are  heated  should  be  placed  as 
close  to  the  point  of  use  as  possible. 


196  FASTENINGS. — KIVETS. 

The  two  heads  must  be  concentric,  fit  closely  all  around,  and 
no  impress  ou  the  metal  around  the  head  should  be  made  in  driv- 
ing. The  finished  rivet-head  should  be  without  cracks. 

Redrimng  cold  rivets  and  calking  of  rivet -heads  should  not  be 
permitted. 

Loose  Rivets  are  detected  by  striking  the  rivet  a  sharp  blow 
on  each  side  of  the  head  with  a  hammer  weighing  about  one 
pound,  the  handle  to  which  should  be  quite  small  in  the  shank, 
so  as  to  allow  the  absorption  at  this  point  of  some  of  the  spring  of 
the  hammer.  When  the  handle  is  held  at  the  proper  point  and 
the  rivets  are  solid  no  jarring  effect  is  felt  in  the  hand.  Practice 
soon  enables  one  to  detect  loose  rivets  by  means  of  the  action  of 
the  handle  where  no  rattling  sound  can  be  heard,  and  where  no 
movement  could  be  detected  by  the  finger  placed  at  the  angle  be- 
tween the  rivet-head  and  the  web. 

Loose  rivets  are  frequently  made  to  appear  tight  by  going 
round  the  edges  with  a  calking-tool.  They  will  feel  and 
sound  all  right  and  the  marks  of  the  calking-tool  will  not  be 
noticed  unless  it  is  especially  looked  for.  Loose  rivets  are  also 
tightened  by  placing  the  "  snap  '  sideways  upon  the  rivet  and 
striking  it  two  or  three  blows  with  a  sledge.  It  will  then  ap- 
pear to  bi3  tight,  partly  because  it  is  bent  and  partly  because 
the  snap  cuts  a  ridge  in  the  plate  and  forces  the  metal  against 
the  head.  Rivets  tightened  in  this  way  show  this  ridge  below 
the  head;  but  a  similar  mark  will  often  be  made  in  shaping 
the  head  of  a  perfectly  tight  rivet,  so  the  inspector  cannot  con- 
demn work  simply  because  this  mark  appears,  but  such  work 
should  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  a  sharp  watch  kept  upon 
the  workman.  It  will  also  be  advisable  to  have  a  few  of  the  sus- 
picious rivets  cut  out. 

The  "  held-up"  head  should  be  closely  examined  ;  a  rivet  may 
be  perfectly  tight  on  the  head,  while  in  consequence  of  poor  heat- 
ing it  may  be  readily  moved  on  the  "  held-up"  side.  Besides,  the 
riveter  cannot  tamper  with  that  part  of  the  rivet,  and  any  marks 
there  will  show  that  he  has  been  trying  to  conceal  bad  work. 

Very  often  there  is  trouble  with  countersunk  rivets  driven  by 
a  machine.  The  reason  is  this :  the  rivets  are  a  trifle  too  long. 
This  excess  material  spreads  out  under  the  die  and  overlaps  the 
hole.  Being  thin  this  edge  hardens  quickly,  and  then  no  amount 
of  pressure  will  upset  the  body  of  the  rivet  any  further.  It  will 
appear  tight  until  chipped,  when  it  is  often  found  to  be  loose. 

Drawings  often  require  flat-head  rivets  in  certain  places  where 


FASTENINGS.  —  RIVETS.  197 

there  is  not  enough  clearance  for  the  hemispherical  head,  and  yet 
where  all  the  space  obtained  by  countersinking  is  not  necessary 
Ou  account  of  the  diiliculty  mentioned  above  such  rivet-heads 
k-ss  than  J  inch  in  thickness  should  not  be  allowed.  If  left  un- 
c hipped  it  cannot  be  known  whether  the  rivet  fills  the  hole  or 
not. 

MARKING  RIVETS  TO  BE  CUT  OUT.— In  marking  rivets  to  be 
cut  out  the  inspector  should  use  a  centre-punch  or  the  stamping 
end  of  his  hammer  with  which  to  mark  the  head  of  the  rivet, 
which  should  then  be  painted  with  white  paint.  A  mark  should 
also  be  made  on  the  material  near  the  rivet,  so  that  he  may  be  able 
to  find  and  test  the  new  rivet. 


CHAPTER  III. 
OONSTRUCTIO  N. 

I.    EARTHWORK. 
Definitions  of  Earthwork. 

The  term  "earthwork"  is  applied  to  all  the  operations  per- 
formed in  the  making  of  excavations  and  embankments.  In  its 
widest  sense  it  comprehends  work  in  rock  as  well  as  in  the 
looser  materials  of  the  earth's  crust. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  EARTHWORK.  —  Excavation  is  usunlly 
classified  under  the  heads  Earth,  Hardpan,  Loose  Rock,  and  Solid 
Rock.  For  each  of  these  classes  a  specific  price  is  usually  agreed 
upon,  and  an  extra  allowance  is  sometimes  made  when  the  haul 
or  distance  to  which  the  excavated  material  is  moved  exceeds  a 
given  amount. 

The  characteristics  which  determine  the  class  to  which  a  given 
material  belongs  are  usually  describ*kl  with  clearness  in  the 
specifications,  as: 

EartJi  will  include  loam,  clay,  sand,  and  loose  gravel. 

Hardpan  will  include  cemented  gravel,  slate,  cobbles,  and 
boulders  containing  less  than  one  cubic  foot,  and  all  other  mat- 
ters of  an  earthy  nature,  however  compact  they  may  be. 

Loose  Rock  will  include  shale,  decomposed  rock,  boulders,  and 
detached  masses  of  rock  containing  not  less  than  three  cubic 
feet,  and  all  other  matters  of  a  rock  nature  which  may  be  loosened 
with  the  pick,  although  blasting  may  be  resorted  to  in  order  to 
expedite  the  work. 

Solid  Rock  will  include  all  rock  found  in  place  in  ledges  and 
masses  or  boulders  measuring  more  than  three  cubic  feet,  and 
which  can  only  be  removed  by  blasting. 

PROSECUTION  OF  EARTHWORK.— No  general  rule  can  be  laid 
down  for  the  exact  method  of  carrying  on  an  excavation  and  dis- 
posing of  the  excavated  material.  The  operation  in  each  case 
can  only  be  determined  by  the  requirements  of  the  contract, 
character  of  the  material,  magnitude  of  the  work,  length  of 
haul,  etc. 

Duty  of  Inspector. — The  duty  of  the  inspector  of  earthwork 
is  to  see  that  the  excavations  are  made  to  the  depths  arid  widths 

198 


EARTHWORK.— DEFINITIONS   OF   EARTHWORK.      199 


marked  on  the  plans  or  directed  by  the  engineer;  that  the  sides 
of  excavations,  when  required,  are  properly  sheathed  and  braced 
so  as  to  prevent  slips  and.  to  afford  protection  to  the  workmen; 
that  the  excavated  material  is  deposited  in  the  manner  pre- 
scribed by  the  specifications  and  within  the  lines  and  with  the 
slopes  indicated  by  the  plans,  etc. 

The  inspector  should  keep  a  record  of  the  number  of  men  and' 
vehicles  employed.  On  some  works  he  will  be  required  to 
determine  the  class  to  which  the  excavated  material  belongs,  and 
sometimes  its  amount. 

SLOPES  OF  EARTHWORK. — The  sides  of  excavations  and  em- 
bankments are  finished  with  slopes  corresponding  to  the  angle  of 
repose  of  the  material ;  that  is,  the  angle  at  which  the  friction 
among  the  particles  is  sufficient  to  resist  motion. 

The  angles  of  repose  for  different  earths  are  given  in  Table  56. 
But  for  all  practical  purposes  it  may  be  said  that  all  earths,  sand, 
and  gravel  stand  at  a  slope  of  33  degrees  41  minutes,  or  H  to  1. 
Rock  is  finished  either  vertical  or  at  a  slope  of  j  to  1. 

TABLE  56. 

NATURAL  SLOPES  OF  EARTHS  (WITH  HORIZONTAL   LINE). 

Gravel  (average) 40  degress 

Dry  sand 38 

Wet    " 22 

Vegetable  earth 28 

Compact  earth 50       " 

Shingle 39 

Rubble 45 

Clay  (well  drained ) 45 

"    (wet)  16       " 

TABLE  57. 
LENGTHS  AND  ANGLES  OF  SLOPES. 


Slope. 

Angle 
with 
Horizon. 

Length. 
(Height  taken 
as  1.00.) 

Slope. 

Angle 
with 
Horizon. 

Length. 
(Height,  taken 
asl.OO.j 

i'l 

75°  58' 

1  .0307 

U:l 

33°  41' 

1.802 

*:  1 

63    26 

1.118 

1J:1 

29    44 

2.016 

f  •  1 

53      8 

1.25 

2    :  1 

26    34 

2.236 

1     :  1 

45      0 

1.4142 

3    :  1 

18    26 

3.162 

H-l 

38    40 

1.6 

4    .  1 

14      2 

4.124 

200     EARTHWORK. — DEFINITIONS    OF    EARTHWORK. 

The  sides  of  an  excavation  will  stand  for  a  short  lime  with  a 
vertical  face  for  a  certain  depth  below  its  upper  edge.  That 
depth  is  greater  the  greater  the  adhesion  of  the  earth  as  com- 
pared with  its  heaviness;  the  adhesion  is  increased  by  a  moderate 
degree  of  moisture,  but  diminished  by  excessive  wetness. 

The  approximate  depth  at  which  earths  will  thus  stand  are  as 

follows: 

T?0_fV.  Greatest  Depth  of 

Tern.  Vert.  Face. 

Clean  dry  sand  and  gravel from     0  to    1  foot 

Moist  sand  and  ordinary  surf  ace- mould  .   "        3  "    6  feet 

Clay  (ordinary) "       10  "  16    " 

Compact  gravel, "       10  "  15    " 

FORM  OF  SIDE  SLOPES. —The  natural,  strongest,  and  ultimate 
form  of  earth  slopes  is  a  concave  curve  in  which  the  flattest  por- 
tion is  at  the  bottom.  This  form  is  very  rarely  given  to  the  slopes 
in  constructing  them;  in  fact,  the  reverse  is  often  the  case,  the 
slopes  being  made  convex,  thus  saving  excavation  for  the  con- 
tractor and  inviting  slips. 

In  cuttings  exceeding  10  feet  in  depth  the  forming  of  concave 
slopes  will  materially  aid  in  preventing  slip-,  and  in  any  case 
they  will  reduce  the  amount  of  material  which  will  eventually 
have  to  be  removed  when  cleaning  up.  Straight  or  convex  slopes 
will  continue  to  slip  until  the  natural  form  is  attained. 

Increase  and  Shrinkage  of  Excavated  Material. 

All  materials  when  excavated  increase  in  bulk,  but  after  being 
deposited  in  banks  subside  or  shrink  (rock  excepted)  until  they 
occupy  less  space  than  in  the  pit  from  which  excavated. 

The  shrinkage  of  the  different  materials  is  about  as  follows  : 

Gravel 8  per  cent 

Gravel  and  sand 9    "       " 

Clay  and  clay  earths 10    "       " 

Loam  and  light  sandy  earths 12   "       " 

Loose  vegetable  soil 15   "       " 

Puddled  clay 25  "    .,*'... 

Rock,  on  the  other  hand,  increases  in  volume  by  being  broken 
up,  and  does  not  settle  again  into  less  than  its  original  bulk.  The 
increase  may  be  taken  at  50  per  cent. 

Thus  an  excavation  of  loam  measuring  1000  cubic  yards  will 
form  only  about  880  cubic  yards  of  embankment,  or  an  embank- 


EA.RIHWQRK — EXCAVATION.  xJOl 

ment  of  1000  cubic  yards  will  require  about  1120  cubic  yards 
measured  in  excavation  to  make  it.  A  rock  excavation  measuring 
1000  yards  will  make  from  1500  to  1700  cubic  yards  of  embank- 
ment, depending  upon  the  size  of  the  fragments. 

The  lineal  settlement  of  earth  embankments  will  be  about  in 
the  ratio  given  above;  therefore  either  the  contractor  should  be 
instructed  in  setting  his  poles  to  guide  him  as  to  the  height  of 
grade  on  an  earth  embankment  to  add  the  required  percentage  to 
the  fill  marked  on  the  stakes,  or  the  percentage  may  be  included 
in  the  fill  marked  on  the  stakes.  In  rock  embankments  this  is 
not  necessary. 

Excavation. 

The  prosecution  of  an  excavation  comprises  the  "loosening" 
of  the  compact  earth  and  its  removal. 

LOOSENING  EARTH.— The  loosening  is  effected  in  such  materials 
as  sand  and  loose  gravel,  soft  earth  and  loam,  by  ploughs  if  the 
area  is  of  sufficient  extent;  if  in  trenches  by  the  shovel  alone.  The 
stiffer  earths  and  soft  rocks  are  loosened  with  picks,  crowbars, 
and  wedges,  the  harder  earths  and  solid  rock  by  blasting.  Ex- 
cavation of  soft  material  under  water  is  performed  by  machines 
called  dredges.  Rock  under  water  is  removed  by  blasting  and 
dredging. 

The  rapidity  with  which  an  excavation  can  be  made  depends 
upon  the  difficulty  of  getting  out  the  earth. 

With  hard  clay,  requiring  two  picks  to  a  shovel,  and  with  a 
small  surface  to  work  upon,  two  carts  upon  an  ordinary  road  will 
take  away  all  that  a  dozen  men  cm  get  out;  while  with  an  easy 
soil,  where  one  pick  will  keep  half  a  dozen  shovels  busy,  a 
larger  number  of  vehicles  will  be  required,  or  a  quicker  haul, 
which  may  be  obtained  by  putting  down  a  track.  The  less  the 
haul,  or  the  greater  the  speed  of  transport,  the  fewer  may  be  the 
number  of  vehicles  to  remove  a  given  amount  of  material.  The 
chief  point  to  be  gained  is  to  arrange  the  different  classes  of 
laborers  so  that  none  shall  be  kept  waiting.  Everything  depends 
upon  the  tact  for  management  possessed  by  the  overseer. 

The  amount  of  ordinary  earth  loosened  by  a  plough  and  team 
of  horses  is  from  20  to  40  cubic  yards  per  hour. 

By  the  pick  per  man : 

Clay  or  cemented  gravel. 1  yard  per  hour 

Loam  and  loose  gravel 2  to  3  yards  per  hour 

Light  sand 4"6      " 


202  EARTHWORK — EXCAVATION. 

By  blasting : 

One  pound  of  black  powder  in  small  blasts  will  loosen  about 
4£  tons  of  hard  rock,  in  large  blasts  about  2^  tons;  one  pound 
•  f  dynamite  from  6  to  10  tons. 

REMOVING  EARTH. — The  removal  of  the  loosened  material  is 
effected  by  throwing  or  "casting"  with  a  shovel  when  the 
horizontal  distance  does  not  exceed  12  feet  and  the  vertical  6  feet. 

By  shovelling  into  wheelbarrows  when  the  distance  is  under 
200  feet. 

By  shovelling  into  one-horse  carts  or  two-horse  trucks  or  dump- 
wagons  when  the  distance  is  great. 

In  excavating  a  large  area  of  light  depth  in  moderately  com- 
pact material  the  loosening  is  performed  with  ploughs,  and  the  re- 
moval with  scrapers,  either  drag  or  wheeled,  which  automatically 
pick  up  the  loosened  material. 

In  earth  excavations  of  sufficient  magnitude  steam-shovels  are 
employed  for  loosening  and  loading  the  loosened  material  into 
dump-cars  running  on  a  track  and  hauled  by  horses  or  locomo- 
tives. 

The  quantity  of  material  which  a  man  can  shovel  into  a  vehicle 
in  a  given  time  depends  upon  the  weight  of  the  material. 

The  average  quantity  shovelled  into  a  cart  per  man  per  hour 
is: 

Loose  earth  or  sand 2.0  cubic  yards 

Clay  and  heavy  soils 1.7      "        " 

Rock 1.0  cubic  yard 

The  average  speed  of  horses  in  hauling  is  about  200  ft.  per 
minute. 

The  economical  length  of  haul  with  drag-scrapers  is  about  150 
ft.,  wheeled  scrapers  500  ft.,  wheelbarrows  250  ft.,  one-horse 
dump-carts  600ft.,  two-horse  dump-wagons  1000  ft.  For  hauls 
exceeding  a  thousand  feet  a  track  of  light  rails  with  dump-cars 
drawn  by  horses  or  light  locomotives  is  the  most  economical. 

The  capacity  of  the  vehicles  used  for  moving  excavated  material 
is  about  as  follows  : 

Wheelbarrows 3  to    4  cubic  feet 

1-horse  dump  carts 18  "  22      "      * '-"• 

2     "       dump-wagons 27"  45      "       "'"'-" 

Drag-scrapers 3  "    7      "       " 

Wheel-scrapers 10  "  17      "       " 

Dump-cars  on  rails 27  "  81      "       *' 


EARTHWORK— ROCK    EXCAVATION.  203 


Rock  Excavation. 

Excavation  in  hnrd  rock  is  usually  performed  by  means  of 
some  explosive  inserted  in  a  hole  bored  in  the  rook,  which  when 
ignited  loosens  the  mass  and  permits  of  its  being  broken  up  into 
pieces  easily  removed. 

Drilling.— Holes  for  blasting  rock  are  bored  either  by  hand-  or 
machine-drills.  Shallow  cuts,  loose  boulders,  elc.,  are  more 
cheaply  bored  by  hand,  but  deep  and  extensive  cuttings  are  more 
economically  carried  out  by  the  use  of  machine-drills  operated 
either  by  steam,  compressed  air,  or  electricity. 

HAND-DRILLING  is  divided  into  three  classes,  viz.,  single- 
handed,  in  which  one  man  with  a  set  of  short  drills  and  a  hand- 
hammer  bores  the  holes;  double-handed,  in  which  one  man 
holds  and  turns  the  drill  while  one  or  two  men  strike  it  alter- 
nately; and  churn-  or  jumper-drilling,  in  which  one  or  two  men 
use  a  drill  called  a  churn  or  jumper — the  operation  consists  in 
raising  the  drill,  turning  it  slightly,  and  letting  it  drop. 

The  speed  with  which  holes  may  be  bored  in  rock  varies  of 
course  with  the  hardness  of  the  rock  and  the  diameter  of  the 
hole.  The  smaller  the  diameter  of  the  hole  the  greater  the  depth 
that  can  be  bored  in  a  given  time,  and  the  depth  will  be  greater 
in  proportion  than  the  decrease  of  the  diameter. 

The  average  rate  of  progress  made  by  a  good  drillinan  working 
a  churn-drill  in  granite  and  the  harder  rocks  is  about  as  follows: 

Diam.  of  Depth  bored 

Drill.  per  Hour. 

Inches.  Inches. 

3 4 

2£ 5 

2£ 6 

2 ; s 

If 10 

When  the  hole  exceeds  four  feet  in  depth  two  men  are  required 
to  operate  the  drill. 

MACHINE-DRILLING. — Machine-drills  bore  holes  from  |  to  6 
inches  in  diameter.  The  rate  of  progress  is  controlled  by  the 
same  conditions  as  hand-drilling,  and  ranges  from  three  to  ten 
feet  per  hour,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  rock  and  the  size 
of  the  machine. 


204  EABTHWORK. — ROCK    EXCAVATION. 

SIZE  OF  HOLES.— The  diameter  and  depth  of  the  hole  will  vary 
with  the  quantity  of  rock  to  be  loosened,  and  also  with  the 
strength  of  the  explosive  to  be  used. 

Blasting.  —  The  quantity  of  explosive  required  to  loosen  a 
given  amount  of  rock  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  rock, 
the  kind  of  the  explosive,  and  largely  upon  a  judicious  seleclion 
of  the  direction  of  the  hole  with  respect  to  the  "  lay  "  of  the 
strata. 

It  is  usual  to  allow  f  of  a  pound  of  black  powder  to  each  cubic 
yard  of  solid  rock,  or  1  Ib.  of  dynamite  to  8  or  10  yards.  The 
actual  quantity  of  explosive  required  will  vary  with  the  nature 
of  the  rock  and  its  degree  of  compactness  or  looseness,  the  latter 
requiring  the  largest  quantity. 

The  quantity  of  explosive  required  for  a  given  blast  may  be 
approximately  calculated  by  the  following  formula: 

If  E  =  the  quantity  of  explosive  in  pounds,  and 

L  =  the  line  of  least  resistance  that  is,  the  shortest  distance 
from  the  center  of  the  charge  to  the  surface  of  the 
rock,  then 
E=  CL'; 

G—  .032  for  blasting  powder; 
=  .005  "         "        cotton; 
=  .003  "    nitroglycerine  and  dynamite. 

In  blasting  no  loud  report  should  be  heard  nor  stones  be 
thrown  out.  The  best  effect  is  produced  when  the  report  is 
trifling,  and  when  the  mass  is  lifted  and  thoroughly  fractured 
without  the  projection  of  fragments.  If  the  rock  be  only  shaken 
by  a  blast  and  not  moved  outward,  a  second  charge  in  the  same 
hole  will  be  very  effective. 

Explosives. — Most  of  the  explosives  used  consist  of  a  pow 
dered  substance,  partly  saturated  with  nitroglycerine,  a  fluid  pro- 
duced by  mixing  glycerine  with  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids. 

Pure  nitroglycerine  at  60°  F.  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1.6  It 
is  odorless,  nearly  or  quite  colorless,  and  has  a  sweetish  burning 
taste.  It  is  poisonous,  even  in  very  small  quantities.  Handling 
it  is  apt  to  cause  headaches.  It  is  insoluble  in  water.  At  about 
306°  F.  it  takes  fire,  and  if  uncoufined  burns  harmlessly,  unless  it 
is  in  such  quantity  that  a  part  of  it  before  coming  in  contact 
with  air  becomes  heated  to  the  exploding-point,  which  is  about 
380°  F.  From  its  liability  to  explosion  through  accidental  per- 


EARTHWORK. — ROCK    EXCAVATION.  205 

cussiou,  leakage,  etc.,  it  is  rarely  used  in  the  liquid  state  in  ordi 
nary  quarrying  or  blasting. 

DYNAMITE  is  the  name  applied  to  any  explosive  which  contains 
nitroglycerine  mixed  with  a  granular  absorbent  The  nitroglyc- 
erine undergoes  no  change  in  composition  by  being  absorbed  ;  the 
office  of  the  absorbent  is  to  act  as  a  cushion  and  so  protect  the 
uitro-glyceriue  from  percussion. 

Dynamite  is  classed  according  to  the  percentage  of  nitroglyc- 
erine present.  No.  1  contains  75  per  cent,  and  from  that  down 
to  15  per  cent. 

Dynamite  is  slow  to  catch  fire  ;  when  ignited  in  the  air  and  un- 
con fined  it  burns  fiercely  ;  if  in  large  quantity  or  partly  confined 
explosion  may  ensue. 

Dynamite  of  all  grades  freezes  at  about  42°  F.  When  in  this 
condition  it  cannot  be  completely  exploded,  and  must  be  thawv-d 
before  use.  This  must  be  done  gradually  by  leaving  it  in  a  warm 
room  far  from  ihe  fire,  or  by  placing  it  in  a  metallic  vessel,  which 
is  then  placed  in  another  vessel  containing  hot  water.  The  water 
should  not  be  hotter  than  can  be  borne  by  the  hand. 

Dynamite,  giant  powder,  etc.,  is  sold  in  cylindrical  paper- 
covered  cartridges  from  £•  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  and  6  to  8 
inches  long  or  longer.  They  are  furnished  to  order  of  any  required 
size,  and  are  packed  in  boxes  containing  25  or  50  Ibs.  each.  The 
layers  of  cartridges  are  separated  by  sawdust. 

Powder  is  fired  by  fuse,  and  d3rnamite  either  by  a  fuse  with  a 
detonating-cap,  or  by  a  cap  connected  to  the  wires  of  an  electric 
ba  tery  ;  this  method  is  employed  where  a  number  of  charges  are 
to  be  fired  simultan,  ously  and  in  blnsting  under  water. 

The  cap  or  exploder  used  with  fuse  is  a  hollow  copper  cylinder, 
about  £  inch  in  diameter  and  an  inch  or  two  in  length.  It  con- 
tains from  15  to  20  per  cent  or  more  of  fulminate  of  mercury 
mixed  with  other  ingredients  into  a  cement,  which  fills  the  closed 
end  of  the  cap.  The  cap  is  called  "single-force,"  "triple  force," 
etc.,  according  to  the  quantity  of  explosive  it  contains. 

The  cap  used  with  magneto-electric  blasting  apparatus  is  simi- 
lar to  that  used  with  fuse,  except  that  its  mouth  is  closed  with 
a  cork  of  sulphur  cement,  through  which  pass  the  two  wires 
leading  from  the  electric  machine. 

The  fuse  used  for  dry  work  is  designated  as  "single-tape  fuse," 
for  work  in  water  "double-tape  fuse." 

Fuse  burns  at  the  rate  of  about  three  feet  per  minute. 


206     PRECAUTIONS   TO    BE    OBSERVED    IN    BLASTING. 


Precautions  to  be  observed  in  Blasting. 

Although  it  is  iiot  tlesinible  and  not  so  effective  to  produce  u 
great  shattering  and  scattering  of  the  broken  rock,  little  attention 
is  paid  to  this  p'>int  in  ordinary  blasting  operations.  But  in  blast, 
ing  near  buildings  or  in  the  streets  of  cities  special  precautions 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  projecting  the  fragments  of  rock  to  a  great 
distance.  This  can  be  done  by  properly  regulating  the  charge, 
and  covering  over  and  around  the  hole  with  brush  and  logs.  A 
raft  of  logs  chained  together  or  a  matting  of  ropes  weighted  with 
logs  around  the  edges  will  prove  effective  for  this  purpose. 

Judgment  must  be  exercised  as  to  the  grade  and  quantity  of 
explosive  to  be  used  in  any  given  case.  Where  it  is  not  objection- 
able to  break  the  rock  into  small  pieces,  or  where  it  is  desired  to 
do  so  for  convenience  of  removal,  the  higher  grades  of  dyna- 
mite should  be  selected.  Wheie  it  is  desired  to  get  the  rock  out 
in  large  masses,  as  in  quarrying,  the  lower  grades  are  preferable. 

For  soft  or  decomposed  rocks,  sand,  and  earth  the  lower  grades 
of  dynamite  are  more  suitable.  They  explode  with  less  sudden- 
ness, and  their  tendency  is  rather  to  upheave  large  masses  of  rock, 
etc.,  than  to  splinter  small  masses  of  it. 

For  very  difficult  work  in  hard  rock  and  for  submarine  blast- 
ing the  high  grades  should  be  used.  A  small  charge  of  these 
does  the  same  execution  as  a  larger  charge  of  lower  grade  and  of 
course  does  not  require  the  drilling  of  so  large  a  hole.  In  sub- 
marine work  their  sharp  explosions  is  not  deadened  by  the  water. 

In  blasting  with  dynamite  the  charge  should  fill  the  hole  as 
completely  as  possible.  If  water  is  not  standing  in  the  hole  the 
cartridge  should  be  cut  open  before  insertion. 

The  higher  grades  of  dynamite  require  but  little  tamping.  Use 
a  wooden  tamping-bar,  never  a  metallic  one  for  any  explosive. 

If  a  charge  of  dynamite  "  hangs  fire  "  it  is  dangerous  to  attempt 
to  remove  it.  Remove  the  tamping  all  but  a  few  inches  in  depth, 
and  insert  another  cartridge  and  try  again. 


EARTHWORK. — DREDGING.  207 


Dredging. 

For  excavatiag  under  water  dredging-machines  of  various  types 
are  employed,  MS  dipper-dredges,  clam-shell  dredges,  ladder-and- 
bucket  dredges,  hydraulic  dredges,  etc. 

The  dredged  material  is  usually  removed  in  dumping-scows, 
except  where  the  material  is  of  such  a  character  that  a  sand-pump 
or  hydraulic  dredge  can  be  used;  in  this  case  the  material  is  trans- 
ported and  deposited  in  place  entirely  by  the  force  of  a  stream  of 
water. 

The  limits  of  the  area  to  be  dredged  are  marked  by  ranges, 
which  may  be  objects  on  shore,  piles,  or  buoys.  In  tidal  waters 
a  plainly  marked  gauge  is  set  up,  when  possible,  at  a  point  visible 
from  the  proposed  cut.  The  required  depth  is  measured  from  a 
fixed  plane — in  tidal  waters  that  of  mean  low  water. 

The  necessary  channel-marks  are  placed  under  the  direction  of 
the  engineer,  and  the  contractor  is  usually  made  responsible  for 
their  care  and  preservation. 

Duty  of  Inspector. — The  inspector  should  be  continually 
present  during  the  prosecution  of  dredging  operations.  His  duty 
comprises  the  determining  of  the  proper  position  of  the  dredge, 
and  if  the  width  and  depth  of  the  cut  are  in  accordance  with  the 
requirements.  When  scow  measurement  is  to  be  used  for 
ascertaining  the  amount  of  dredged  material  the  capacity  of  the 
scows  is  carefully  computed  and  the  contractor  is  required  to  fill 
them  each  lime  to  the  same  extent.  The  duty  of  determining 
whether  the  scows  contain  full  loads  devolves  upon  the  inspector. 
In  cases  of  partial  loads  he  also  decides  as  to  the  true  amount. 

It  is  usual  to  make  an  extra  allowance  of  from  one  half  to  one 
foot  for  the  irregularities  left  in  the  bottom  by  the  dredge;  that 
is,  to  insure  that  the  minimum  depth  shall  be  attained. 

Material  dredge  1  from  outside  the  fixed  lines  or  below  the  per 
initted  excess  of  a  half  or  one  foot  is  not  paid  for. 

The  increase  of  scow  measurements  over  measurements  in  p'ace 
is  for  rock  If  to  2;  very  soft  mud,  13  per  cent;  soft  blue  mud, 
15  per  cent;  hard  sand,  20  to  30  per  cent. 

Loose  muck  has  been  found  to  measure  from  15  to  17  per  cent 
less  in  the  dredge-bucket  than  when  in  place.  In  hydraulic 
dredging,  particularly  where  there  is  much  fine,  light  material, 
place  measurements  equal  or  exceed  scow  measurements. 


208  EARTHWORK. — EMBANKMENTS. 

Embankments. 

EMBANKMENTS  are  made  in  three  ways:  1.  In  one  layer.  2. 
In  two  or  more  thick  layers.  3.  In  thin  layers. 

1.  In  One  Layer. — This  being  the  cheapest  and  quickest  method 
consistent   with  stability  is  that  followed  in  all  earthworks  in 
which  there  is  no  reason  to  the  contrary. 

2.  In  Thick  Layers. — This  process  is  used  in  embankments  of 
great,  height.     It  cousis's  in  completing  the  construction  of  the 
embankment  up  to  a  certain  heighi  by  the  process  of  dumping 
over  the  end,  leaving  that  layer  for  a  time  to  settle,  and  then  mak- 
ing a  second  layer  in  the  same  way. 

3.  In   Thin  Layers. — This  process  consists  in  spreading  the 
earth  in  horizontal  layers  of  from  9  to  18  inches  deep,  and  ram- 
ming or  rolling  each  layer  so  as  to  make  it  compact  and  firm  be- 
fore laying  down  the  next  layer.     Being  a  tedious  and  laborious 
process,  it  is  used  in  special  cases  only,  of  which  the  principal  are, 
the  filling  behind  retaining  walls,  behind  wings  and  abutments  of 
bridges  and  culverts  and  over  their  arches,  and  the  embankments 
of  reservoirs  for  water. 

In  embankments  of  great  magnitude  and  where  water  is  to  be 
retained  by  them  all  the  vegetable  matter  and  mould  should  be 
removed  from  the  site  before  depositing  the  materials  of  the  em- 
bankment. 

In  forming  embankments  on  hillsides  a  common  practice  is 
to  simply  dump  the  material  on  the  side  slope;  this  method  is  in- 
secure, the  material  so  deposited  is  liable  to  slip  and  slide.  The 
best  method  is  to  cut  the  surface  of  the  natural  slope  into  steps, 
the  number  of  which  will  vary  with  the  length  of  the  slope — three 
feet  apart  is  a  good  distance.  No  pains  should  be  spared  to  give 
the  material  a  secure  hold,  particularly  at  the  toe  of  the  slope. 

The  solidity  of  embankments  which  are  not  to  be  consolidated 
by  rolling  may  be  increased  by  filling  from  the  sides  towards  the 
centre,  keeping  the  sides  high  with  a  dip  towards  the  centre. 

Embankments  formed  by  building  a  narrow  bank  as  a  road- 
way for  the  vehicles  transporting  the  material,  and  then  widen- 
ing it  by  dumping  the  earth  on  the  sides,  are  deficient  in  compact- 
ness, and  are  liable  to  slips  and  cracks,  and  will  require  a  long 
time  for  complete  consolidation. 

When  embankments  are  to  be  widened  by  the  addition  of  new 
material  the  slopes  of  the  old  embankment  should  be  cleaned 
from  vegetable  matter  and  mould  and  cut  into  steps  or  benches; 
otherwise  the  new  material  will  not  unite  perfectly  with  the  old. 


FOUJfDATlOA'6. — DUTY    OF    INSPECTOR.  209 


n.    FOUNDATIONS.* 
Definitions. 

The  term  "foundation  "  is  used  to  designate  all  that  portion  of 
«inv  structure  which  serves  only  as  a  basis  on  which  to  erect  the 
superstructure. 

The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  that  portion  of  the  solid  ma- 
terial of  the  earth  upon  which  the  structure  rests,  and  also  to  the 
artificial  arrangements  which  may  be  made  to  support  the  base. 

The  object  to  be  attained  in  the  construction  of  any  founda- 
tion is  to  form  such  a  solid  base  for  the  superstructure  that  no 
movement  sh:ill  take  place  after  its  erection.  But  all  structures 
built  of  coarse  masonry,  whether  of  stone  or  brick,  will  settle  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  with  but  few  exceptions  all  soils  will  become 
compressed  under  the  weight  of  almost  any  building. 

The  main  object,  therefore,  is  not  to  prevent  settlement  entirely, 
but  to  insure  that  it  shall  be  uniform,  so  that  after  the  structure 
is  finished  it  will  have  no  cracks  or  flaws,  however  irregularly  it 
may  be  disposed  over  the  area  of  its  site. 

Foundations  are  divided  into  two  great  classes,  viz.,  Natural 
and  Artificial.  Each  of  them  is  subdivided  into  many  kinds  ac- 
cording to  the  material  of  the  earth  on  which  the  structure  is 
founded,  the  artificial  arrangements  required,  and  foundations 
under  water. 

Duty  of  Inspector. 

As  the  stability  and  endurance  of  a  structure  depend  upon  the 
character  of  its  foundation,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that 
the  inspector  concentrate  his  attention  to  its  preparation,  to  see 
that  the  instructions  of  the  engineer  or  architect  and  the  require- 
ments of  the  specifications  are  faithfully  carried  out,  and  to  report 
without  delay  to  his  superior  any  probable  source  of  failure  that 
he  may  detect.  There  are  two  principal  sources  of  failure  to  be 

*  For  a  complete  discussion  on  the  many  and  various  methods  of  prepar- 
ing foundations  the  reader  is  referred  to  "  A  Practical  Treatise  on  Founda- 
tions," by  W.  M.  Patton;  "  A  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction,"  by  I  O. 
Baker;  "Building  Superintendence  and  Construction,"  and  the  "Archi- 
tects' and  Builders1  Pocket-book,"  by  F.  E.  Kidder,  etc. 


210  FOUNDATIONS. — NATURAL    FOUNDATIONS. 

guarded  against,  viz  ,  inequality  of  settlement,  pnd  lateral  escape 
of  the  supporting  material. 

Natural  Foundations. 

Foundations  constructed  in  situations  where  the  natural  soil  is 
sufficiently  firm  to  bear  the  weight  of  the  intended  structure. 

The  best  natural  foundation  is  a  stratum  of  rock  or  compact 
gravel. 

The  foundation  should  be  started  from  a  uniform  level,  but  if 
circumstances  prevent  it  the  ground  must  be  carefully  benched, 
i.  e.,  cut  into  horizontal  steps,  so  that  the  courses  of  masonry  may 
all  be  perfectly  level. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  masonry-work  will  settle 
more  or  less  according  to  the  perfection  and  thickness  of  the 
joints,  and  therefore  too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  the 
case  of  steps  to  bring  up  the  foundation  course  to  a  uniform  level 
with  large  blocks  of  stone  or  with  concrete;  otherwise  the  super- 
structure is  liable  to  settle  most  over  the  deepest  parts  on  account 
of  the  greater  number  of  mortar-joints,  and  thus  cause  unsightly 
fractures. 

HOCK. — In  preparing  a  rock  surface  see  that  all  loose  and  de- 
cayed parts  are  cut  away,  that  the  surface  is  worked  or  cut  into 
horizontal  steps,  that  all  hollows  where  the  rock  is  solid  are  care- 
fully filled  with  concrete. 

SAND  being  practically  incompressible  forms  an  excellent 
foundation  so  long  as  it  can  be  kept  from  shifting,  but  as  it  has  no 
cohesion  and  acts  like  a  fluid  when  exposed  to  runuing  water,  it 
must  be  treated  with  caution.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  keep 
surface-water  from  running  into  the  trenches,  and  if  necessary 
drains  should  be  made  at  the  bottom  to  carry  away  any  water 
that  may  find  its  way  in. 

CLAY  is  the  most  deceptive  material  to  build  upon.  Its  inse- 
curity results  from  the  position  of  its  stratum,  as  well  as  its  elas- 
ticity, from  being  mixed  with  marl,  etc.,  and  tendency  to  absorb 
moisture.  In  dry  weather  it  is  very  firm,  while  in  wet  weather 
it  is  elastic  and  unreliable. 

In  building  on  clay  great  caution  must  be  used  to  secure  good 
drainage,  both  before  and  after  the  work  is  begun. 

The  foundation  must  be  started  below  the  frost-line,  for  the 
efi'ect  of  frost  on  clay  is  very  great. 

The  trenches  must  be  protected  from  the  entrance  of  water, 
and  must  be  so  arranged  that  water  shail  not  remain  in  them. 


FOUNDATIONS. — ARTIFICIAL    FOUNDATIONS.        211 

In  general  the  less  a  clay  soil  is  exposed  to  !he  uir  and  weather, 
aud  the  sooner  it  is  protected  from,  exposure,  the  better  for  the 
work. 

BEARING  POWER  OF  SOILS. — New  York  Building  Laws,  1892- 
96:  "  Good  solid  natural  earth  shall  be  deemed  to  safely  sustain 
a  load  of  4  tons  to  the  superficial  foot,  and  the  width  of  footing- 
courses  shall  be  at  least  sufficient  to  meet  this  requirement." 

Chicago  Building  Ordinances,  1893: 

Pure  clay,  15  ft.  thick,  without  admixture  of  any  for- 
eign substance,  excepting  gravel 3500  Ibs. 

Dry  sand,  15  ft.  or  more  in  thickness,  and  without  ad- 
mixture of  clay,  loam,  or  other  foreign  substar.ee..  4000  " 

Clay  and  sand  mixed 3000    " 

LOADS  ON  FOUNDATIONS. — Chicago  Building  Ordinances,  1893: 

Per  Sq.  Ft. 

Concrete  foundations 8,000  Ibs. 

Foundation-piers  of  dimension  stone 10,000    " 

Brick  piers  in  cement 18,000  to  25,000    " 

Iron  rails  in  concrete 12,000    " 

Steel    "     "        "     16,000    " 

Piles , .  25  tons 

Artificial  Foundations. 

The  construction  of  foundations  in  compressible  soils,  quick- 
sand, and  under  water  oftentimes  requires  all  the  resources  of  the 
engineer,  and  causes  no  little  trouble,  anxiety,  and  expense.  The 
methods  employed  are  many  and  varying,  comprising  coffer- 
dams, cribs,  caissons,  hollow  cylinders,  timber  and  iron  piles, 
pneumatic  piles,  freezing,  and  other  processes. 

CAISSONS  are  of  two  forms,  the  "erect"  or  "open"  and  the 
"  inverted."  The  former  is  a  strong  water-tight  box,  having 
vertical  sides  and  a  bottom  of  heavy  timber,  in  which  the  ma- 
sonry is  built,  and  which  sinks  as  the  masonry  is  added,  until  the 
bottom  rests  upon  the  foundation  prepared  for  it. 

The  inverted  caisson  is  also  a  strong  water-tight  box,  open  at 
the  bottom  and  closed  at  the  top,  upon  which  the  structure  is 
built,  and  which  sinks  as  the  masonry  is  added.  This  style  of 
caisson  is  usually  aided  in  sinking  by  the  pneumatic  process,  in 
which  case  it  is  called  a  pneumatic  caisson. 

The  name  caisson  is  also  applied  to  cylinders  of  cast  iron  or 


212        FOUNDATIONS. — ARTIFICIAL    FOUNDATIONS. 

steel,  which  are  sunk  by  removing  the  material  from  the  inside 
either  by  manual  labor  or  by  dredging. 

The  processes  employed  to  aid  the  sinking  of  inverted  caissons 
are  called  the  "vacuum  "  and  the  "  plenum." 

The  vacuum  process  consists  in  exhausting  the  air  from  the  in- 
terior of  the  caisson,  and  using  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere 
upon  top  of  it  to  force  it  down.  Exhausting  the  air  allows  the 
water  to  flow  past  the  lower  edge  iiito  the  interior,  thus  loosening 
the  soil. 

The  plenum  or  compressed-air  process  consists  in  pumping  air 
into  the  chamber  of  the  caisson,  which  by  its  pressure  excludes 
the  water.  An  air-lock  or  entrance  provided  with  anil  able  doors 
is  arranged  in  the  top  of  the  caisson,  by  which  workmen  can 
enter  to  loosen  up  the  soil  and  otherwise  aid  in  the  sinking  of  the 
caisson  vertically  by  removing  and  loosening  the  material  at  the 
sides.  If  the  loosened  material  is  of  a  suitable  character  it  is 
removed  with  a  sand-pump;  if  not,  suitable  hoisting  apparatus  is 
provided  and  it  is  loaded  into  buckets  by  the  workmen  and 
hoisted  out  through  the  air-lock. 

COFFER-DAMS  are  temporary  enclosures  from  which  water  may 
be  pumped  out  so  as  to  allow  of  work  being  done  within  them. 
Their  construction  varies  greatly,  depending  upon  the  conditions 
to  be  met. 

The  most  perfect  form  consists  of  two  parallel  rows  of  main 
and  sheet  piles  enclosing  between  them  a  vertical  wall  of  clay 
puddle.  Simple  banks  of  clay  and  gravel,  or  of  bags  filled  with 
clay,  or  a  single  row  of  sheet-piling  protected  with  a  bank  of 
clay  are  used  where  the  conditions  permit. 

CRIBS. — Timber  cribs  consist  of  a  series  of  layers  of  round  or 
squared  timber,  laid  alternately  lengthwise  and  crosswise,  notched 
and  pinned  to  each  other  at  their  intersections,  each  notch  being 
about  one  fourth  the  depth  of  the  stick.  The  crib  forms  a  series 
of  square  or  rectangular  cells,  which  are  usually  filled  with  stones. 

FREEZING  PROCESS. — This  process  is  employed  in  sinking 
foundation-pits  through  quicksand  and  soils  saturated  with 
water.  The  Poetsch-Sooysmith  process  is  to  sink  a  series  of 
pipes  10  inches  in  diameter  through  the  earth  to  the  rock;  these 
are  sunk  in  a  circle  around  the  proposed  shaft.  Inside  of  the  10- 
inch  pipes  8-inch  pipes  closed  at  the  bottom  are  placed,  and 
inside  of  these  are  placed  smaller  pipes  open  at  the  bottom. 
E;ich  sot  of  the  small  pipes  is  connected  in  a  series.  A  freezing 
mixture  is  then  allowed  to  flow  downwards  through  one  set  of 


FOUNDATIONS. — ARTIFICIAL   FOUNDATIONS.        213 

the  smaller  pipes  and  return  upwards  through  the  other.  The 
freezing  mixture  flows  from  a  tank  placed  at  a  sufficient  height 
to  cause  the  liquid  to  flow  with  the  desired  velocity  through  the 
pipes.  The  effect  of  this  process  is  to  freeze  the  earth  into  a 
solid  wall. 

GRILLAGE  is  a  frame  of  one  or  more  courses  of  timber,  drift- 
bolted  or  -pinned  to  the  tops  of  piles  and  to  each  other,  upon 
whicli  a  floor  of  thick  planks  is  placed  to  receive  the  bottom 
courses  of  masonry. 

The  timbers  which  rest  upon  the  piles  are  called  caps;  they  are 
usually  about  1  foot  square,  and  are  fastened  by  boring. a  hole 
through  each  one  into  the  head  of  the  pile  and  driving  into  the 
hole  a  plain  rod  or  bar  of  iron  having  about  25  per  cent  larger 
cross-section  than  the  hole. 

These  rods  are  called  drift-bolts,  and  are  usually  either  a  rod 
1  inch  iu  diameter  (driven  into  a  f-iuch  auger-hole)  or  a  bar  1 
inch  square  (driven  into  a  |-iuch  hole).  Formerly  jag-bolts  or 
rag-bolts,  i.  e.,  bolts  whose  sides  were  jagged  or  barbed,  were 
used  for  this  and  similar  purposes,  but  universal  experience 
shows  that  smooth  rods  hold  much  better.  Round  bolts  are 
preferable  to  square,  because  they  do  not  cut  or  tear  the  wood. 
The  ends  of  the  rods  should  be  slightly  pointed  with  a  hammer. 

Transverse  timbers  are  put  on  top  of  the  caps  and  drift-bolted 
to  them.  As  many  courses  may  be  added  as  is  necessary,  each 
perpendicular  to  the  one  below  it.  The  timbers  of  the  top 
course  are  laid  close  together,  or,  as  before  stated,  a  floor  of 
thick  plank  is  added  on  top  to  receive  the  masonry. 

Grillages  formed  of  iron  and  steel  rails  and  beams  bedded  in 
concrete  are  being  extensively  employed  for  the  foundations  of 
steel  and  iron  buildings.  The  method  employed  is  to  cover  the 
bottom  of  the  foundation-pit  with  a  layer  of  concrete  ;  on  this  is 
placed  a  layer  of  steel  I  beams  or  rails  spaced  6  to  8  inches  apart 
and  the  spaces  between  them  filled  iu  with  concrete.  These  are 
covered  with  a  similar  set  at  right  angles  and  concreted,  and  then 
again  with  a  third  or  fourth  course,  and  the  whole  finished  iiush 
with  concrete. 

Before  the  beams  are  laid  on  the  concrete  it  is  recommended 
that  its  surface  be  covered  with  two  thicknesses  of  tarred  felt 
laid  in  hot  asphalt,  and  on  top  of  this  a  layer  of  cement  mortar 
1|-  inches  thick,  in  which  the  beams  are  bedded. 

Before  the  beams  are  laid  they  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed 
with  wire  brushes,  and  while  dry  either  painted  with  asphalt  or 


214        FOUNDATIONS. — ARTIFICIAL   FOUNDATIONS. 

heated  and  dipped  iii  asphalt.  Before  covering  the  beams  with 
the  concrete  every  portion  of  the  metal  should  be  examined,  and 
wherever  the  coating  has  been  scraped  off  in  handling  should  "be 
thoroughly  dried  and  recoated  or  painted. 

Piles. — The  materials  employed  for  piles  are  timber,  rolled, 
forged,  or  cast  steel,  and  wrought-iroii  pipes  and  cast-iron 
cylinders. 

TIMBER  PILES  are  generally  round,  and  have  a  length  of 
about  twenty  times  their  mean  diameter.  The  diameter  of  the 
butt  varies  from  9  to  18  inches. 

The  timber  employed  for  piles  varies  with  the  conditions. 
For  soft  or  medium  soils  or  situations  in  which  the  piles  will  be 
always  under  water  spruce  and  hemlock  are  frequently  used.  For 
firmer  soils  the  hard  pines,  fir,  elm,  and  beech  are  generally  used. 
For  still  more  compact  soils,  and  where  the  pile  is  alternately 
wet  and  dry,  white  or  black  oak  and  yellow  or  Southern  pine  are 
used. 

Where  piles  are  exposed  to  tide-water  they  are  generally 
driven  with  the  bark  on.  In  other  cases  it  is  not  essential. 

In  Southern  waters  special  precautions  are  necessary  to  pro- 
tect the  piles  from  the  ravages  of  the  Teredo.  In  Florida  the 
palmetto-wood  is  extensively  used  on  account  of  its  being  little 
attacked  by  the  Teredo. 

In  driving  through  hard  ground  the  point  of  the  pile  is  some- 
times protected  with  a  shoe  of  either  cast  or  wrought  iron,  and 
the  head  bound  with  an  iron  hoop  to  prevent  splitting. 

As  a  rule,  piles  drive  better  when  cut  off  square  than  when 
pointed;  iron  shoes  generally  strip  oif  before  the  pile  has  pene- 
trated far. 


FOUNDATIONS. — DESCRIPTION    OF    PILES.  215 


Description  of  Piles. 

ANCHOR-PILE  :  A  pile  driven  at  some  distance  from  another, 
usually  at  an  angle,  to  which  the  face-pile  is  fastened  by  an  iron 
tie-rod  to  prevent  the  face-pile  springing  or  being  forced  out  of 
its  position. 

BEARING-PILES  are  long  piles  driven  into  the  soil  to  act  as 
pillars  in  supporting  the  load.  They  may  either  be  driven 
through  the  soft  stratum  until  they  reach  a  firm  stratum  and 
penetrate  a  short  distance  into  it,  or,  if  that  be  impracticable, 
they  may  be  supported  wholly  by  the  friction  of  the  soft 
stratum. 

The  load  which  bearing-piles  will  carry  depends  upon  the 
character  of  the  material  into  which  they  are  driven. 

In  sand  and  soft  clays  piles  driven  to  depths  of  40  to  50  ft. 
will  carry  safely  from  20  to  30  tons  per  pile.  If  driven  through 
to  rock  or  hardpan,  so  that  the  pile  becomes  a  timber  column, 
they  will  carry  safely  50  to  70  tons  per  pile.  Piles  driven  into 
soft,  silty,  and  marshy  soils,  and  penetrating  to  60,  80,  or  even  100 
or  more  feet  without  reaching  firm  soil  of  any  kind,  may  curry 
safely  loads  from  10  to  25  tons. 

CLOSE  PILE  :  A  pile  of  square  timber  driven  close  to  another. 

DISK-PILE  :  A  bearing-pile  near  the  foot  of  which  a  disk  is 
keyed  or  bolted  to  give  additional  bearing  power. 

FALSE-PILE  :  An  additional  length  added  to  a  pile  after  driv- 
ing. 

FENDER  PILE  :  A  pile  driven  to  ward  off  blows  from  floating 
bodies. 

FILLING-PILES  :  Piles  filling  the  space  between  gauge-piles. 

FOUNDATION-PILE  :  One  driven  to  increase  the  supporting 
power  of  the  soil  under  a  foundation. 

GAUGE-PILES  :  Piles  placed  to  mark  the  desired  course  of  a 
row  of  piles. 

In  dredging,  piles  driven  to  mark  the  course  and  depth  of  the 
excavations. 

GUIDE-PILES  :  Piles  which  limit  the  field  of  operations  in 
dredging. 

HOLLOW  PILES. — Cylinders  of  cast  iron  sunk  by  excavating 
from  the  interior.  They  are  cast  in  various  lengths  and  diame- 
ters. Short  lengths  are  usually  employed  for  those  of  small  di- 
ameter, sections  being  added  as  they  sink,  the  sections  being  fas- 


216  FOUNDATIONS. — DESCRIPTION    OF    PILES. 

tened  together  by  internal  flanges.  When  the}'  have  reached  the 
stratum  upon  which  they  are  to  rest  they  are  usually  filled  with 
concrete.  If  used  to  resist  sea-water  the  iron  should  be  close- 
grained  white  iron. 

IRON  AND  STEEL  PILES. — Both  cast  and  wrought  iron  and 
steel  are  employed  for  ordinary  bearing-piles,  sheet-piles,  and  for 
cylinders.  Iron  cylinders  are  usually  sunk  either  by  dredging 
the  soil  from  the  inside  or  by  the  pneumatic  process. 

Cast-iron  piles  are  used  as  substitutes  for  wooden  ones.  Lugs 
or  flanges  are  usually  cast  on  the  sides  of  the  piles,  to  which 
bracing  may  be  attached  for  securing  them  in  position.  A  wood 
block  is  laid  upon  top  of  the  pile  to  receive  the  blows  of  the  ham- 
mer used  in  driving  it,  and  after  being  driven  a  cap  with  a  socket 
in  its  lower  side  is  placed  upon  the  pile  to  receive  the  load. 

Solid  rolled-steel  piles  are  driven  in  the  same  manner  as  timber 
piles,  either  with  a  hammer,  machine,  or  water-jet. 

PNEUMATIC-PILE  :  A  metal  cylinder  similar  to  a  hollow  pile, 
but  sunk  by  atmospheric  pressure. 

SAND-PILES  :  The  practical  incompressibility  of  sand  renders 
it  an  excellent  foundation  wherever  it  can  be  protected  from  wash 
by  water.  The  form  in  which  it  is  most  successfully  used  is  that 
of  piles.  The  ground  is  prepared  by  driving  timber  piles,  then 
withdrawing  them  and  filling  the  holes  with  sand. 

The  sand  used  should  be  moderately  fine,  angular-grained, 
clean,  and  uniform  in  size.  If  wet  it  should  be  rammed  with 
considerable  force.  If  dry  it  arranges  itself  better,  and  when  in 
place  may  be  moistened  and  rammed. 

SCREW-PILES  are  piles  which  are  screwed  into  the  stratum  in 
which  they  are  to  stand.  They  are  ordinary  piles  of  timber  or 
iron  (the  latter  usually  hollow),  to  the  bottom  of  which  a  screw- 
disk,  consisting  of  a  single  turn  of  the  spiral,  similar  to  the 
bottom  turn  of  an  auger,  is  fastened  by  bolts  or  pins;  and  instead 
of  driving  them  into  the  ground  they  are  forced  in  by  turning 
them  with  levers  or  machinery  suitable  for  the  purpose.  The 
screw-disks  vary  in  diameter  from  1  to  6  feet.  The  water- jet  is 
sometimes  employe:!  by  applying  it  to  the  under,  upper,  or  both 
sides  of  the  disk  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  resistance. 

SHEET- PILES  are  flat  piles,  usually  of  plank,  either  tongued  and 
grooved  or  grooved  only,  info  which  a  strip  or  tongue  is  driven; 
or  they  may  be  of  squared  timber,  in  which  case  they  are  called 
"close  piles,"  or  of  sheet  iron.  The  timber  ones  are  of  any 
breadth  that  can  be  procured,  and  from  2  to  10  inches  thick,  and 


FOUNDATIONS. — DESCRIPTION    OF   PILES.  21? 

are  sharpened  at  the  lower  eml  to  an  edge  wholly  from  one  side; 
this  point  being  placed  next  to  the  last  pile  driven  tends  to  crowd 
them  together  and  make  tighter  joints  (the  angle  formed  at  the 
point  should  be  30°).  In  stony  ground  they  are  shod  with  iron. 

When  a  space  is  to  be  enclosed  with  sheet-piling  two  rows  of 
guide-piles  are  first  driven  at  regular  intervals  of  from  6  to  10 
feet,  and  to  opposite  sides  of  these  near  the  top  are  notched  or 
bolted  a  pair  of  parallel  string-pieces  or  "wales,"  from  5  to  10 
inches  square,  so  fastened  to  the  guide-piles  as  to  leave  a  space 
between  the  wales  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  sheet-piles.  If 
the  sheeting  is  to  stand  more  than  8  or  10  feet  above  the  ground 
a  second  pair  of  wales  is  required  near  the  level  of  the  ground. 
The  sheet-piles  are  driven  between  the  wales,  working  from  each 
end  towards  the  middle  of  the  space  between  a  pair  of  guide- piles, 
so  that  the  last  or  central  pile  acts  as  a  wedge  to  tighten  the 
whole. 

Sheet-piles  are  driven  either  by  mauls  wielded  by  men  or  by  a  pile- 
driving  machine.  Ordinary  planks  are  also  used  for  sheet-piling, 
being  driven  with  a  lap;  such  piliug  is  designated  as  "single-lap," 
"double-lap,"  and  "  triple  lap."  The  latter  is  also  known  as  the 
"  Wakefield  triple-lap  sheet-piling." 

SHORT  PILES  are  driven  in  order  to  compress  and  consolidate 
the  soil.  They  are  usually  of  round  timbers,  from  6  to  9  inches 
in  diameter  and  from  6  to  12  feet  long,  and  are  driven  as  close 
to  each  other  as  is  practicable  without  causing  the  neighboring 
piles  to  rise.  The  centre  pile  should  be  driven  first,  then  the  next 
without,  and  so  on  to  the  outside  row. 

TEST-PILE  :  A  pile  driven  to  test  the  character  of  the  soil. 


218  FOUNDATIONS.  —PILE-DRIVING. 


Pile-driving. 

Timber  piles  are  driven  either  point  or  butt  end  down;  the  latter 
is  considered  the  belter  method. 

When  piles  are  directed  to  be  sharpened  the  points  should  have 
a  length  of  from  one  and  a  half  times  to  twice  the  diameter. 

To  prevent  the  head  of  the  pile  from  being  broomed  or  split  by 
the  blo;vs  of  the  driving-ram  it  is  bound  with  a  wrought-iron 
hoop,  2  to  3  inches  wide  and  |  to  1  inch  thick.  Instead  of  the 
wrought-iron  band  a  cast-iron  cap  is  sometimes  used.  It  consists 
of  a  block  with  a  tapering  recess  above  and  below,  the  cham- 
fered head  of  the  pile  fitting  into  the  one  below,  and  a  cushion- 
piece  of  hard  wood  upou  which  the  hammer  falls  fitting  into  the 
one  above 

When  brooming  occurs  the  broomed  part  should  be  cut  off, 
because  a  broomed  head  cushions  the  blow  and  dissipates  it  with- 
out any  useful  effect. 

Piles  that  split  or  broom  excessively  or  are  otherwise  injured 
during  the  driving  must  be  drawn  out. 

Bouncing  of  the  h;immer  occurs  when  the  pile  refuses  to  drive 
further,  or  it  may  be  caused  by  the  hammer  being  too  light,  or  its 
striking  velocity  being  too  great,  or  both.  The  remedy  for 
bouncing  is  to  diminish  the  fall.  A  slight  bounce  should  occur 
at  the  end  of  every  blow. 

Excessive  hammering  on  piles  which  refuse  to  move  should  be 
avoided,  as  they  are  liable  to  be  crippled,  split,  or  broken  below 
the  ground,  which  will  pass  unnoticed  and  may  be  the  cause  of 
future  failure. 

As  a  general  rule,  a  heavy  hammer  with  a  low  fall  drives  more 
pleasantly  than  a  light  one  with  a  high  fall.  More  blows  can  be 
made  in  the  same  time  with  a  low  fall,  and  this  gives  less  time 
for  the  soil  to  compact  itself  around  the  piles  between  the  blows. 
At  times  a  pile  may  resist  the  hammer  after  sinking  some  distance, 
but  start  again  after  a  short  rest;  or  it  may  refuse  a  heavy  ham 
mer  and  start  under  a  light  one.  It  may  drive  slowly  at  first,  and 
more  rapidly  afterwards,  from  causes  that  may  be  difficult  to 
discover.  The  driving  of  one  sometimes  causes  adjacent  ones 
previously  driven,  to  spring  upwards  several  feet.  The  driving 
of  piles  in  soft  ground  01  mud  will  generally  cause  an  adjacent 
one  previously  driven  to  lean  outwards  unless  means  be  taken  to 
prevent  it. 

A  pile  may  rest  upon  rock  and  yet  be  very  weak,  for  if  driven 


FOUNDATIONS.  —  PILE-DRIVING  219 

through  very  soft  soil  all  the  pressure  is  borne  by  the  sharp 
point,  and  the  pile  becomes  merely  a  column  in  a  worse  condition 
than  a  pillar  with  one  rounded  end.  In  such  soils  the  piles  need 
very  little  sharpening  ;  indeed,  had  better  be  driven  without 
any,  and  better  butt  end  down. 

Solid  metal  piles  are  usually  of  uniform  diameter  and  are 
driven  with  either  blunt  or  sharpened  points. 

Piles  are  driven  by  machines  called  pile-drivers.     They  consist 
essentially  of  two  upright  guides  or  leads,  often  of  great  height, 
erected   :ipon  a  platform,   or  on   a  barge  when   used  in  water 
These  guides  serve  to  hold  the  pile  vertical'while  being  driven, 
and  also  hold  and  guide  the  hammer  used  in  driving.     This  is  a 
block  of  iron  called  a  ram,  monkey,  or  hammer,  weighing  any 
where  from  800  to  4000  pounds;  average  weight,  from  2000  to 
3000  pounds.     The  accessories  are  a  hoisting-engine  for  raising 
the  hammer  and  the  devices  for  allowing  it  to  drop  freely  on  the 
heads  of  the  piles. 

The  steam-hammer  is  also  employed  for  driving  piles,  and  has 
certain  advantages  over  the  ordinary  form,  the  chief  of  which 
lies  in  the  great  rapidity  with  which  the  blows  follow  one 
another,  allowing  no  time  for  the  disturbed  earth,  sand,  etc. , 'to 
recompact  itself  around  the  sides  and  under  the  foot  of  the  pile. 
It  is  less  liable  than  others  to  split  and  broom  the  piles,  so  that 
these  may  be  of  softer  and  cheaper  wood.  The  piles  are  not  so 
liable  to  "  dodge  '  or  <;  get  out  of  line." 

When  piles  have  to  be  driven!  below  the  end  of  the  leaders  of 
the  pile-driver  a  follower  is  used.  This  is  made  from  a  pile  of 
suitable  length  placed  on  top  of  the  pile  to  be  driven;  to  prevent 
its  bouncing  off  caps  of  cast  iron  are  used,  one  end  being  bolted 
to  the  follower  and  the  other  end  fitting  over  the  head  of  the 
pile. 

Piles  are  also  driven  by  the  '•'  water-jet."  This  process  consists 
of  an  iron  pipe  fastened  by  staples  to  the  side  of  the  pile,  its 
lower  end  placed  near  the  point  of  the  pile  and  its  upper  end 
connected  by  a  hose  to  a  force-pump  The  pile  can  be  sunk 
through  almost  any  material,  except  hardpan  and  rock,  by  forc- 
ing water  through  the  pipe.  It  seems  to  make  very  little  differ- 
ence, either  in  the  rapidity  of  sinking  or  in  the  accuracy  with 
which  the  pile  preserves  its  position,  whether  the  nozzle  is  ex- 
actly under  the  middle  of  the  pile  or  not 

The  efficiency  of  the  jet  depends  upon  the  increased  fluidity 
given  the  material  into  which  the  piles  are  sunk,  the  actual  dis- 


220 


FOUNDATIONS.  — PlLE-DKtVING. 


placement  of  material  being  small  Hence  the  efficiency  of  the 
jet  is  greatest  in  clear  sand,  mud.  or  soft  clay,  in  gravel  or  in 
s;iud  containing  a  large  percentage  of  gravel,  or  in  hard  clay  the 
jet  is  almost  useless.  For  these  reasons  the  engine  pump  hose 
and  nozzle  should  be  arranged  to  deliver  laige  quantities  of 
water  with  a  moderate  force  rather  thaii  smaller  quantities  with 
high  initial  velocity.  In  gravel  or  in  sand  containing  gravel 
some  benefit  might  result  from  a  velocity  sufficient  to  displace 
the  pebbles  and  drive  them  from  the  vicinity  of  the  pile. 

The  error  most  frequently  made  in  the  application  of  the 
water- jet  is  in  using  pumps  with  insufficient  capacity. 

The  approximate  volume  of  water  required  per  minute  per 
inch  of  average  diameter  of  pile  for  penetrations  under  40  feet 
is  16  gallons,  for  greater  depths  the  increase  in  the  volume  of 
water  is  approximately  at  the  rate  of  4  gallons  per  inch  of  diam- 
eter of  pile  per  minute  for  each  additional  10  feet  of  penetration. 

The  number  and  size  of  pipes  required  for  various  depths  are 
about  as  follows  , 


Depi  h. 
of  Penetration 
Feet. 

Diameter 
of  Pipe 
Inches. 

Number 
of  Pipes. 

Diameter 
of  Nozzle 
Inches. 

20 

2 

1 

1 

30 

** 

1 

H 

40 

2J 

2 

H 

50 

8* 

2 

60 

H 

2 

I 

When  the  descent  of  the  pile  becomes  slow,  or  it  sticks  or 
"brings  up"  in  some  tenacious  material,  it  can  usually  be  started 
by  striking  a  few  blows  with  the  pile-driving  hammer,  or  by 
raising  the  pile  about  6  inches  and  allowing  it  to  drop  suddenly, 
with  the  jet  in  operation.  By  repeating  the  operation  as  rapidly 
as  possible  the  obstruction  will  generally  be  overcome. 

It  is  an  advantage  to  use  an  ordinary  pile-driving  machine  for 
sinking  piles  with  the  water-jet  The  hammer  being  allowed  to 
rest  upon  the  head  of  the  pile  aids  in  accelerating  the  descent, 
and  light  blows  can  be  struck  as  often  as  may  appear  necessary. 
The  efficiency  of  the  jet  can  also  be  greatly  increased  by  bringing 
the  weight  of  the  pontoon  upon  which  the  machinery  is  placed 
to  bear  upon  the  pile  by  means  of  a  block  and  tackle. 


FOUNDATIONS, — INSPECTION    OF    PILES.  221 

SruciNO  PILES  —It  frequently  happens  in  driving  piles  in 
swampy  places.,  for  false  works,  etc.,  that  a  single  pile  is  not  long 
enough,  in  which  case  two  are  spliced  together  A  common 
method  of  doing  this  is  as  follows.  After  the  first,  pile  is  driven 
its  head  is  cut  off  square,  a  hole  2  inches  in  diameter  and  12  inches 
deep  is  bored  in  its  head,  and  an  oak  treenail  or  dowel-pin  23 
inches  long  is  driven  into  the  hole;  another  pile  similarly  squared 
and  bored  is  placed  upon  the  lower  pile,  and  the  driving  con- 
tinued. Spliced  in  this  way  the  pile  is  deficient  in  lateral  stiff- 
ness, and  the  upper  section  is  liable  to  bounce  off  while  driving. 
It  is  better  to  reinforce  the  splice  by  flattening  the  sides  of  the 
piles  and  nailing  on  with,  say,  8  inch  spike  four  or  more  pieces 
i  or  3  inches  thick,  4  or  5  inches  wide,  and  4  to  6  feet  long. 

Inspection  of  Piles. 

As  soon  as  the  piles  are  delivered  on  the  work  they  must 
be  carefully  examined,  both  as  regards  dimensions  and  qual- 
ity, and  those  failing  to  meet  the  specification  requirements 
must  be  conspicuously  marked  with  paint  or  burning-iron 
to  indicate  that  they  are  condemned.  All  condemned  piles 
must  be  removed  as  speedily  as  possible;  otherwise  many  of 
them  are  liable  to  find  their  way  into  the  work. 

Round  piles  should  be  made  from  live  timber,  free  from 
cracks,  wind  shakes,  and  large  knots.  They  should  be  so  straight 
that  a  straight  line  taken  in  any  direction  from  the  centre  of 
each  end  of  the  pile  and  run  the  length  of  it  shall  show 
that  the  pile  is  at  no  point  over  one  eighth  of  its  diameter  at  such 
point  out  of  a  straight  line. 

It  is  very  necessary  that  the  inspector  watch  the  driving  of 
every  pile,  for  there  is  some  danger  that  piles  shorter  than  re 
quired  may  be  introduced  into  the  work,  or  that  workmen,  t;> 
save  themselves  trouble  or  for  other  reasons,  may  drive  a  pile 
only  a  portion  of  the  required  distance,  and  then  cut  it  off. 

In  cutting  off  the  heads  of  piles  they  must  be  sawn  level. 
Usually,  however,  they  are  sawn  so  that  the  heads  are  either 
concave  or  inclined.  Both  cases  are  due  to  the  manner  of  hold- 
ing the  saw.  Such  defects  are  not  permissible,  and  pile-heads 
so  cut  must  be  recut  in  the  proper  manner. 

Piles  frequently  get  considerably  out  of  line  in  driving.  In 
some  cases  they  may  be  forced  back  with  a  block  and  tackle 
or  a  jack  screw. 


222 


FOUNDATIONS.—  CLAY    PUDDLE. 


The  inspector  is  usually  required  to  keep  a  record  of  the  pile- 
driving.     The  following  form  will  be  found  convenient: 

PILE-DRIVING  RECORD. 


Pile  Number. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

Date                 

Kind  of  timber                   . 

Length                     «  •  •       • 

Diameter  butt        

"      cut  off  

AVei^ht  of  hammer         

Fall°      .                    

Penetration,  10  blows  
"          20       " 

"          30       "          

"         40       "    

Driven  with  follower       .       .  . 

Weight  of            "            .  t  .  .  .  . 

Driven  point  down     

"      butt        "        

Clay  Puddle. 

Clay  puddle  is  a  mass  of  clay  and  sand  worked  into  a  plastic  con- 
dition with  water.  It  is  used  for  filling  coffer-dams,  for  making 
embankments  and  reservoirs  water-tight,  and  for  protecting 
masonry  against  the  penetration  of  water  from  behind. 

QUALITY  OP  jCLAY.— The  clays  best  suited  for  puddle  are 
opaque,  and  not  crystallized,  should  exhibit  a  dull  earthy  fracture, 
exhale  when  breathed  upon  a  peculiar  faint  odor  termed  "argil- 
laceous," should  be  unctuous  to  the  touch,  free  from  gritty  matter, 
and  form  a  plastic  paste  with  water. 

The  important  properties  of  clay  for  making  good  puddle  are  its 
tenacity  or  cohesion  and  its  power  of  retaining  water.  The  tenac- 
ity of  a  clay  may  be  tested  by  working  up  a  small  quantity  with 
water  into  a  thoroughly  plastic  condition,  and  forming  it  by  hand 
into  a  roll  about  1  to  \\  inches  in  diameter  by  10  or  12  inches  in 


FOUNDATIONS.— CLAY    PUDDLE.  223 

length.  If  such  a  roll  is  sufficiently  cohesive  not  to  breiik  on  be- 
ing suspended  by  one  end  while  wet  the  tenacity  of  the  mat  rial 
is  ample. 

To  test  its  power  of  retaining  water  one  to  two  cubic  yards 
should  be  worked  with  water  to  a  compact  homogeneous  plastic 
condition,  and  then  a  hollow  should  be  formed  in  the  centre  of  the 
mass  capable  of  holding  four  or  five  gallons  of  water.  After  fill- 
ing the  hollow  with  water  it  should  be  covered  over  to  prevent 
evaporation  and  left  for  about  24  hours,  when  its  capability  of 
holding  water  will  be  indicated  by  the  presence  or  absence  of 
water  in  the  hollow. 

The  clay  should  be  freed  from  large  stones  and  vegetable  matter, 
and  just  sufficient  sand  and  water  added  to  make  a  homogeneous 
mass.  If  there  is  too  little  sand  the  puddle  will  crack  by  shrink- 
age in  drying,  and  if  too  much  it  will  be  permeable. 

PUDDLING. — The  operation  of  puddling  consists  in  chopping 
the  clay  in  layers  of  about  3  inches  thick  with  spades  aided  by  the 
addition  of  sufficient  water  to  reduce  it  to  a  pasty  condition.  After 
each  chop  and  before  withdrawing  the  spade  it  should  be  given 
a  lunging  motion  so  as  to  permit  the  water  to  pass  through. 

The  spade  should  pass  through  the  upper  layer  into  the  lower 
layer  so  as  to  cause  the  layers  to  bond  together. 

The  test  for  thorough  puddling  is  that  the  spade  will  pass 
through  the  layer  with  ease,  which  it  will  not  do  if  there  are  any 
dry  hard  lumps. 

Sometimes  in  place  of  spades  harrows  are  used,  each  layer  of 
clay  being  thoroughly  harrowed  aided  by  water  and  then  rolled 
with  a  grooved  roller  to  compact  it. 

The  finished  puddle  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  drying  action 
of  the  air,  but  should  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  dry  clay  or  sand. 


224  FOUNDATIONS.— CONCRETE. 


Concrete. 

Concrete  is  a  species  of  artificial  stone  composed  of  (1)  the 
matrix,  which  may  be  either  lime  or  cement  mortar,  u -ually  the 
latter,  and  (2)  the  aggregate,  which  may  be  any  hard  material,  as 
gravel,  shingle,  broken  stone,  shells,  brick,  slag,  etc. 

The  essential  quality  of  concrete  seems  to  be  that  the  material 
of  the  aggregate  should  be  of  small  dimensions,  so  that  the 
cementing  medium  may  act  in  every  direction  round  them,  uud 
that  the  latter  should  on  no  account  be  more  in  quantity  than  is 
necessary  for  that  purpose.  The  aggregate  should  be  of  different 
sizes,  so  that  the  smaller  shall  tit  into  the  voids  between  the 
larger.  This  requires  less  mortar  and  with  good  aggregate  gives 
a  stronger  concrete.  Broken  stone  is  the  most  common  aggregate. 

To  insure  compact  packing  the  aggregate  should  consist  of  a 
mixture  of  broken  stone  ranging  from  1  to  3  inches,  and  pebbles 
which  are  at  least  equal  to  the  strength  of  the  mortar.  Sun-dried 
or  rain-soaked  material  must  be  strictly  avoided.  Gravel  and 
shingle  should  be  screened  to  remove  the  larger-sized  pebbles, 
dirt,  and  vegetable  matter,  and  should  be  washed  if  they  contain 
silt  or  loam.  The  broken  stone  if  mixed  with  dust  or  dirt 
must  be  washed  before  use. 

STRENGTH  OF  CONCRETE. — The  resistance  of  concrete  to  crush- 
ing ranges  from  about  600  to  1400  pounds  per  sq.  in.  It  depends 
upon  the  kind  and  amount  of  cement  and  upon  the  kind,  size,  and 
strength  of  the  aggregate.  The  transverse  strength  ranges  be- 
tween 50  and  400  pounds. 

WEIGHT  OF  CONCRETE. — A  cubic  yard  weighs  from  2500  to 
3000  pounds  according  to  its  composition. 


PROPORTIONS    OF    MATERIALS    FOR   CONCRETE.       ',}25 

Proportions  of  Materials  for  Concrete. 

To   manufacture   one   cubic  yard  of  concrete  the  following 
quantities  of  materials  are  required  : 

BROKEN-STONE-AND- GRAVEL  CONCRETE. 

Broken -stone  50$  of  its  bulk  voids 1  cubic  yard 

Gravel  to  fill  voids  in  the  stoue £      " 

Sand  to  fill  voids  in  the  gravel |      "        " 

Cement  to  fill  voids  in  the  sand £      "        " 

BROKEN- STONE  CONCRETE. 

Broken  stone  50$  of  its  bulk  voids 1  cubic  yard 

Sand  to  fill  voids  in  the  stone |      "        " 

Cement  to  fill  voids  in  the  sand ^      "         " 

GRAVEL  CONCRETE. 

Gravel  &  of  its  bulk  voids 1  cubic  yard 

Sand  to  fill  voids  in  the  gravel i      "        " 

Cement  to  fill  voids  in  the  sand £      "        " 

Concrete  composed  of  1  part  Rosendale  cement,  2  parts  of  sand, 
and  5  parts  of  broken  stone  requires  : 

Broken  stone. ... 0.92  cubic  yard 

Sand 0.37     " 

Cement 1. 43  barrels 

The  usual  proportions  of  the  materials  in  concrete  are : 

ROSENDALE   CEMENT   CONCRETE. 

Rosendale  cement 1  part 

Sand 2  parts 

Broken  stone 3  to  4     " 

PORTLAND  CEMENT  CONCRETE. 

Portland  cement 1  part 

Sand 2  to  3  parts 

Broken  stone  or  gravel 3  to  7     " 

To  make  100  cubic  feet  of  concrete  of  the  proportions  1  to  R 
will  require  5  bbls.  cement  (original  package)  and  4.4  yards  of 
stone  and  sand. 


226  MIXING   CONCRETE. 

One  barrel  of  Portland  cement,  2  bbls.  sand,  and  5  bbls  of 
broken  stone  will  make  about  20  cubic  feet  of  concrete;  these  eight 
volumes  will  on  setting  fill  a  space  of  about  5. 2  volumes,, 

Mixing  Concrete.— The  concrete  may  be  mixed  by  band  or 
machinery.  In  hand-mixing  the  cement  and  sand  are  mixed 
dry.  About  half  the  sand  to  be  used  in  a  batch  of  concrete  is 
spread  evenly  over  the  mortar-board,  then  the  dry  cement  is 
spread  evenly  over  the  sand,  and  then  the  remainder  of  the  sand 
is  spread  on  lop  of  the  cement.  The  sand  and  cement  are  then 
mixed  with  a  hoe  or  by  turning  and  re  turning  with  a  shovel.  It 
is  very  important  that  the  sand  and  cement  be  thoroughly  mixed. 
A  ba-sin  is  then  formed  by  drawing  the  mixed  sand  and  cement 
to  the  outer  edges  of  the  board,  and  the  whole  amount  of  water 
required  is  poured  into  it.  The  sand  and  cement  are  then  thrown 
back  upon  the  water  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  hoe  or 
shovel  into  a  stiff  mortar  and  then  levelled  off.  The  broken  stone 
or  gravel  should  be  sprinkled  with  sufficient  water  to  remove  all 
dust  and  thoroughly  wet  the  entire  surface.  The  amouut  of 
water  required  for  this  purpose  will  vary  considerably  with  the 
absorbent  power  of  the  stone  and  the  temperature  of  the  .air. 
The  wet  stone  is  then  spread  evenly  over  the  top  of  the  mortar 
and  the  whole  mass  thoroughly  mixed  by  turning  over  with  the 
shovel.  Two,  three,  or  more  turnings  may  be  necessary.  It 
should  be  turned  until  every  stone  is  coated  with  mortar,  and 
the  entire  mass  presents  the  uniform  color  of  the  cemeut,  and  the 
mortar  and  stones  are  uniformly  distributed.  When  the  aggregate 
consists  of  broken  brick  or  other  porous  material  it  should  be 
thoroughly  wetted  and  time  allowed  for  absorption  previous  to 
use;  otherwise  it  will  take  away  part  of  the  water  necessary  to 
effect  the  setting  of  the  cement. 

When  the  concrete  is  ready  for  use  it  should  be  quite  coher- 
ent and  capable  of  standing  at  a  steep  slope  without  the  water 
running  from  it. 

The  rules  and  the  practice  governing  the  mixing  of  concrete 
vary  as  widely  as  the  proportion  of  the  ingredients.  It  may  be 
stated  in  general  that  if  too  much  time  is  not  consumed  in  mixing 
the  wet  materials  a  good  result  can  be  obtained  by  any  of  the 
many  ways  practised,  if  only  the  mixing  is  thorough.  With  four 
men  the  time  required  for  mixing  one  cubic  yard  is  about  ten 
minutes. 

Whatever  the  method  adopted  for  mixing  the  concrete,  it  is 
advisable  for  the  inspector  to  be  constantly  present  during  the 


LAYING    CONCRETE.  227 

operation,  as  the  temptation  to  economize  on  the  cement  and  to 
add  an  excess  of  water  to  lighten  the  lahor  of  mixing  is  very 
great. 

Laying  Concrete.— Concrete  is  usually  deposited  in  layers, 
the  thickness  of  which  is  generally  stated  in  the  specifications  for 
the  particular  work  (the  thickness  varies  between  6  and  13  in.) 
The  concrete  must  be  carefully  deposited  in  place.  A  very 
common  practice  is  to  tip  it  from  a  height  of  several  feet  into  the 
trench.  This  process  is  objected  to  by  the  best  authorities  on 
the  ground  that  the  heavy  au.d  light  portions  separate  while  fall 
ing,  and  that  the  concrete  is,  therefore,  not  uniform  throughout 
its  mass. 

The  best  method  is  to  wheel  the  concrete  in  barrows,  imme 
diatdy  after  mixing  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  laid,  gently 
tipping  or  sliding  it  into  position  and  at  once  ramming  it 

The  ramming  should  be  done  before  the  cement  begins  to  set, 
and  should  be  continued  until  the  water  begins  to  ooze  out  upon 
the  upper  surface.  When  this  occurs  it  indicates  a  sufficient 
degree  of  compactness.  A  gelatinous  or  quicksand  condition  of 
the  mass  indicates  that  too  much  water  was  used  in  mixing.  Too 
severe  or  long  continued  pounding  injures  the  strength  b/  forcing 
the  stones  to  the  bottom  of  the  layers  and  by  disturbing  the 
incipient  "set"  of  the  cement  The  ramming  in  one  spot  or 
locality  should  occupy  not  less  than  three  minutes  and  not  more 
than  five. 

The  rammers  need  not  be  very  heavy  10  to  15  Ibs.  will  be  suf 
ficient.  Square  ones  should  measure  from  6  to  8  in  on  a  side 
and  round  ones  from  8  to  13  in  in  diameter 

After  each  layer  has  been  rammed  it  should  be  allowed  suffi 
cient  time  to  "  set,"  without  walking  on  it  or  in  other  ways  dis- 
turbing it.     If  successive  layers  are  to  be  laid  the  surface  of  the 
one  already  set  should  be  swept  clean,  wetted,  and  made  rough 
by  means  of  a  pick  for  the  reception  of  the  next  layer. 

Great  care  should  be  observed  in  ioiuiug  the  work  of  one  day 
to  that  of  the  next.  The  last  layer  should  be  thoroughly  com- 
pacted and  left  with  a  slight  excess  of  mortar.  It  should  be  fin- 
ished with  a  level  surface  and  when  partially  set  should  be 
scratched  with  a  pointed  stick  and  covered  wilh  planks  canvas, 
or  straw.  In  the  morning,  immediately  before  the  application 
of  the  next  layer,  the  surface  should  be  swept  clean,  moistened 
with  water,  and  painted  with  a  wash  of  neat  cement  mixed  with 
water  to  the  consistency  of  cream  This  should  be  put  on  iu 


228  DEPOSITING   CONCRETE    UNDER   WATER, 

excess  and  brushed  thoroughly  back  and  forth  upon  the  surface 
so  as  to  insure  a  close  contact  therewith. 

Depositing  Concrete  under  Water  —  In  laying  concrete 
under  water  an  essential  requisite  is  that  the  materials  shall  not 
fall  from  any  height  through  the  water,  but  be  deposited  in  the 
allotted  place  in  a  compact  mass  ;  otherwise  the  cement  will  be 
separated  from  the  other  ingredients  and  the  strength  of  the 
work  be  seriously  impaired.  If  the  concrete  is  allowed  to  fall 
through  the  water  its  ingredients  will  be  deposited  in  a  series, 
the  heaviest — the  stone,  at  the  bottom,  and  the  lightest — the 
cement,  at  the  top.  A  fall  of  even  one  foot  causes  an  appreciable 
separation. 

A  common  method  of  depositing  concrete  under  water  is  to 
place  it  in  a  V  shaped  box  of  wood  or  plate  iron,  which  is 
lowered  to  the  bottom  with  a  crane.  The  box  is  so  constructed 
that  on  reaching  the  bottom  a  latch  operated  by  a  rope  reaching 
to  the  surface  can  be  drawn  out,  thus  peniiiiting  one  of  the  slop- 
ing sides  to  swing  open  and  allow  the  concrete  to  fall  out.  The 
box  is  then  raised  and  refilled. 

A  long  box  or  tube,  called  a  tremie,  is  also  used.  It  consists 
of  a  tube  open  at  top  and  bottom  built  in  detachable  sections, 
so  that  the  length  may  be  adjusted  to  the  depth  of  water.  The 
tube  is  suspended  from  a  crane  or  movable  frame  running  on  a 
track,  by  which  it  is  moved  about  as  the  work  progresses.  The 
upper  end  is  hopper  shaped,  and  is  kept  above  the  water  .  the 
lower  end  rests  on  the  bottom.  The  tremie  is  filled  in  the  begin- 
ning by  placing  the  lower  end  in  a  box  with  a  movable  bottom, 
filling  the  tube,  lowering  all  to  the  bottom,  and  then  detaching 
the  bottom  of  the  box.  The  tube  is  kept  full  of  concrete  by 
more  being  thrown  in  at  the  top  as  the  mass  issues  from  the 
bottom. 

Concrete  is  also  successfully  deposited  under  water  by  enclos- 
ing it  in  paper  bags  and  lowering  or  sliding  them  down  a  chute 
into  place.  The  bags  get  wet  and  the  pressure  of  the  concrete 
soon  bursts  them,  thus  allowing  the  concrete  to  unite  into  a  solid 
mass  Concrete  is  also  sometimes  deposited  under  water  by  en- 
closing it  in  open-cloth  bags,  the  cement  oozing  through  the 
meshes  sufficiently  to  unite  the  whole  into  a  single  mass. 

Concrete  should  not  be  deposited  in  running  water  unless 
protected  by  one  or  other  of  the  above- described  methods,  other- 
wise the  cement  will  be  washed  out. 

Concrete  deposited  under  water  should  not  be  rammed,  but  if 


ASP1IALTIC   CONCRETE  229 

necessary  may  be  levelled  with  a  rake  or  other  suitable  tool  im- 
mediately after  being  deposited 

When  concrete  is  deposited  in  water  a  pulpy,  gelatinous  fluid 
is  washed  from  the  cement  and  rises  to  the  surface.  This  causes 
the  water  to  assume  a  milky  hue.  The  French  engineers  apply 
the  lerm  laiiance  to  this  substance.  It  is  more  abundant  in  salt 
water  than  in  fresh.  The  theory  of  its  formation  is  that  the  im- 
mersed concrete  gives  up  to  the  water,  free  caustic  lime,  which 
precipitates  magnesia  in  a  light  and  spongy  form.  This  precipi 
tate  sets  very  slowly,  and  sometimes  scarcely  at  all,  and  its  inter- 
position between  the  layers  of  concrete  forms  strata  of  separa- 
tion. The  proportion  of  laitance  is  greatly  diminished  by  using 
large  immersion  boxes,  or  a  tremie,  or  paper  or  cloth  bags. 

Asphaltic  Concrete  is  composed  of  asphaltic  mortar  and 
broken  stone  in  the  proportion  of  5  parts  of  stone  to  3  parts  of 
mortar  The  stone  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  250°  F. 
and  added  to  the  hot  mortar  The  mixing  is  usually  performed 
in  a  mechanical  mixer. 

The  material  is  laid  hot  and  ram  sued  until  the  surface  is 
smooth.  Care  is  required  that  the  materials  are  properly  heated, 
that  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  laid  is  absolutely  dry  and  that  the 
ramming  is  done  before  it  chills  or  becomes  set.  The  rammers 
should  be  heated  in  a  portable  tire, 


230.       MASONRY. — PREPARATION    OF   THE   STONES. 


in.    MASONRY. 

Classification  of  Masonry. 

Masonry  is  classified  according  to  the  nature  of  the  material 
used,  as  "stone  masonry,"  "brick  masonry,"  and  "mixed  ma- 
sonry," composed  of  stones  and  bricks. 

Stoue  masonry  is  classified  (1)  according  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  material  is  prepared,  as :  "  rubble  masonry,"  "  squared- 
stone  masonry,"  "ashlar  masonry,"  "broken  ashlar,"  and  the 
combinations  of  these  four  kinds  ;  and  (2)  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  work  is  executed,  as  :  "  uncoursed  rubble," 
"coursed  rubble,"  "dry  rubble,"  "regular-coursed  ashlar," 
"broken- or  irregular-coursed  ashlar,"  "ranged  work,"  "random 
ranged,"  etc. 

Preparation  of  the  Stones 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  STONES. 

All  the  stones  used  in  building  are  divided  into  three  classes 
according  to  the  finish  of  the  surface,  viz.  :  1.  Rough  stones  that 
are  used  as  they  come  from  Ihe  quarry.  2.  Stones  roughly  squared 
and  dressed.  3.  Stones  accurately  squared  and  finely  dressed. 

UNSQUARED  STONES. — This  class  covers  all  stones  which  are 
used  as  they  come  from  the  quarry  without  other  preparation  than 
the  removal  of  very  acute  angles  and  excessive  projections  from 
the  general  figure. 

SQUARED  STONES. — This  class  covers  all  stones  that  are  roughly 
squared  and  roughly  dressed  on  beds  and  joints.  The  dressing  is 
usually  done  with  the  face-hammer  or  -axe,  or  in  soft  stones  with 
the  tooth  hammer.  In  gneiss,  hard  limestones,  etc.,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  use  the  point.  The  distinction  between  this  cl;iss  and 
the  third  lies  in  the  degree  of  closeness  of  the  joints.  Where  the 
dressing  on  the  joints  is  such  that  the  distance  between  the  gen- 
eral planes  of  the  surfaces  of  adjoining  stones  is  one  half  inch 
or  more  the  stones  properly  belong  to  this  class. 


MASONRY.— STONE-CUTTING.  231 

Three  subdivisions  of  this  class  may  be  made,  depending  on  the 
character  of  the  face  of  the  stones. 

(a)  QUARRY-FACED  or  ROCK-FACED  stones  are  those  whose 
faces  are  left  untouched  as  they  come  from  the  quarry. 

(6)  PITCHED-FACED  stones  are  those  on  which  the  arris  is 
clearly  defined  by  a  line  beyond  which  the  rock  is  cut  away  by 
the  pitching-chisel,  so  as  to  give  edges  that  are  approximately 
true. 

(c)  DRAFTED  STONES  are  those  on  which  the  face  is  surrounded 
by  a  chisel-draft,  the  space  inside  the  draft  being  left  rough'.  Or- 
dinarily, however,  this  is  done  only  on  stones  in  which  the  cutting 
of  the  joints  is  such  as  to  exclude  them  from  this  class. 

In  ordering  stones  of  this  class  the  specifications  should  always 
state  the  width  of  the  bed  and  end  joints  which  are  expected, 
and  also  how  far  the  surface  of  the  face  may  project  beyond  the 
plane  of  the  edge.  In  practice  the  projection  varies  between  1  inch 
and  6  inches.  It  should  also  be  specified  whether  or  not  the  faces 
are  to  be  drafted. 

CUT  STONES. — This  class  covers  all  squared  stones  with 
smoothly  dressed  beds  and  joints.  As  a  rule,  all  the  edges  of  cut 
stones  are  drafted,  and  between  the  drafts  the  stone  is  smoothly 
dressed.  The  face,  however,  is  often  left  rough  where  construc- 
tion is  massive.  The  stones  of  this  class  are  frequently  termed 
"  dimension  "  stone  or  "  dimension  "  work. 


Stone-cutting. 

DRESSING  THE  STONES. — The  stone-cutter  examines  the  rough 
blocks  as  they  come  from  the  quarry  in  order  to  determine 
whether  the  block  will  work  to  better  advantage  as  a  header,  a 
stretcher,  or  a  corner-stone.  Having  decided  for  which  purpose  the 
stone  is  suited,  he  prepares  to  dress  the  bottom  bed.  The  stone 
is  placed  with  the  bottom  bed  up,  all  the  rough  projections  are 
removed  with  the  hammer  and  pitchiug-tool,  and  approximately 
straight  lines  are  pitched  off  around  its  edges  ;  then  a  chisel- 
draft  is  cut  on  all  the  edges.  These  drafts  are  brought  to  the 
same  plane  as  nearly  as  practicable  by  the  use  of  two  straight- 
edges having  parallel  sides  and  equ^l  widths,  and  the  enclosed 
rough  portion  is  then  dressed  down  with  the  pitching-tool  or 
point  to  the  plane  of  the  drafts.  The  entire  bed  is  then  pointed 
down  to  a  surface  true  to  the  straight-edge  when  applied  in  any 
direction — crosswise,  lengthwise,  and  diagonally. 


232  MASONRY. — STONE-CUTTING. 

Lines  are  then  marked  on  this  dressed  surface  parallel  and  per- 
pendicular to  the  face  of  the  stone,  enclosing  as  large  a  rectan-gle 
as  the  stone  will  admit  of  being  worked  to,  or  of  such  dimensions 
as  may  be  directed  by  the  plan. 

The  faces  and  sides  are  pitched  off  to  these  lines.  A  chisel- 
draft  is  then  cut  along  all  four  edges  of  the  face,  and  the  face 
either  dressed  as  required  or  left  rock-faced.  The  sides  are  then 
pointed  down  to  true  surfaces  at  right  angles  to  the  bed.  The 
stone  is  turned  over  bottom  bed  down,  and  the  top  bed  dressed 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  bottom.  It  is  important  that  the  top 
bed  be  exactly  parallel  to  the  bottom  bed  in  order  that  the  stone 
may  be  of  uniform  thickness. 

Stones  having  the  beds  inclined  to  each  other,  as  skew-backs,  or 
stones  having  the  sides  inclined  to  the  beds,  are  dressed  by  using 
a  bevelled  straight-edge  set  to  the  required  inclination. 

Arch-stones  have  two  plane  surfaces  inclined  to  each  other  ; 
these  are  called  the  beds.  Tiie  upper  surface  or  extrados  is  usually 
left  rough  ;  the  lower  surface  or  intrados  is  cut  to  the  curve  of 
the  arch.  This  surface  and  the  beds  are  cut  true  by  the  use  of  a 
wooden  or  metal  templet  which  is  made  according  to  the  drawings 
furnished  by  the  engineer  or  architect. 

Dressing  Granite. 

The  tools  employed  in  dressing  granite  are  the  set,  the  spalling- 
hammer,  the  peau-hammer,  the  bush-hammer,  the  chisel,  the 
bush-chisel,  the  point,  and  the  hand-hammer.  The  set  is  used 
for  dressing  the  edges  of  a  block  to  a  line.  The  spalliug-hammer 
is  sometimes  used  for  taking  off  larger  projections  than  can  be 
dressed  off  with  the  set,  but  such  projections  are  commonly 
taken  off  with  wedges  (or  "plugged  off").  The  point  is  used 
for  roughing  out  the  contour  of  surfaces.  With  the  pean-liammer 
the  projections  left  by  the  point  are  cut  down.  The  bush-hammer 
imparts  a  finish  according  to  the  number  of  cuts  employed. 
The  chisel  is  used  for  finishing  mouldings,  for  cutting  drafts 
around  rock-faced  and  pointed  work,  and  for  lettering  and 
tracing.  The  bush-chisel  is  used  for  dressing  portions  of  sur- 
faces not  accessible  with  tlie  bush-hammer.  The  set,  point,  and 
chisels  are  driven  with  the  hand-hammer. 

The  steps  in  the  process  of  dressing  a  granite  surface  are  :  1st, 
dressing  the  edges  to  a  line  with  the  set ;  2d,  roughing  out  the 
surface  with  the  point ;  3d,  cutting  down  the  irregularities  left 


MASONRY.— DRESSING    GRANITE.  233 

by  the  point  with  the  peau-hammer;  and  4th,  dressing  down  wilh 
the  4-cut,  6-cut,  8-cut,  10  cut,  and  12-cut  bush-hammers  success- 
ively the  irregularities  left  by  each  preceding  tool. 

This  process  is  carried  out  to  different  degrees  for  the  different 
kiuds  of  finished  dressing,  known  as  rock-faced  work,  pointed 
work,  single-cut  or  pean-hammered  work,  and  4-cut,  6-cut,  8-cut^ 
10-cut,  and  12-cut  work.  For  pointed  work  there  is  usually  a 
draft  chiselled  around  the  face,  after  which  the  space  within  is 
dressed  to  a  level  with  the  draft  or  is  given  a  certain  projection, 
and  may  be  rough-pointed  or  fine-pointed.  Rock  faced  work 
is  sometimes  drafted.  The  bed  and  joint  surfaces  are  dressed 
to  a  degree  of  fineness  depending  upon  the  closeness  of  the 
joint  requried. 

The  condition  of  the  surface  at  the  completion  of  any  particular 
cut  work  should  be  such  that  each  cut  in  the  hammer  trace  saline 
its  full  length  on  the  stone  at  every  blow.  The  first  cut  should 
leave  no  unevenness  exceeding  one  eighth  of  an  inch,  and  each 
finer  cut  reduces  the  amount  of  unevenness  ;  and  the  12-cut 
should  leave  no  irregularities  other  than  the  indentations  made 
by  the  impinging  of  the  blades  in  the  hammer  upon  the  surface 
of  the  stone.  The  lines  of  the  cuts  are  made  to  be  vertical  on 
exposed  faces  ;  on  the  beds  and  unexposed  surfaces  they  are  made 
straight  across  in  the  direction  which  is  most  couvenient. 

For  fine  and  accurate  work  all  the  tools  designated  in  the  com- 
plete process  are  used,  except  that  a  5-cut  hammer  is  often  substi- 
tuted for  the  4-cut  and  the  6-cut  hammers  ;  but  some  of  the  tools 
are  ordinarily  omitted,  the  6-cut  being  made  to  follow  the  pean- 
hammer,  the  10-cut  to  follow  the  6-cut,  etc. 

Sawing  and  cutting  granite  by  machinery  is  used,  but  not 
extensively. 

POLISHING  GRANITE.— The  surface  of  granite  for  polishing  is 
prepared  with  the  10-cut  or  the  12-cut  bush-hammer.  The  proc- 
ess of  polishing  consists  in  :  1st,  rubbing  with  sand  ;  2d,  with 
emery  ;  and  3d,  with  putty-powder.  All  these  polishing  materials 
are  put  on  with  just  sufficient  water  to  make  a  paste  which  is  not 
gummy.  The  putty-powder  is  rubbed  on  with  a  felt-covered 
block  to  give  the  surface  a  gloss  finish.  The  machine  employed 
for  polishing  is  iron  wheels  formed  of  several  concentric  rings. 


234  MASONRY. — DRESSING    SANDSTONE,   ETC. 


Dressing'  Sandstone. 

The  steps  in  the  process  of  cutting  sandstone  are  similar  to 
those  in  the  process  of  cutting  marble,  except  that  the  crandall 
takes  the  place  of  the  tooth-chisel  on  large  surfaces.  The  dia- 
mond-hammer is  used  after  the  crandall  on  some  kinds  of  sand- 
stone, and  the  bush-hammer  is  used  on  hard,  compact,  argilla- 
ceous sandstones  like  the  North  River  Milestone. 

Blocks  of  sandstone  are  sawed  with  gang-saws.  Some  sand- 
stones are  so  soft  when  first  taken  from  the  quarry  that  they  can 
be  sawed  without  the  aid  of  sand. 

A  rubbed  surface  is  the  finest  finish  of  which  sandstone  is 
susceptible.  The  surface  may  be  rubbed  with  sand  alone,  or 
with  sand  followed  by  grit. 

Slabs  of  North  River  Milestone  are  planed,  like  slabs  of  slate, 
before  they  are  rubbed. 

Dressing  Limestone. 

The  beds  of  limestone  are  usually  smooth  enough  to  be  used  in 
ordinary  masonry  without  dressing.  The  ends  are  jointed  with 
the  pitching-tool  and  point,  and  the  faces  are  commonly  dressed 
rock-face.  Heavily  bedded  limestones  are  commonly  sawed  with 
gang-saws;  and  the  various  kinds  of  finish  given  the  faces  are 
rock-face,  pointed,  tooled,  drove,  or  rubbed.  Sometimes  the 
tooth-axe  is  used  after  the  point,  after  that  the  axe-hammer,  and 
then  the  diamond- hammer. 


Dressing-  Marble. 

The  steps  taken  in  the  process  of  cutting  marble  are  :  1st, 
shaping  up  the  block  with  the  spalling-hammer  and  pitching- 
tool;  2d,  roughing  out  the  surface  with  the  point;  3d,  cutting 
down  the  projection  left  by  the  point  with  the  tooth-chisel;  and 
4th,  cutting  the  surface  smooth  with  the  drove. 

The  spalling-hammer  is  used  for  breaking  off  the  larger  pro- 
jections, and  the  pitching-tool  is  used  for  dressing  the  edges  to  a 
line.  Chisels  having  a  bit  more  than  one  inch  in  width  are 
called  "droves",  smaller  sizes  are  called  "tools." 

A  finished  surface  is  usually  drove,  tooled,  or  polished.  Rock- 
faced,  pointed,  and  tooth-chiselled  work  is  seldom  employed.  A 


MASONRY. — DRESSIKG   SLATE.  235 

tooled  surface  is  made  with  the  chisel,  and  has  a  ridged  or  wavy 
appearance,  due  to  the  lines  of  indentations  made  by  the  tool. 
Machines  are  extensively  employed  for  working  marble. 

POLISHING  MARBLE. — Surfaces  to  be  polished  are  finished 
with  the  "drove."  The  steps  involved  in  the  process  of  polish- 
ing are:  1st,  rubbing  with  coarse  sand;  2d,  with  finer  sand;  3d, 
with  coarse  grit;  4th,  with  finer  grit;  5th,  with  pumice-stone; 
6th,  polishing  with  Scotch  bone;  and  7th,  glossing  with  putty- 
powder,  with  sometimes  the  addition  of  oxalic  acid.  Water  is 
applied  in  every  step  of  the  process. 

It  is  usually  specified  in  contracts  for  polished  work  that  no 
oxalic  acid  shall  be  used,  because  a  more  durable  polish  is 
obtained  by  the  use  of  putty-powder  alone. 

Small  blocks  are  rubbed  with  sand  on  the  rubbing- bed;  other- 
wise machines  similar  to  those  used  for  polishing  granite  are 
used  for  applying  the  sand  and  putty-powder.  The  grit  consists 
of  spalls  from  a  sand-rock  which  has  a  texture  suitable  for  grind- 
stones. The  grit  and  pumice-stone  and  Scotch  bone  are  applied 
by  hand.  Each  step  in  the  process  must  eradicate  all  traces  of 
the  preceding  step.  All  scratches  must  be  removed  from  the 
surface  before  beginning  the  work  of  imparting  the  gloss  finish. 

A  dressed  surface  of  most  colored  marbles  will  have  cavities, 
which  must  be  filled  before  the  marble  is  polished.  This  filling 
is  done  with  a  wax  made  of  shellac  and  colored  with  any  non- 
oily  substance  ;  it  is  applied  with  a  red-hot  strip  of  iron,  and 
before  the  wax  cools  a  little  of  the  marble-dust  is  rubbed  into  it. 
The  same  material  is  also  used  for  cementing  pieces  of  colored 
marble  together.  White  marble  cannot  be  successfully  filled. 


Dressing  Slate. 

Roofing-slate  is  prepared  by  splitting  the  blocks  of  slate 
as  they  come  from  the  quarry.  The  splitter  uses  a  broad, 
thin  chisel.  He  splits  the  block  of  slate  through  the  mid- 
dle, and  continues  to  divide  the  pieces  into  equal  halves  until 
they  are  reduced  to  the  required  thinness.  The  edges  of  the 
block  must  be  kept  moist  from  the  time  the  rock  is  taken  from 
the  quarry  until  it  is  split  up.  In  some  quarries  the  blocks  split 
best  from  the  side,  and  in  others  from  the  end,  and  in  some  qual- 
ities of  slate  the  splitting-chisel  maybe  driven  in  its  whole  length 
without  danger  of  breaking  the  slate,  while  in  others  it  is  neces- 


236  MASONRY. — DRESSING   SLATE. 

sary  to  lead  the  split  by  driving  the  chisel  slightly  all  around  the 
edges  of  the  bl,>ck  before  driving  it  in  :it  any  one  point.  There 
are  many  other  little  peculiarities  which  need  to  be  watched  by 
the  splitter,  and  almost  every  different  quarry  presents  some 
characteristic  features  which  modify  the  working  of  the  slate. 

To  trim  slate  by  hand  a  straight-edged  strip  of  iron  or  steel  ia 
fa-tened  horizontally  on  one  of  the  upper  edges  of  a  rectangular 
block  about  18  inches  in  height;  the  trimmer  lays  the  slate  upon 
the  block,  allowing  one  of  the  irregular  edges  to  project  over  the 
iron  plate,  and  cutting  it  off  by  a  chopping  stroke  with  a  heavy 
knife.  In  this  manner  he  trims  two  edges  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  and  then  marks  out  the  other  two  edges  with  a  measuring- 
stick  before  trimming  them.  The  measuring-slick  has  a  nail 
through  one  end  and  notches  or  steps  toward  the  other  end  at 
distances  from  the  point  of  the  nail  corresponding  witli  the 
lengths  and  breadths  of  slates  made. 

Machines  operated  by  manual  power  are  also  used  for  trimming 
slates. 

For  mantels,  lavatories,  and  many  other  purposes  slate  is 
worked  up  principally  by  machinery.  The  blocks  are  taken 
from  the  quarries  to  the  shite-mills  and  there  split  into  slabs 
about  2  inches  in  thickness  and  sawed  into  the  required  sizes 
with  circular  saws.  The  sawed  slabs  are  planed  with  a  planing 
machine  like  the  machines  used  for  planing  iron.  The  planer- 
chisels  vary  in  width  from  2  to  6  inches,  according  to  the  softness 
of  the  slate.  The  slabs  are  finished  by  rubbing  with  sand  and 
water.  The  rubbing-bed  is  a  flat,  circular  piece  of  cast  iron,  from 
8  to  10  feet  in  diameter,  revolving  horizontally  on  a  shaft. 

Slates  do  not  receive  a  gloss  polish,  but  it*  a  finer  surface  is 
desired  than  that  which  can  be  given  by  the  rubbing-bed  it  is 
rubbed  by  hand  with  fine  sand  or  emery. 


METHODS   OF   FINISHING   THE    FACES  OF  CUT  STONE.    237 


Methods  of  Finishing  the  Faces  of  Cut  Stone. 

la  architecture  there  are  a  great  many  ways  in  which  the  faces 
of  cut  stone  may  be  dressed,  but  the  following  are  those  that  will 
be  usually  met  in  engineering  work- 

ROUGH- POINTED. — When  it  is  necessary  to  remove  an  inch  or 
more  from  the  face  of  a  stone  it  is  done  by  the  pick  or  heavy 
point  until  the  projections  vary  from  ^  to  1  inch.  The  stone  is 
said  to  be  rough-pointed.  In  dressing  limestone  and  granite  this 
operation  precedes  all  others. 

FINE-POINTED. — If  a  smoother  finish  is  desired  rough-pointing 
is  followed  by  tine-pointing,  which  is  done  with  a  tine  point. 
Fine-pointing  is  used  only  where  the  finish  made  by  it  is  to  be 
final,  and  never  as  a  preparation  for  a  final  finish  by  another  tool. 

CKANDALLED. — This  is  only  a  speedy  method  of  pointing,  the 
effect  being  the  same  as  fine-pointing,  except  that  the  dots  on 
the  stone  are  more  regular.  The  variations  of  level  are  about  i 
inch  and  the  rows  are  made  parallel.  When  other  rows  at  right 
angles  to  the  first  are  introduced  the  stone  is  said  to  be  cross- 
crandalled. 

AXED  OR  PEAN-HAMMERED,  AND  PATENT-HAMMERED.— These 
two  vary  only  in  the  degree  of  smoothness  of  the  surface  which 
is  produced.  The  number  of  blades  in  a  patent  hammer  varies 
from  6  to  12  to  the  inch;  and  in  precise  specifications  the  number 
of  cuts  to  the  inch  must  be  stated,  such  as  6-cut,  8-cut,  10-cut,  12 
cut.  The  effect  of  axing  is  to  cover  the  surface  with  chisel- 
marks,  which  are  made  parallel  as  far  as  practicable.  Axing  is  a 
final  finish. 

TOOTH-AXED. — The  tooth-axe  is  practically  a  number  of  points, 
and  it  leaves  the  surface  of  a  stone  in  the  same  condition  as  line- 
pointing.  It  is  usually,  however,  only  a  preparation  for  bush- 
hammering,  and  the  work  is  then  done  without  regard  to  effect, 
so  long  as  the  surface  of  the  stone  is  sufficiently  levelled. 

BUSH-HAMMERED. — The  roughnesses  of  a  stone  are  pounded  off 
by  the  bush  hammer,  and  the  stone  is  then  said  to  be  "  bushed." 
This  kind  of  finish  is  dangerous  on  sandstone,  as  experience  has 
shown  that  sandstone  thus  treated  is  very  apt  to  scale.  In  dress- 
ing limestone  which  is  to  have  a  bush-hainmered  finish  the 
usual  sequence  of  operation  is  (1)  rough-pointing,  (2)  tooth  axing, 
and  (3)  bush-hammering. 


238      MASONRY. — TOOLS   USED   TN   STONE-CUTTING. 

RUBBED.— In  dressing  sandstone  and  marble  it  is  very  common 
to  give  the  stone  a  plane  surface  at  once  by  use  of  the  stone-saw. 
Any  roughnesses  left  by  the  saw  are  removed  by  rubbing  with 
grit  or  sandstone.  Such  stones,  therefore,  have  no  margins. 
They  are  frequently  used  in  architecture  for  string-courses,  lin- 
tels, door  jambs,  etc. ;  and  they  are  also  well  adapted  for  use  in 
facing  the  wails  of  lock-chambers  and  in  other  positions  where 
a  stone  surface  is  liable  to  be  rubbed  by  vessels  or  other  moving 
bodies. 

DIAMOND  PANELS. — Sometimes  the  space  between  the  margins 
is  sunk  immediately  adjoining  them,  and  then  rises  gradually 
until  the  four  planes  form  an  apex  at  the  middle  of  the  panel.  In 
general  such  panels  are  called  diamond  panels,  and  the  form  just 
described  is  called  a  sunk  diamond  panel.  When  the  surface  of 
the  stone  rises  gradually  from  the  inner  lines  of  the  margins  to 
the  middle  of  the  panel  it  is  called  a  raised  diamond  panel. 
Both  kinds  of  finish  are  common  on  bridge-quoins  aud  similar 
work. 

Tools  used  in  Stone-cutting. 

The  DOUBLE  FACE  HAMMER  is  a  heavy  tool,  weighing  from  20 
to  30  pounds,  used  for  roughly  shaping  stones  as  they  come  from 
the  quarry  and  for  knocking  off  projections.  This  is  used  for 
only  ibe  roughest  work. 

The  FACE-HAMMER  has  one  blunt  aud  one  cutting  end,  and  is 
used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  double-face  hammer  where  less 
weight  is  required.  The  cutting  end  is  used  for  roughly  squar- 
ing stones  preparatory  to  the  use  of  finer  tools. 

The  CAVIL  has  one  blunt  and  one  pyramidal  or  pointed  end, 
and  weighs  from  15  to  20  pounds.  It  is  used  in  quarries  for 
roughly  shaping  stone  for  transportation. 

The  PICK  somewhat  resembles  the  pick  used  in  digging,  and 
is  used  for  rough-dressing,  mostly  on  limestone  and  sandstone. 
Its  length  varies  from  15  to  24  inches,  the  thickness  at  the  eye 
beiug  about  2  inches. 

The  AXE  or  PEAN-HAMMER  has  two  opposite  cutting  edges.  It 
is  used  for  making  drafts  around  the  arris  or  edge  of  stones,  and 
iu  reducing  faces,  and  sometimes  joiuls,  to  a  level.  Its  length  is 
about  10  inches  and  the  cutting  edge  about  4  inches.  It  is  used 
after  the  point  and  before  the  patent  hammer. 

The  TOOTH- AXE  is  like  the  axe,  except  that  its  cutting  edges  are 
divided  into  teeth,  the  number  of  which'varies  with  the  kind  of 


MASON  KY.— TOOLS   USED   IN   STONE -CUTTING.      239 

work  required.  This  tool  is  not  used  in  gruirite-  niid  gneiss- 
cutting. 

The  BUSH-HAMMER  is  a  square  prism  of  steel,  whose  ends  are 
cut  into  a  number  of  pyramidal  points.  The  length  of  the  ham- 
mer is  from  4  to  8  inches  and  the  cutting  face  from  2  to  4  inches 
square.  The  points  vary  in  number  and  in  size  with  the  work 
to  be  done.  One  end  is  sometimes  made  with  a  cutting  edge 
like  tLat  of  the  axe. 

The  CRANDALL  is  a  malleable-iron  bar  about  2  feet  long 
slightly  flattened  at  one  end.  In  this  end  is  a  slot  3  inches  long 
and  |  inch  wide.  Through  this  slot  are  passed  ten  double- 
headed  points  of  i-inch  square  steel  9  inches  long,  which  are 
held  in  place  by  a  key. 

The  PATENT  HAMMER  is  a  double-headed  tool  so  formed  as  to 
hold  at  each  end  a  set  of  wide  thin  chisels.  The  tool  is  in  two 
parts,  which  are  held  together  by  the  bolts  whicli  hold  the 
chisels.  Lateral  motion  is  prevented  by  four  guards  on  one  of 
the  pieces.  The  tool  without  the  teeth  is  5£  X  2f  X  1*  inches. 
The  teeth  are  2f  inches  wide;  their  thickness  varies  from  ^  to  £ 
of  an  inch.  This  tool  is  used  for  giving  a  finish  to  the  surface  of 
stones. 

The  HAND-HAMMER,  weighing  from  2  to  5  pounds,  is  used  in 
drilling  holes  and  in  pointing  and  chiselling  the  harder  rocks. 

The  MALLET  is  used  where  the  softer  limestones  and  sand- 
stones are  cut. 

The  PITCHING-CHISEL  is  usually  of  l|-inch  octagonal  steel, 
spread  on  the  cutting  edge  to  a  rectangle  of  £  X  2£  inches.  It  is 
used  to  make  a  well-defined  edge  to  the  face  of  a  stone,  a  line 
being  marked  on  the  joint  surface,  to  which  the  chisel  is  applied 
and  the  portion  of  the  stone  outside  of  the  line  broken  off  by  a 
blow  with  the  hand-hammer  on  the  head  of  the  chisel. 

The  POINT  is  made  of  round  or  octagonal  steel  from  £  to  1 
inch  in  diameter.  It  is  made  about  12  inches  long,  with  one  end 
brought  to  a  point.  It  is  used  until  its  length  is  reduced  to 
about  5  inches.  It  is  employed  for  dressing  off  the  irregular 
surface  of  stones,  either  for  a  permanent  finish  or  preparatory 
to  the  use  of  the  axe.  According  to  the  hardness  of  the  stone, 
either  the  hand-hammer  or  the  mallet  is  used  with  it. 

The  CHISEL  is  of  round  steel  of  \  to  f  inch  diameter  and  about 
10  inches  long,  with  one  end  brought  to  a  cutting  edge  from  J 
inch  to  2  inches  wide;  is  used  for  cutting  drafts  or  margins  on 
the  face  of  stones. 


240    DEFINITION    OF   TERMS    USED    IN    STONE-CUTTING. 

The  TOOTH-CHISEL  is  the  same  as  the  chisel  except  that  the 
cutting  edge  is  divided  into  teeth.  It  is  used  only  on  marbles 
and  sandstones. 

The  SPLITTING-CHISEL  is  used  chiefly  on  the  softer  stratified 
stones,  and  sometimes  on  line  architectural  carvings  in  granite. 

The  PLUG,  a  truncated  wedge  of  steel,  and  the  feathers  of  half- 
round  malleable  iron,  are  used  for  splitting  unstratified  stone. 
A  row  of  holes  is  made  with  the  drill  on  the  line  on  which  the 
fracture  is  to  be  made;  in  each  of  these  holes  two  feathers  are 
inserted,  and  the  plugs  lightly  driven  in  between  them.  The 
plugs  are  then  gradually  driven  home  by  light  blows  of  the 
hand-hammer  on  each  in  succession  until  the  stone  splits. 

MACHINE-TOOLS. — In  all  large  stone-yards  machines  are  used 
to  prepare  the  stone.  There  is  a  great  variety  in  their  form,  but 
since  the  kind  of  dressing  never  takes  its  name  from  the  machine 
which  forms  it,  it  will  be  neither  necessary  nor  profitable  to 
attempt  a  description  of  individual  machines.  They  include 
stone-saws,  stone-cutters,  stone-planers,  stone-grinders,  stone- 
polishers,  etc. 

Definition  of  Terms  used  in  Stone-cutting. 

AXED  :  Dressed  to  a  plane  surface  with  an  axe. 

BOASTED  or  CHISELLED  :  Having  face  wrought  with  a  chisel 
or  narrow  tool. 

BROACHED  :  Dressed  with  a  "  punch  "  after  being  droved. 

BUSH-HAMMERED  :  Dressed  with  a  bush-hammer. 

CRANDALLED  :  Wrought  to  a  plane  with  a  craudall. 

DEADENING  :  The  crushing  or  crumbling  of  a  soft  stone  under 
the  tools  while  beinsr  dressed. 

DRESSED  WORK  :  That  which  is  wrought  on  the  face;  also 
applied  to  stones  having  the  joints  wrought  to  a  plane  surface, 
but  not  "squared." 

DRAFTED  :  Having  a  narrow  chisel-draft  cut  around  the  face 
or  margin. 

DROVED,  STROKED  .  Wrought  with  a  broad  chisel  or  hammer 
in  parallel  flutiugs  across  the  stone  from  end  to  end. 

HAMMER-DRESSED  :  Worked  with  the  hammer. 

HERRING-BONE  :  Dressed  in  angular  flutings. 

NIGGED  or  NIDGED  :  Picked  with  a  pointed  hammer  or  civil 
to  the  desired  form. 

PATENT- HAMMERED  :  Dressed  with  a  patent  hammer. 


MASONRY. — INSPECTION    OF    CUT    STONE.  24L 

PICKED  :  Reduced  to  au  approximate  plane  with  a  pick. 

PITCHED  :  Dressed  to  the  neat  lilies  or  edges  with  a  pitching- 
chisel. 

PLAIN  :  Rubbed  smooth  to  remove  tool-marks. 

POINTED  :  Dressed  with  appoint  or  very  narrow  tool. 

POLISHED  :  Rubbed  down  to  a  reflecting  surface. 

PRISON:  Having  surfaces  wrought  into  holes. 

RANDOM-TOOLED  or  DHOVED  :  Cut  with  a  broad  tool  into 
irregular  flutings. 

ROCK-PACED,  QUARRY-FACED,  ROUGH  :  Left  as  it  conies  from 
the  quarry.  It  may  be  drafted  or  pitched  to  reduce  projecting 
points  on  the  face  to  given  limits. 

RUBBED  :  See  Plain. 

RUSTIC,  RUSTICATED  :  Having  the  faces  of  stones  projecting 
beyond  the  arrises,  which  are  bevelled  or  drafted.  The  face  may 
be  dressed  in  any  desired  manner. 

SCABBLE  :  To  dress  off  the  angular  projections  of  stones  for 
rubble  masonry  with  a  stone-axe,  or  hammer. 

SMOOTH  :  See  Plain. 

SQUARE-DROVED  Having  the  flutings  perpendicular  to  the 
lower  edge  of  the  stone. 

STRIPED  :  Wrought  into  parallel  grooves  with  a  point  or  punch. 

STROKED  :  See  Droved. 

TOOLED  :  Wrought  to  a  plane  with  an  inch  tool.     See  Droved. 

TOOTHED  :  Dressed  with  a  tooth-chisel. 

VERMICULATED,  WORM- WORK  :  Wrought  into  veins  by  cutting 
away  portions  of'the  face. 

Inspection   of  Cut  Stone. 

The  stone-cutter's  shed  should  be  frequently  visited  and  the 
stones  in  hand  examined  (1)  to  discover  any  defects  which  have 
been  overlooked  in  the  examination  of  the  rough  stone;  (2)  for 
correctness  of  the  dimensions,  (3)  character  and  quality  of  the 
workmanship.  The  dressing  of  the  bed-joints  should  receive  special 
attention.  The  surface  of  the  bed  should  be  true  to  the  straight- 
edge placed  in  every  direction  across  it.  The  practice  of  stone- 
cutters is  to  leave  the  beds  a  little  "slack,"  i.  e.,  concave.  This 
should  not  be  permitted  without  instructions  from  the  chief. 
Stones  with  concave  beds  are  liable  to  have  their  edges  ^plit  off 
by  the  pressure,  which,  instead  of  being  distributed  over  the 
whole  area  of  the  stone,  is  concentrated  at  the  edges.  The  joiits 


242  MASONRY.— INSPECTION    OF    CUT   STONE. 

formed  by  such  stones  are  said  to  be  flushed.  They  are  difficult 
of  detection  after  the  masonry  is  built,  and  are  often  executed- by 
design  in  order  to  give  the  face  of  the  masonry  a  neat  appearance, 
and  therefore  their  occurrence  must  be  guarded  against  by  careful 
inspection  of  the  progress  of  the  stone-cutting. 

If  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  bed  projects  beyond  the 
plane  of  the  chisel  draft  that  projecting  part  will  have  to  bear  an 
undue  share  of  the  pressure  which  will  be  concentrated  upon  it, 
and  the  joint  formed  by  such  stones  will  gape  at  the  edges 
forming  what  is  called  an  open  joint. 

When  the  stone  has  been  dressed  so  that  all  the  small  ridges  on 
its  surface  are  in  one  plane  with  the  chisel-drafts  the  pressure  w 
distributed  with  a  near  approach  to  uniformity  for  the  mortar 
serves  to  transmit  it  to  the  furrows  between  the  ridges. 

Great  smoothness  is  not  desirable  in  the  joints  of  masonry  in 
tended  for  strength  and  stability;  a  moderate  degree  of  roughness 
adds   to   the   resistance  to   sliding  and   to   the  adhesion  of   the 
mortar 

Moulded  and  rubbed  work  requires  close  watching,  that  the 
pieces  may  not  be  distorted  or  rubbed  into  hollow  or  concave 
patches. 

PATCHED  STONES  — Stones  accidentally  broken  after  being  cui 
should  not  be  allowed  to  be  patched  and  used.  The  practice  of 
patching  is  frequently  followed  in  granite  and  other  brittle  stones 
The  broken  pieces  are  glued  in  with  melted  shellac.  In  dry 
weather  and  while  still  fresh  from  the  tool  such  patches  are 
hardly  noticeable  unless  near  the  eye,  therefore  they  should  be 
closely  looked  for;  but  when  the  stone  is  wet  by  ruin  the  patch 
becomes  conspicuous,  and  as  the  shellac  is  slowly  destroyed  the 
piece  may  eventually  drop  out 

ASHLAR  FACING. — The  dressing  of  the  face-stones  which  are  to 
be  backed  with  squared  stones  must  be  watched  very  closely,  for 
the  workmen  seldom  take  the  pains  necessary  to  dress  the  beds 
and  joints  accurately,  on-the  contrary,  to  obtain  what  are  termed 
"  close  joints"  they  dress  the  joints  with  accuracy  a  few  inches 
only  from  the  outward  surface,  and  then  chip  away  the  stone 
towards  the  back,  so  that  when  the  block  is  set  it  will  be  in 
contact  with  the  adiacent  stones  only  throughout  this  very  small 
extent  of  bearing  surface.  This  practice  is  objectionable  from 
every  point  of  view;  for,  m  the  first  place,  it  gives  an  inadequate 
extent  of  bearing  surface,  which,  being  generally  insufficient  to 
resist  the  pressure  thrown  on  it,  causes  the  block  to  splinter  off 


MASONRY.— MORTAR.  243 

and,  in  the  second  place  to  give  I  he  block  its  proper  set  it  has  to 
be  propped  up  by  sniiill  bits  of  stone,  an  operation  called  "  spal 
ling  up,"  "  pinning  up,"  or  underpinning,  and  these  props,  caus- 
ing the  pressure  on  the  block  to  be  thrown  on  a  few  points  of  the 
lower  surface  instead  of  being  equally  diffused  over  it,  expose 
the  stone  to  crack. 

Mortar. 

Mortar  is  made  by  mixing  lime  or  cements  with  clean  sand 
and  adding  just  sufficient  water  to  make  a  plastic  mass  The  pro- 
portion of  sand  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  lime  or 
cement. 

CEMENT  MORTAR  —In  mixing  cement  mortal*  the  cement  and 
sand  are  first  thoroughly  mixei  dry.  the  water  then  added,  and 
the  whole  worked  to  a  uniformly  plastic  condition 

The  quality  of  the  mortar  depends  largely  upon  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  mixing,  the  great  object  of  which  is  to  so  thoroughly 
incorporate  the  ingredients  that  no  two  grains  of  sand  shall  lie 
together  without  an  intervening  layer  or  film  of  cement  To  ac- 
complish this  the  cement  must  be  uniformly  distributed  through 
the  sand  during  the  dry  mixing. 

The  mixers  usually  fail  to  thoroughly  intermix  the  dry  cement 
and  sand,  and  to  lighten  the  labor  of  the  wet  mixing  they  will 
give  an  overdose  of  water 

In  hand  mixing  there  is  great  liability  of  errors  in  measuring 
out  correct  and  uniform  proportions  of  the  prescribed  materials 

Mortar-men  make  mistakes  which  generally  happen  to  be 
against  the  proper  quantity  of  cement 

Packed  cement  when  measured  loose  increases  in  volume  to 
such  an  extent  that  a  nominal  1  to  3  mortar  is  easily  changed  to 
an  actual  1  to  4.  When  the  specifications  prescribe  measure  by 
volume  the  inspector  should  obtain  definite  direct  ions  from  the 
engineer  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the  materials  are  to  be  meas- 
ure d  i,  c..  packed  or  loose. 

The  quantity  of  sand  will  also  vary  according  to  whether  it  is 
measured  in  a  wet  or  dry  condition,  packed  or  loose 

On  work  of  sufficient  importance  to  justify  some  sacrifice  of 
convenience  the  sand  and  cement  should  be  proportioned  by 
weight  instead  of  by  volume 

In  mixing  by  hand  a  platform  or  box  should  be  used:  the  sand 
and  cement  should  be  spread  in  layers  with  a  layer  of  sand  at  the 


244  MASONRY. — MORTAR. 

bottom,  then  turned  and  mixed  with  shovels  until  a  thorough  in 
corporation  is  effected.  The  dry  mixture  should  then  be  spread 
out,  a  bowl-like  depression  formed  in  the  centre,  and  all  the  water 
required  poured  into  it.  The  dry  material  from  the  outside  of 
the  basin  should  be  thrown  in  until  the  water  is  taken  up  and 
then  worked  into  a  plastic  condition ,  or  the  dry  mixture  may  be 
shovelled  to  one  end  of  the  box  and  the  water  poured  into  the 
other  end.  The  mixture  of  sand  and  cement  is  then  drawn 
down  with  a  hoe,  small  quantities  at  a  time  and  mixed  with  the 
water  until  enough  has  been  added  to  make  a  good  stiff  mortar 

In  order  to  secure  proper  manipulation  of  the  materials  on  the 
part  of  the  workmen  it  is  usual  to  require  that  the  whole  mass 
shall  be  turned  over  a  certain  number  of  times  with  the  shovels 
both  dry  and  wet. 

The  mixing  wet  with  the  shovels  must  be  performed  quickly 
and  energetically.  The  paste  thus  made  should  be  vigorously 
worked  with  a  hoe  for  several  minutes  to  insure  an  even  mixture 
The  mortar  should  then  leave  the  hoe  clean  when  drawn  out  of 
it,  and  very  little  should  stick  to  the  steel 

A  large  quantity  of  cement  and  sand  should  not  be  mixed  dry 
and  left  to  stand  a  considerable  time  before  using,  as  the  moisture 
in  the  sand  will  to  some  extent  act  upon  the  cement,  causing  a 
partial  setting. 

Upon  large  works  mechanical  mixers  are  frequently  employed 
with  the  advantage  of  at  once  lessening  the  labor  of  manipulating 
the  material  and  insuring  good  work, 

The  proportion  of  sand  to  cement  depends  upon  the  nature  of 
the  work  and  the  necessity  for  the  development  of  strength  or 
imperviousness  in  the  mortar  The  relative  quantities  of  sand  and 
cement  should  also  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  sand;  fine  sand 
requires  more  cement  than  coarse  This  element  is,  however,  not 
usually  given  the  consideration  it  demands  (See  Table  58  ) 

The  proportions  required  by  the  New  York  Building  Laws  of 
1890  are  as  follows  : 

'  Cement  mortars  shall  be  made  of  sand  and  cement  in  the 
proportion  of  not  more  than  three  parts  of  sand  to  one  part  of 
cement. 

4<  Lime  mortar  shall  be  made  of  not  more  than  four  parts  of 
sand  to  one  part  of  lime,  and  shall  not  be  used  before  being  thor- 
oughly slaked 

"Cement  and  lime  mortar  shall  be  made  of  one  part  of  lime, 
one  part  of  cement,  and  three  parts  of  sand  to  each." 


M  ASONRY .  — MORTAR. 


245 


TABLE  58. 

AMOUNT  OP  CEMENT  AND  SAND  REQUIRED   FOR  ONE  CUBIC 
YARD  OF  MORTAR. 


Composition  of  Mortar  by 

Cement  * 

Volumes 

Number  of  Barrels. 

Cement. 

Sand. 

Portland  01 
Ulster    County 
Rosendale 

Western 
Rosendale 

Cubic  Yards. 

1 

0 

7.14 

6.43 

0.00 

1 

1 

4  16 

3.74 

0  58 

1 

2 

2.85 

2.57 

0.80 

1 

3 

2.00 

1.80 

0.90 

1 

4 

1  70 

1.53 

0.95 

1 

5 

1.25 

1.13 

0.97 

1 

6 

1.18 

1.06 

0.98 

Cement      Number  of  Pounds.t 

1 

0 

2675 

2140 

0  00 

1 

1 

1440 

1150 

0.67 

1 

2 

900 

720 

0.84 

1 

3 

675 

540 

0.94 

1 

4 

525 

420 

0  98 

1 

5 

425 

340 

0.99 

1 

6 

355 

285 

1.00 

*  Packed  cement  and  loose  sand, 
t  Loose  cement  and  loose  sand. 

SAND  FOR  MORTAR  —The  sand  used  must  be  clean  that  is,  free 
from  clay  loam,  mud.  or  organic  matter,  sharp,  that  is,  the  grains 
must  be  angular  and  not  rounded  as  those  from  the  beds  of  rivers 
and  the  seashore:  coarse,  that  is,  it  must  be  large-grained,  but 
not  too  uniform  in  size 

The  best  sand  is  that  in  which  the  grains  are  of  different  sizes; 
the  more  uneven  the  sizes  the  smaller  will  be  the  amount  of 
voids  and  hence  the  less  cement  required 

WATER  FOR  MORTAR. — QUALITY.— The  water  employed  for 
mortar  should  be  fresh  and  clean,  free  from  mud  and  vegetable 
matter. 

Salt  water  may  be  used,  but  with  seme  natural  cements  it  may 
retard  the  setting,  the  chloride  and  sulphate  of  magnesia  being 
the  principal  retarding  elements.  Less  sea-water  than  fresh  will 
be  required  to  produce  a  given  consistency. 


246  MASONRY.— MORTAR. 

QUANTITY. — The  quantity  of  water  to  be  used  in  mixing 
mortar  can  be  determined  only  by  experiment  in  each  case.  It 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  cement,  upon  that  of  the  sand 
and  of  the  water,  and  upon  the  proportions  of  sand  to  cement, 
and  upon  the  purpose  for  which  the  mortar  is  to  be  used. 

Fine  sand  requires  more  water  than  coarse  to  give  the  same 
consistency.  Dry  sand  will  take  more  water  than  that  which  is 
moist,  and  sand  composed  of  porous  material  more  than  that 
which  is  hard.  As  the  proportion  of  sand  to  cement  is  increased 
the  proportion  of  water  to  cement  should  also  increase,  but  in  a 
much  less  ratio. 

The  amount  of  water  to  be  used  is  such  that  the  mortar  when 
thoroughly  mixed  shall  have  a  plastic  consistency  suitable  for 
the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 

The  consistency  of  mortar  for  masonry  is  such  that  it  will 
stand  in  a  pile  and  not  be  fluid  enough  to  flow.  For  concrete 
the  consistency  required  is  such  that  if  a  ball  of  mortar  be  formed 
in  the  hand  and  allowed  to  fall  through  a  height  of  about  20 
inches  it  will  neither  lose  its  form  nor  crack;  the  ball  should  not 
be  wet  enough  to  stick  to  the  hand. 

In  all  cases  the  proper  quantity  of  water  should  first  be  deter- 
mined by  experiment  upon  small  quantities  of  the  materials,  and 
afterwards,  in  preparing  the  mortar  for  use,  the  required  quan- 
tity should  each  time  be  added  by  measurement. 

The  addition  of  water,  little  by  little,  or  from  a  hose,  should 
not  be  allowed. 

Workmen,  as  a  rule,  add  an  excess  of  water  for  the  purpose  of 
reducing  the  labor  of  mixing. 

From  numerous  experiments  it  has  been  found  that,  as  a  gen- 
eral rule,  a  proportion  of  1  part  of  water  to  3  parts  of  cement 
by  measure,  or  1  to  3 ^  by  weight,  is  the  best,  both  as  regards 
convenience  of  mixing  and  results. 


MASONRY. — EFFECT   OF    RETEMPERING    MORTAR.      247 


Effect  of  Retemperiiig  Mortar. 

Masons  very  frequeDtly  mix  mortar  iii  considerable  quantities, 
and  if  the  mass  becomes  stiffened  before  being  used,  by  the  set- 
ting of  the  cement,  add  water  and  work  it  again  to  a  soft  or 
plastic  condition.  After  this  second  tempering  the  cement  is 
much  less  active  than  at  first,  and  will  remain  for  a  longer  time 
in  a  workable  condition. 

This  practice  is  condemned  by  engineers,  and  is  not  usually 
allowed  in  good  engineering  construction.  Only  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  mortar  should  be  mixed  at  once  as  may  be  used  before  the 
cement  takes  the  initial  set.  Reject  all  mortar  that  has  set  before 
being  placed  in  the  icork. 

The  mortar  is  placed  on  the  work  with  the  intention  of  its 
being  used  before  it  has  taken  its  initial  set.  But  masons  like  it 
extremely  plastic,  and  before  their  mortar-boards  are  emptied 
they  will  make  frequent  calls  to  "temper  up";  more  water  is 
added  with  remixing,  and  if  oversight  is  relaxed  the  prescribed 
time  of  using  it  will  have  elapsed,  and  a  diluted,  weakened,  and 
second-set  material  will  have  been  used.  Masons  are  so  imbued 
with  the  belief  that  the  "second  set"  is  desirable  and  harmless 
that  they  will  use  every  endeavor  to  obtain  it.  They  will  claim 
that  it  was  permitted  on  some  other  notable  work,  and  that  it  is 
unreasonable  to  prevent  it,  that  they  can  do  more  work  and  with 
more  ease,  etc.,  etc.  It  is  true  that  brick  can  be  laid  witli  more 
ease  and  rapidity  with  such  mortar  than  when  it  is  iu  proper 
condition;  but  it  has  been  found  that  mortar  that  has  taken  its 
initial  set  and  is  remixed,  with  the  addition  of  more  water, 
loses  about  one  .half  the  tensile  strength  due  to  it  if  used  in 
proper  condition. 

Freezing  of  Mortar.* — "It  does  not  appear  that  common 
lime  mortar  is  seriously  injured  by  freezing,  provided  it  remains 
frozen  until  it  has  fully  set.  The  freezing  retards,  but  docs  not 
entirely  suspend,  the  setting.  Alternate  freezing  and  thawing 
materially  damages  the  strength  and  adhesion  of  lime  mortar. 

' '  Although  the  strength  of  the  mortar  is  not  decreased  by  freez- 
ing, it  is  not  always  .permissible  to  lay  masonry  during  freezing 
weather;  for  example,  if,  hi  a  thin  wall,  the  mortar  freeze  before 
setting  and  afterwards  thaw  on  one  side  only,  the  wall  may 
settle  injuriously. 

*  Baker's  "Masonry  Construction." 


248  MASONRY. —ASHLAR   MASONRY, 

"Mortar  composed  of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  three  parts 
sand  is  entirely  uninjured  by  freezing  and  thawing. 

"  Mortar  made  of  cements  of  the  Rosendale  type,  in  any  propor- 
tion, is  entirely  ruined  by  freezing  and  thawing.''* 

Mortar  made  of  overclayed  cement  (which  condition  is  indi- 
cated by  its  quicker  setting),  of  either  the  Portland  or  Rosendale 
type,  will  not  withstand  the  action  of  frost  as  well  as  one  con- 
taining less  clay,  for  since  the  clay  absorbs  an  excess  of  water,  it 
gives  an  increased  effect  to  the  action  of  frost. 

In  making  cement  mortar  during  freezing  weather  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  add  salt  or  brine  to  the  water  with  which  it  is  mixed. 
The  ordinary  rule  is:  Dissolve  1  pound  of  salt  in  18  gallons  of 
water  when  the  temperature  is  at  32°  F.,  and  add  1  ounce  of  salt 
for  each  degree  of  lower  temperature. 

The  use  of  salt,  and  more  especially  of  sea-water,  in  mortar  is 
objectionable,  since  the  accompanying  salts  usually  produce 
efflorescence. 

The  practice  of  adding  hot  water  to  lime  mortar  during  freez- 
ing weather  is  undesirable.  When  the  very  best  results  are 
sought  the  brick  or  stone  should  be  warmed — enough  to  thaw  off 
any  ice  upon  the  surface  is  sufficient — before  being  laid.  They 
may  be  warmed  either  by  laying  them  on  a  furnace,  or  by  sus- 
pending them  over  a  slow  fire,  or  by  wetting  with  hot  water. 


Ashlar  Masonry. 

Ashlar  masonry  consists  of  blocks  of  stone  cut  to  regular 
figures,  generally  rectangular,  and  built  in  courses  of  uniform 
height  or  rise,  which  is  seldom  less  than  a  foot. 

SIZE  OF  THE  STONES. — In  order  that  the  stones  may  not  be 
liable  to  be  broken  across  no  stone  of  a  soft  material,  such  as  the 
weaker  kinds  of  sandstone  and  granular  limestone,  should  have  a 
length  greater  than  3  times  its  depth  or  rise;  in  harder  materials 
the  length  may  be  4  or  5  times  the  depth.  The  breadth  in  soft 
materials  may  range  from  1^  to  double  the  depth;  in  hard  mate- 
rials it  may  be  3  times  the  depth. 

LAYING  THE  STONE.— The  bed  on  which  the  stone  is  to  be  laid 
should  be  thoroughly  cleansed  from  dust  and  well  moistened  with 
water.  A  thin  bed  of  mortar  should  then  be  spread  evenly  over 
it,  and  the  stone,  the  lower  bed  of  which  has  been  cleaned  and 

*  Trans.  Am.  Soc.  of  C.  E.,  Vol.  XVI.  pp.  79-84. 


MASONRY. — ASHLAR   MASONRY.  249 

moistened,  raised  into  position,  and  lowered  first  upon  one  or 
two  strips  of  wood  laid  upon  the  mortar-bed;  then,  by  the  aid  of 
the  pinch-bar,  moved  exactly  into  its  place,  truly  plumbed,  the 
strips  of  wood  removed,  and  the  stone  settled  in  its  place  and 
levelled  by  striking  it  with  wooden  mallets.  In  using  bars  and 
rollers  in  handling  cut  stone  the  mason  must  be  careful  to  protect 
the  stone  from  injury  by  a  piece  of  old  bagging,  carpet,  etc. 

In  laying  "  rock-faced  "  work  the  line  should  be  carried  above 
it,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  work  is  kept  plumb  with  the 
cut  margins  of  the  corners  and  angles. 

THE  THICKNESS  OF  MORTAR  in  the  joints  of  well  executed 
ashlar  masonry  should  be  about  £  of  an  inch,  but  it  is  usually 
about  f. 

AMOUNT  OF  MORTAR. — The  amount  of  mortar  required  for 
ashlar  masonry  varies  with  the  size  of  the  blocks,  and  also  with 
the  closeness  of  the  dressing.  With  f-  to  |-inch  joints  and  12-  to 
20  inch  courses  there  will  be  about  2  cubic  feet  of  mortar  per 
cubic  yard  ;  with  larger  blocks  and  closer  joints  there  will  be 
about  1  cubic  foot  of  mortar  per  yard  of  masonry.  Laid  in  1  to 
2  mortar,  ordinary  ashlar  will  require  £  to  £  of  a  barrel  of 
cement  per  cubic  yard  of  masonry. 

BOND  OF  ASHLAR  MASONRY. — No  side- joint  in  any  course 
should  be  directly  above  a  side  joint  in  the  course  below;  but  the 
stones  should  overlap  or  break  joint  to  an  extent  of  from  once  to 
once  and  a  half  the  depth  or  rise  of  the  course.  This  is  called  the 
bond  of  the  masonry;  its  effect  is  to  cause  each  stone  to  be  supported 
by  at  least  two  stones  of  the  course  below,  and  assist  in  support- 
ing at  least  two  stones  of  the  course  above  ;  and  its  objects  are 
twofold  :  first,  to  distribute  the  pressure,  so  that  inequalities  of 
load  on  the  upper  part  of  the  structure,  or  of  resistance  at 
the  foundation,  may  be  transmitted  to  and  spread  over  an 
increasing  area  of  bed  in  proceeding  downwards  or  upwards, 
as  the  case  may  be ;  and  secondly,  to  tie  the  structure  to- 
gether, or  give  it  a  sort  of  tenacity,  both  lengthwise  and  from 
face  to  back,  by  means  of  the  friction  of  the  stones  where  they 
overlap.  The  strongest  bond  in  ashlar  masonry  is  that  in 
which  each  course  at  the  face  of  the  wall  contains  a  header  and 
a  stretcher  alternately,  the  outer  end  of  each  header  resting  on 
the  middle  of  a  stretcher  of  the  course  below,  so  that  rather  more 
than  one  third  of  the  area  of  the  face  consists  of  ends  of  headers 
This  proportion  may  be  deviated  from  when  circumstances  re- 
quire it ;  but  in  every  case  it  is  advisable  that  the  ends  of  headers 


#50  MASONRY. — BROKEN   ASHLAR. 

should  not  form  less  than  one  fourth  of  the  whole  area  of  the  face 
of  the  wall. 

Squared-stone  Masonry. 

The  distinction  between  squared-stone  masonrj'  and  ashlar 
lies  in  the  character  of  the  dressing  and  the  closeness 
of  the  joints.  In  this  class  of  masonry  the  stones  are  roughly 
squared  and  roughly  dressed  on  beds  and  joints,  so  that, 
the  width  of  the  joints  are  half  an  inch  or  more.  The 
same  rules  apply  to  breaking  joint,  and  to  the  proportions 
which  the  lengths  and  breadths  of  the  stones  should  bear  to  their 
depths,  as  in  ashlar  ;  and  as  in  ashlar,  also,  at  least  one  fourth 
of  the  face  should  consist  of  headers,  whose  length  should  be 
from  three  to  five  times  the  depth  of  the  course. 

AMOUNT  OF  MOUTAR  — The  amount  of  mortar  required  for 
squared-stone  masonry  varies  with  the  size  of  the  stones  and  with 
the  quality  of  the  masonry  ;  as  a  rou.^h  average  one  sixth  to  one 
quarter  of  the  mass  is  mortar.  When  laid  in  1  to  2  mortar  from 
2  to  £  of  a  barrel  of  cement  will  be  required  per  cubic  yard  of 
masonry. 

Broken  Ashlar, 

Broken  ashlar  consists  of  cut  stones  of  unequal  depths 
laid  in  the  wall  without  any  attempt  at  maintaining  courses 
of  equal  rise  or  the  stones  in  the  same  course  of  equal  depth. 
The  character  of  the  dressing  and  the  closeness  of  the  joints 
may  be  the  same  as  in  ashlar  or  squared-stone  masonry, 
depending  upon  the  quality  desired.  The  same  rules  apply  to 
breaking  joint,  and  to  the  proportions  which  the  lengths  and 
breadths  of  the  stones  should  bear  to  their  depths,  as  in  ashlar  ; 
and  as  in  ashlar,  also,  at  least  one  fourth  of  the  face  of  the  wall 
should  consist  of  headers. 

AMOUNT  OP  MORTAR. — The  amount  of  mortar  required  when 
laid  in  1  to  2  mortar  will  be  from  f  to  1  barrel  per  cubic  yard 
of  masonry,  depending  upon  the  closeness  of  the  joints." 


MASONRY. — RUBBLE   MASONRY.  251 


Rubble  Masonry. 

Masonry  composed  of  unsqunred  stones  is  called  rubble.  This 
class  of  masonry  covers  a  wide  range  of  construction,  from  the 
commonest  kind  of  dry-stone  work  to  a  class  of  work  composed  of 
large  stones  laid  in  mortar.  Il  comprises  two  classes  :  (1)  uncoursed 
rubble,  in  which  irregular-shaped  stones  are  laid  without  any  at- 
tempt at  regular  courses,  and  (2)  coursed  rubble,  in  which  the 
blocks  of  uusquared  stones  are  levelled  off  at  specified  heights  to 
an  approximately  horizontal  surface.  Coursed  rubble  is  often 
built  in  random  courses;  that  is  to  say,  each  course  rests  on  a 
plane  bed,  but  is  not  necessarily  of  the  same  depth  or  at  the  same 
level  throughout,  so  that  the  beds  occasionally  rise  or  fall  by 
steps.  Sometimes  it  is  required  that  the  stone  shall  be  roughly 
shaped  with  the  hammer. 

In  building  rubble  masonry  of  any  of  the  classes  above  men- 
ioned  the  stone  should  be  prepared  by  knocking  off  all  the  weak 
ngles  of  the  block.  It  should  be  cleansed  from  dust,  etc.,  and 
moistened  before  being  placed  on  its  bed.  Each  stone  should  be 
firmly  imbedded  in  the  mortar.  Care  should  be  taken  not  only 
that  each  stone  shall  rest  on  its  natural  bed,  but  that  the  sides  par- 
allel to  that  natural  bed  shall  be  the  largest,  so  that  the  stone  may 
lie  flat,  and  not  be  set  on  edge  or  on  end.  However  small  and  ir- 
regular the  stones,  care  should  be  taken  to  break  joints.  Side-joints 
should  not  form  an  angle  with  the  bed-joint  sharper  than  60°. 
The  hollows  or  interstices  between  the  larger  stones  must  be  filled 
with  smaller  stones  and  carefully  bedded  in  mortar. 

One  fourth  part  at  least  of  the  face  of  the  wall  should  consist 
of  50/id-stones  extending  into,  the  wall  a  length  of  at  least  3  to  5 
times  their  depth,  as  in  ashlar. 

AMOUNT  OF  MORTAR  REQUIRED. — If  rubble  masonry  is  com 
posed  of  small  and  irregular  stones  about  £  of  the  mass  will  con 
sist  of  mortar  ;  if  the  stones  are  larger  and  more  regular  \  to  ^ 
will  be  mortar.      Laid  in  1  to  2  mortar,  ordinary  rubble  requires 
from  |  to  1  barrel  of  cement  per  cubic  yard  of  masonry. 


252    MASONRY. — INSPECTION   OF   BUBBLE   MASONRY. 


Inspection  of  Rubble  Masonry. 

The  construction  of  rubble  mnsonry  requires  constant  watchful- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  inspector  to  see  that  the  preceding  rules 
are  observed,  and  especially  that  the  interior  of  the  wall  contains 
neither  empty  hollows  nor  spaces  filled  wholly  wiih  mortar  or  with 
rubbish  where  pieces  of  stone  ought  to  be  inserted,  and  that  each 
stone  is  laid  flat  on  its  natural  bed.  Masons  are  very  apt  to  set  thin 
broad  stones  on  their  narrow  edges  so  as  to  show  a  good  face.  The 
pra-'.tice  is  injurious  to  the  wall,  for  it  exposes  the  bed  of  the  stone 
to  the  destroying  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  decreases  the 
strength  of  the  wall  through  lack  of  bonding. 

See  that  the  headers  or  bond-stones  are  really  what  they  profess 
to  be,  and  not  thin  stones  set  on  edge  at  the  face  of  the  wall. 

In  bonding  it  is  much  better  that  many  stones  should  reach 
two  thirds  across  the  wall  alternately  from  the  opposite  faces  than 
that  there  should  be  a  few  through  stones  extending  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  wall.  The  bond  stones  should  not  be  directly 
over  one  another,  but  should  be  staggered. 

Very  long  stones  should  not  be  used  in  the  face  ;  it  is  better  to 
break  them  into  two  or  more  shorter  ones. 

The  excessive  use  of  spalls  under  large  stones  should  not  be  al- 
lowed ;  the  irregularities  should  be  knocked  off  and  the  stones 
roughly  bedded. 

A  fault  to  be  carefully  guarded  against  is  that  of  making  the 
wall  consist  of  two  thin  faces  or  sides  with  through  bond-stones 
laid  across  to  bind  them  together,  the  core  being  filled  in  with 
mortar  and  small  stones. 

The  placing  of  nigger-heads  (field-stones  or  boulders  from  which 
the  natural  rounded  surface  has  not  been  taken  off)  must  not  be 
permitted. 

A  small  steel  rod  is  a  very  useful  implement  for  detecting  the 
defects  in  rubble  masonry  by  probing  the  vertical  joints. 


MASONRY, — ASHLAR  BACKED  WITH  RUBBLE.   253 


Ashlar  backed  with  Rubble. 

In  this  class  of  masonry  the  stones  of  the  ashlar  face  should 
have  their  beds  and  joints  accurately  squared  and  dressed  with  the 
hammer  or  the  points,  according  to  the  quality  desired,  for  a 
breadth  of  from  once  to  twice  (or  on  an  average  once  and  a  half) 
the  depth  or  rise  of  the  course,  inwards  from  the  face;  but  the 
backs  of  these  stones  may  be  rough.  The  proportion  and  length 
of  the  headers  should  be  the  same  as  in  ashlar,  and  Ihe  "  tails" 
of  these  headers,  or  parts  which  extend  into  the  rubble  backing, 
may  bu  left  rough  at  the  back  and  sides;  but  their  upper  and  lower 
beds  should  be  hammer-dressed  to  the  general  plane  of  the  beds 
of  the  course.  These  tails  may  taper  slightly  in  breadth,  but 
should  not  taper  in  depth. 

The  rubble  backing  built  in  the  manner  described  under 
Hubble  Masonry  should  be  carried  up  at  the  same  time  with  the 
face- work,  and  in  courses  of  the  same  rise,  the  bed  of  each  course 
being  carefully  formed  to  the  same  plane  with  that  of  the  facing. 


General  Rules  to  be  observed    in    Laying  All 
Classes  of  Stone  Masonry- 

I.  Build  the  masonry,  as  far  as  possible,  in  a  series  of  courses, 
perpendicular,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  to  the  direction  of  the 
pressure  which  they  have  to  bear,  and  by  breaking  joints  avoid 
all  long  continuous  joints  parallel  to  that  pressure. 

II.  Use  the  largest  stones  for  the  foundation-course. 

III.  Lay  all  stones  which  consist  of  Inyers  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  principal  pressure  which  they  have  to  bear  shall  act  in  a 
direction  perpendicular,  or  as  nearly  so  as  possible,  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  layers.     This  is  called  laying  the  stone  on  its  natural 
bed,  and  is  of  primary  importance  for  strength  and  durability. 

IV.  Moisten  the  surface  of  dry  and  porous  stones  before  bed- 
ding them,  in  order  that  the  mortar  may  not  be  dried  too  fast  and 
reduced  to  powder  by  the  stone  absorbing  its  moisture. 

V.  Fill  every  part  of  every  joint  and  all  spaces  between  the 
stones  with  mortar,  taking  care  at  the  same  time  that  such  spaces 
shall  be  as  small  as  possible. 

VI.  The  rougher  the  stones  the  better  the  mortar  should  be. 
The  principal  object  of  the  mortar  is  to  equalize  the  pressure  ; 
and  the  more  nearly  the  stones  are  dressed  to  closely  fitting  sur- 


254  MASONRY. — BRICK    MASONRY. 

faces  the  less  important  is  the  mortar.  Not  infrequently  this 
rule  is  exactly  reversed  ;  i.  e.,  the  finer  the  dressing  the  better  Hie 
quality  of  the  mortar  used. 

All  projecting  courses,  such  as  sills,  lintels,  etc.,  should  he  cov 
ered  with  boards,  Lagging,  etc.,  as  the  work  progresses  to  protect 
them  from  injury  and  mortar-stains. 

When  setting  cut  stone  a  pailful  of  clean  water  should  be  kept 
at  hand,  and  when  any  fresh  mortar  comes  in  contact  with  the 
face  of  the  work  it  should  be  immediately  washed  off. 


Brick  Masonry. 

GENERAL  RULES  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  BUILDING  WITH  BRICKS 
— 1.  To  reject  all  misshapen  and  unsound  bricks. 

2.  To  cleanse  the  surface  of  each  brick,  and  to  wet  it  thorough- 
ly before  laying  it,  in  order  that  it  may  not  absorb  the  moisture 
of  the  mortar  too  quickly. 

3.  To  place  the  beds  of  the  courses  perpendicular,  or  as  nearly 
perpendicular  as  possible,  to  the  direction  of  the  pressure  which 
they  have  to  bear  ;  and  to  make  the  bricks  in  each  course  break 
joint  with  those  of  the  courses  above  and  below  by  overlapping 
to  the  extent  of  from  one  quarter  to  one  half  of  the  length  of  a 
brick.     (For  the  style  of  bond  used  in  brick  masonry  see  under 
Bond  in  list  of  definitions  ) 

4.  To  fill  every  joint  thoroughly  with  mortar. 

Brick  should  not  be  merely  laid,  but  every  one  should  be 
rubbed  and  pressed  down  in  such  a  manner  as  to  force  the  mortar 
into  the  pores  of  the  bricks  and  produce  the  maximum  adhesion  ; 
with  quick-setting  cement  this  is  still  more  important  than  with 
lime  mortar.  For  the  best  work  it  is  specified  that  the  brick 
shall  be  laid  with  a  '•  shove- joint,"  that  is,  that  the  brick  shall 
first  be  laid  so  as  to  project  over  the  one  below,  and  be  pressed 
into  the  mortar,  and  then  be  shoved  into  its  final  position, 

Bricks  should  be  laid  in  full  beds  of  mortar,  filling  end- and 
side- joints  in  one  operation.  This  operation  is  simple  and  easy 
with  skilful  masons — if  they  will  do  it — but  it  requires  persist- 
ence to  get  it  accomplished.  Masons  have  a  habit  of  laying  brick 
in  a  bed  of  mortar  leaving  the  vertical  joints  to  take  care  of  them- 
selves, throwing  a  little  mortar  over  the  top  beds  and  giving  a 
sweep  with  the  trowel  Avhich  more  or  less  disguises  the  open 
joint  below,  They  also  have  a  way  after  mortar  has  been  suffi- 
ciently applied  to  the  top  bed  of  brick  to  draw  the  point  of  their 


MASONRY. — BRICK    MASONRY.  255 

trowel  through  it,  making  an  open  channel  with  only  a  sharp 
ridge  of  mortar  on  each  side  (and  generally  throwing  some  of  it 
overboard),  so  that  if  the  succeeding  brick  is  taken  up  it  will 
show  a  clear  hollow,  free  from  mortar  through  the  bed.  This 
enables  them  to  bed  the  next  brick  with  more  facility  and  avoid 
pressure  upon  it  to  obtain  the  requisite  thickness  of  joint. 

With  ordinary  interior  work  a  common  practice  is  to  lay  brick 
with  |-  and  f -inch  mortar-joints ;  an  inspector  whose  duty  it  is  to 
keep  joints  down  to  J  or  f  inch  will  not  have  an  enviable  task. 

Neglect  in  wetting  the  brick  before  use  is  the  cause  of  most  of 
the  failures  of  brickwork.  Bricks  have  a  great  avidity  for 
water,  and  if  the  mortar  is  stiff  and  the  bricks  dry  they  will 
absorb  the  water  so  rapidly  that  the  mortar  will  not  set  properly, 
and  will  crumble  in  the  fingers  when  dry.  Mortar  is  sometimes 
made  so  thin  that  the  brick  will  not  absorb  all  the  water.  This 
practice  is  objectionable  ;  it  interferes  with  the  setting  of  the 
mortar,  and  particularly  with  the  adhesion  of  the  mortar  to  the 
brick.  Watery  mortar  also  contracts  excessively  in  drying  (if  it 
ever  does  dry),  which  causes  undue  settlement  and,  possibly, 
cracks  or  distortion. 

The  bricks  should  not  be  wetted  to  the  point  of  saturation,  or 
the)'  will  be  incapable  of  absorbing  any  of  the  moisture  from  the 
mortar,  and  the  adhesion  between  the  brick  and  mortar  will  be 
weak. 

The  common  method  of  wetting  brick  by  throwing  water  from 
buckets  or  spraying  with  a  hose  over  a  large  pile  is  deceptive  . 
the  water  reaches  a  few  brick  on  one  or  more  sides  and  escapes 
many.  Immersion  of  the  brick  for  from  3  to  8  minutes,  depend 
ing  upon  its  quality,  is  the  only  sure  method  to  avert  the  evil 
consequences  of  using  dry  or  partially  wetted  brick. 

Strict  attention  must  be  paid  to  have  the  starting  course  level, 
for  the  bricks  being  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  the  slightest 
irregularity  or  incorrectness  in  it  will  be  carried  into  the  super- 
imposed courses,  and  can  only  be  rectified  by  using  a  greater  or 
less  quantity  of  mortar  in  one  part  or  another,  a  course  which 
is  injurious  to  the  work. 

A  common  but  improper  method  of  building  thick  brick  walls 
is  to  lay  up  the  outer  stretcher-courses  between  the  header- courses, 
and  then  to  throw  mortar  into  the  trough  thus  formed,  making 
it  semi-fluid  by  the  addition  of  a  large  dose  of  water,  then  throw 
ing  in  the  brick  (bats,  sand,  and  rubbish  are  often  substituted  for 
bricks),  allowing  them  to  tiud  their  own  bearing  ;  when  the 


256  MASONRY. — BRICK    MASONRY. 

trough  is  filled  it  is  plastered  over  with  stiff  mortar  and  the 
header-course  laid  and  the  operation  repeated.  This  practice 
m;iy  have  some  advantage  in  celerity  in  executing  work,  but 
none  in  strength  or  security. 

AMOUNT  OF  MORTAR  REQUIRED. — The  thickness  of  the  mortar- 
joints  should  be  about  £  to  f  of  an  inch.  Thicker  joints  are  very 
common,  but  should  be  tivoided.  If  the  bricks  are  even  fairly 
good  the  mortar  is  the  weaker  part  of  the  wall  ;  hence  the  less 
mortar  the  better.  Besides,  a  thin  layer  of  mortar  is  stronger 
under  compression  than  a  thick  one.  The  joints  should  be  as 
thin  as  is  consistent  with  their  insuring  a  uniform  bearing  and 
allowing  rapid  work  in  spreading  the  mortar.  The  joints  of  out- 
side walls  should  be  thin  in  order  to  decrease  the  disintegration 
by  weathering.  The  joints  of  inside  walls  are  usually  made  from 
|  to  i  inch  thick. 

The  proportion  of  mortar  to  brick  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the 
brick  and  with  the  thickness  of  the  joint.  With  the  standard  brick 
(8|-  X  4  X  2J-  inches)  the  amount  of  mortar  required  will  be  as 
follows  : 

Mortar  required. 
Thickness  of  Joints. 


Per  Cubi 
Cubic 

0.30  tc 

ic  Yard, 
Yards. 

.0.40 
0.30 
0.15 

Per  1000  Brick. 
Cubic  Yards. 

0.80  to  0.90 
0.40  "  0.60 
0.15  "  0.20 

1     «     8        <« 

0  20  " 

I           "      ...... 

.    0.10  " 

FACE-  OR  PRESSED-BRICK  WORK. — This  term  is  applied  to 
the  facing  of  walls  with  better  bricks  and  thinner  joints  than  the 
backing. 

The  bricks  are  pressed,  of  various  colors,  and  are  laid  in  colored 
mortar.  The  bricks  are  laid  in  close  joint,  usually  %  inch  thick, 
and  set  with  an  imperceptible  batter  in  themselves,  which  may 
not  be  seen  when  looking  at  the  work  direct,  but  makes  the 
joint  a  prominent  feature  and  gives  the  work  a  good  appearance. 
The  brick  of  each  course  must  be  gauged  with  care  and  exactness, 
so  that  the  joints  may  appear  all  alike.  The  bond  used  for  the 
face  of  the  wall  is  called  the  "running  bond,"  the  bricks  are 
clipped  on  the  back,  and  a  binder  placed  transversely  therein  to 
bond  the  facing  to  the  backing.  The  joints  in  i.he  backing  being 
thicker  than  those  of  the  face-work,  it  is  onJy  in  every  six  or 
seven  courses  that  they  come  to  the  same  level,  so  as  to  permit 
headers  being  put  in.  This  class  of  work  requires  careful  watch- 


BHICK    MASONRY    IMPERVIOUS   TO    WATER.          257 

ing  to  see  that  the  binders  or  headers  are  put  in  .  it  frequently 
happens  that  the  face-work  is  laid  up  without  having  any  bond 
with  the  backing. 

In  white-joint  work  the  mortar  is  composed  of  white  sand  and 
tine  lime  putty.  The  mason  when  using  this  mortar  spreads  it  care 
fully  on  the  bed  of  the  brick  which  is  to  be  laid  in  such  a  way 
that  when  the  brick  is  set  the  mortar  will  protrude  about  half  an 
inch  from  the  face  of  the  wall.  When  there  are  a  number  laid, 
and  before  the  mortar  becomes  too  hard,  the  mortar  that  pro 
trudes  is  cut  off  flush  with  the  wall,  the  joint  struck  downwards, 
and  the  upper  and  lower  edges  cut  with  a  knife  guided  by  a  small 
straight-cage.  When  the  front  is  built  the  whole  is  cleaned 
down  with  a  solution  of  muriatic  acid  and  water,  not  too  strong, 
and  sometimes  oiled  with  linseed-oil  cut  with  turpentine  and  ap- 
plied with  a  flat  brush.  A  Tier  the  front  is  thoroughly  cleaned 
with  the  muriatic  acid  solution  it  should  be  washed  with  clean 
water  to  remove  all  remains  of  the  acid. 

When  colored  mortars  are  required  the  lime  and  sand  should 
be  mixed  at  least  10  days  before  the  colored  pigments  are  added 
to  it,  and  they  should  be  well  soaked  in  water  before  being  added 
to  the  mortar. 


Brick  Masonry  Impervious  to  Water. 

It  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  prevent  the  percolation  of 
water  through  brick  walls.  A  cheap  and  effective  process  has 
not  yet  been  discovered  and  many  expensive  trials  have  provedfail 
ures.  Laying  the  bricks  iuasphaltic  mortar  and  coating  the  walls 
with  asphalt  or  coal-tar  are  successful.  "Sylvester's  Process  for 
Repelling  Moisture  from  External  Walls"  has  proved  entirely 
successful.  The  process  consists  in  using  two  washes  for  covering 
the  surface  of  the  walls,  one  composed  of  Castile  soap  and  water, 
and  one  of  alum  and  water.  These  solutions  are  applied  alter- 
nately until  the  walls  are  made  impervious  to  water. 


258  MASONRY. — REPAIR   OF   MASONRY. 


Efflorescence. 

Masonry,  particularly  in  moist  climates  or  damp  places,  is  fre- 
quently disfigured  by  the  formation  of  a  white  efflorescence  on  the 
surface.  This  deposit  generally  originates  with  the  mortar.  The 
water  which  is  absorbed  by  the  mortar  dissolves  the  salts  of  soda, 
potash,  magnesia,  etc.,  contained  in  the  lime  or  cement,  and  on 
evaporating  deposits  these  salts  as  a  white  efflorescence  on  the 
surface.  With  lime  mortar  the  deposit  is  frequently  very  heavy, 
and,  usually,  it  is  heavier  with  Rosuudale  than  with  Portland 
cement.  The  efflorescence  sometimes  originates  in  the  brick, 
particularly  if  the  brick  was  burned  with  sulphurous  coal 
or  was  made  from  clay  containing  iron  pyrites  ;  and  when  the 
brick  gets  wet  the  water  dissolves  the  sulphates  of  lime  and  mag- 
nesia, and  on  evaporating  leaves  the  crystals  of  these  salts  on  tbe 
surface.  The  crystallization  of  these  salts  within  the  pores  of  the 
mortar  and  of  the  brick  or  stone  causes  disintegration,  and  acts 
in  many  respects  like  frost. 

The  efflorescence  may  be  entirely  prevented  by  applying  "  Syl- 
vester's "  washes,  composed  of  the  same  ingredients  and  applied 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  rendering  masonry  impervious  to 
moisture.  It  can  be  much  diminished  by  using  impervious  mortar 
for  the  face  of  the  joints. 

Repair  of  Masonry. 

In  effecting  repairs  in  masonry,  when  new  work  is  to  be  con- 
nected with  old,  the  mortar  of  the  old  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned 
off  along  the  surface  where  the  junction  is  to  be  made  and  the 
surface  thoroughly  wet.  The  bond  and  other  arrangements  will 
depend  upon  the  circumstances  of  the  case.  The  surfaces  con- 
nected should  be  fitted  as  accurately  as  practicable,  so  that  by 
using  but  little  mortar  no  disunion  may  take  place  from  settling. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  better  that  new  work  should  butt  against  the  old, 
either  with  a  straight  joint  visible  on  the  face,  or  let  into  a  chase, 
sometimes  called  a  '  slip- joint,"  so  that  the  straight  joint  may  not 
show  ;  but  if  it  is  necessary  to  bond  them  together  the  new  work 
should  be  built  in  a  quick-setting  cement  mortar  and  each  part 
of  it  allowed  to  set  before  being  loaded. 

In  pointing  old  masonry  all  the  decayed  mortar  must  be  com- 
pletely raked  out  with  a  hooked  iron  point  and  the  surfaces  well 
wetted  before  the  fresh  mortar  is  applied. 


DEFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS   USED   IN   MASONRY.    !4 


Definitions  of  the  Terms  used  in  Masonry, 

ABUTMENT  :  1.  That  portion  of  the  masonry  of  a  bridge  or  dam 
upon  which  the  ends  rest,  and  which  connects  the  superstructure 
with  the  adjacent  banks.  2.  A  structure  that  receives  the  lateral 
thrust  of  an  arch. 

ARRIS  :  The  external  angle  or  edge  formed  by  the  meeting  of 
two  plane  or  curved  surfaces,  whether  walls  or  the  sides  of  a 
stick  or  stone. 

BACKED  :  Built  on  the  rear  face. 

BACKING  :  The  rough  masonry  of  a  wall  faced  with  cut  stone. 

BATTER  :  The  slope  or  inclination  given  to  the  face  of  a  wall. 
It  is  expressed  by  dividing  the  height  by  the  horizontal  distance. 
It  is  described  by  stating  the  extent  of  the  deviation  from  the 
vertical,  as  one  in  twelve,  or  one  inch  to  the  foot. 

BATS  :  Broken  bricks. 

BEARING-BLOCKS  on  TEMPLETS  :  Small  blocks  of  stone  built  in 
the  wall  to  support  the  ends  of  particular  beams. 

BELT-STONES  OR  -COURSES  :  Horizontal  bauds  or  zones  of  stone 
encircling  a  building  or  extending  through  a  wall. 

BLOCKING-COURSE  ;  A  course  of  stones  placed  on  the  top  of  a 
cornice,  crowning  the  walls. 

BOND. — The  disposing  of  the  blocks  of  stone  or  bricks  in  the 
wall  so  as  to  form  the  whole  into  a  firm  structure  by  a  judicious 
overlapping  of  each  other  so  as  to  break  joint. 

A  stone  or  brick  which  is  laid  with  its  length  across  the  wall, 
or  extends  through  the  facing-course  into  that  behind,  so  as  to 
bind  the  facing  to  the  backing,  is  called  a  "  header"  or  "  bond." 

Bonds  are  described  by  various  names,  as: 

Binders,  when  they  extend  only  a  part  of  the  distance  across 
the  wall. 

Through-bonds,  when  they  extend  clear  across  from  face  to 
back. 

Heart-bond,  when  two  headers  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  wall 
and  the  joint  between  them  is  covered  by  another  header. 

Perpend-bond  signifies  that  a  header  extends  through  the  whole 
thickness  of  the  wall. 

Chain-bond  is  the  building  into  the  masonry  of  an  iron  bar, 
chain,  or  heavy  timber. 

Cross-bond :  A  bond  in  which  the  joints  of  the  second  stretcher- 
course  come  in  the  middle  of  the  first ,  a  course  composed  of 
headers  and  stretchers  intervening. 


260    DEFINITIONS    OF   THE    TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY. 

Block-  and  cross-bond:  The  face  of  the  wall  is  put  up  in  cross- 
bond  and  the  backing  in  block-bond. 

English  bond  (brick  masonry)  consists  of  alternate  courses  of 
headers  and  stretchers. 

Flemish-bond  (brick  masonry)  consists  of  alternate  headers  and 
stretchers  in  the  same  course. 

Blind  bond  is  used  to  tie  the  front  course  to  the  wall  in  pressed 
brick  work  where  it  is  not  desirable  that  any  headers  should  be 
seen  in  the  face-work. 

To  form  this  bond  the  face  brick  is  trimmed  or  clipped  off  at 
both  ends,  so  that  it  will  admit  a  binder  to  set  in  transversely 
from  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  every  layer  of  these  binders  should 
be  tied  with  a  header-course  the  whole  length  of  the  wall.  The 
binders  should  be  put  in  every  fifth  course,  and  the  backing 
should  be  done  in  a  most  substantial  manner,  with  hard  brick 
laid  in  close  joint,  for  the  reason  that  the  face-work  is  laid  in  a 
fine  putty  mortar,  and  the  joints  consequently  close  and  tight; 
and  if  the  backing  is  not  the  same  the  pressure  upon  the  wall 
will  make  it  settle  and  draw  the  wall  inward. 

The  common  form  of  bond  in  brickwork  is  to  lay  three  or  five 
courses  as  stretchers;  then  a  header-course 

BOND-STONES  IN  PIEKS.  — "  Every  pier  built  of  brick,  contain- 
ing less  than  nine  superficial  feet  at  the  base,  supporting  any 
beam,  girder,  arch,  or  column  on  which  a  wall  rests,  or  lintel 
spanning  an  opening  over  ten  feet  and  supporting  a  wall,  shall 
at  intervals  of  not  over  thirty  inches  apart  in  height  have  built 
into  it  a  bond-stone  not  less  than  four  inches  I  hick,  or  a  cast-iron 
plate  of  sufficient  strength,  and  the  full  size  of  the  piers."  (N.  Y. 
Building  Laws,  1896.) 

BREAST- WALL  •  One  built  to  prevent  the  falling  of  a  vertical 
face  cut  into  the  natural  soil;  in  distinction  to  a  retaining  wall,  etc. 

BRICK  ASHLAR  :  Walls  with  ashlar  facing  backed  with  bricks, 

BUILD  OR  RISE  :  That  dimension  of  the  stone  which  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  quarry-bed. 

BUTTRESS  A  vertical  projecting  piece  of  stone  or  brick 
masonry  built  in  front  of  a  wall  to  strengthen  it. 

CLOSERS  are  pieces  of  brick  or  stone  inserted  in  alternate 
courses  of  brick  and  broken  ashlar  masonry  to  obtain  a  bond. 

CLEANING  DOWN  consists  in  washing  :md  scrubbing  the  stone- 
work with  muriatic  acid  and  water.  Wire  brushes  are  generally 
used  for  marble  and  sometimes  for  sandstone.  Stiff  bristle 


DKFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS    USED   IN   MASONRY.    261 

brushes  are  ordinarily  used.  The  stones  should  be  scrubbed 
until  all  mortar-stains  nnd  dirt  are  entirely  removed. 

For  cleaning  old  stonework  the  sand-blast  operated  either  by 
steam  or  compressed  air  is  used.  Brick  masonry  is  cleaned  in 
the  same  manner  as  stone  masonry.  During  the  proc  ss  of  clean- 
ing  all  open  joints  under  window-sills  and  elsewhere  should  be 
pointed. 

COPING. — The  coping  of  a  wall  consists  of  large  and  heavy 
stones,  slightly  projecting  over  it  at  both  sides,  accurately  bedded 
on  the  wall,  and  jointed  to  each  other  with  cement  mortar.  Its 
use  is  to  shelter  the  mortar  in  the  interior  of  the  wall  from  the 
weather,  and  to  protect  by  its  weight  the  smaller  stones  below  it, 
from  b«  ing  knocked  off  or  picked  out.  Coping-stones  should  be 
so  shaped  that  water  may  rapidly  run  off  from  them. 

For  coping-stones  the  objections  with  regard  to  excess  of 
length  do  not  apply,  tiiis  excess  may,  on  the  contrary,  prove  fa- 
vorable, because,  the  number  of  top  joints  being  thus  diminished, 
the  mass  beneath  the  coping  will  be  better  protected. 

Additional  stability  is  given  to  a  coping  l.y  so  connecting  the 
coping-stones  together  that  it  is  impossible  to  lift  one  of  them 
without  at  the  same  time  lifting  the  ends  of  the  two  next  it. 
This  is  done  either  by  means  of  iron  cramps  inserted  into  holes 
in  the  stones  and  fixed  there  with  lead,  or,  better  still,  by  means 
of  dowels  of  wrought  iron,  cast  iron,  copper,  or  hard  stone.  The 
metal  dowels  are  inferior  in  durability  to  those  of  hard  stone, 
though  superior  in  strength.  Copper  is  strong  and  durable,  but 
expensive.  The  stone  dowels  are  small  prismatic  or  cylindrical 
blocks,  each  of  which  fits  into  a  pair  of  opposite  holes  in  the  con- 
tiguous ends  of  a  pair  of  coping  stones  and  fixed  with  cement 
mortar. 

The  under  edge  should  be  throated  or  dripped,  that  is,  grooved, 
so  that  the  drip  will  not  run  back  on  the  wall,  but  drop  from  the 
edge. 

Coping  is  divided  into  three  kinds  ; 

Parallel  coping,  level  on  top.  Featlier -edged  coping,  bedded 
level  and  sloping  on  top.  Saddle-back  coping  has  a  curved  or 
doubly  inclined  top, 

COKF.RL  •  A  horizontal  projecting  piece  or  course  of  mnsonry 
which  assists  in  supporting  one  resting  upon  it.  which  projects 
still  further. 

CORNICE  :  The  ornamental  projection  at  the  eaves  of  a  build- 
ing or  at  the  top  of  a  pier  or  any  other  structure. 


262   DEFINITIONS   OF  THE   TERMS   USED   IN   MASONRY. 

COUNTERFORT  :  Vertical  projections  of  stone  or  brick  masonry 
built  at  intervals  along  the  back  of  a  wall  to  strengthen  it,  and 
generally  of  very  little  use. 

COURSE. — The  term  course  is  applied  to  each  horizontal  row  or 
layer  of  stones  or  bricks  in  a  wall;  some  of  the  courses  have  par- 
ticular names,  as  : 

Plinth-course,  a  lower,  projecting,  square-faced  course;  also 
called  the  water-table. 

Blocking  course,  laid  on  top  of  the  cornice. 

Bonding-course,  one  in  which  the  stones  or  bricks  lie  with  tbeir 
length  across  the  wall;  also  called  heading  course. 

Stretching -course,  consisting  of  stretchers. 

Springing-course,  the  course  from  which  an  arch  springs. 

String  course,  a  projecting  course. 

Rowlock-cou\se,  bricks  set  on  edge. 

CRAMPS  ;  Bars  of  iron  having  the  ends  turned  at  right  angles 
to  the  body  of  the  bar,  and  inserted  in  holes  and  trenches  cut  in 
the  upper  sides  of  adjacent  stones  to  hold  them  together  (see  un- 
der Coping). 

CUTWATER  OR  STARLING  :  The  projecting  ends  of  a  bridge- 
pier,  etc.,  usually  so  shaped  as  to  allow  water,  ice,  etc.,  to  strike 
them  with  but  little  injury. 

DOWELS. — Straight  bars  of  iron,  copper,  or  stone  which  are 
placed  in  holes  cut  in  the  upper  bed  of  one  stone  and  in  the  lower 
bed  of  the  next  stone  above.  They  are  also  placed  horizontally 
in  the  adjacent  ends  of  coping-stones  (see  under  Coping). 
Cramps  and  dowels  are  fastened  in  place  by  pouring  melted  lead, 
sulphur,  or  cement  grout  around  them. 

DRY  STONE  WALLS  may  be  of  any  of  the  classes  of  masonry 
previously  described,  with  the  single  exception  that  the  mortar 
is  omitted.  They  should  be  built  according  to  the  principles  laid 
down  for  the  class  to  which  they  belong. 

FACE  :  The  front  surface  of  the  wall. 

FACING  :  The  stone  which  forms  the  face  or  outside  of  the  wall 
exposed  to  view. 

FOOTING  :  The  projecting  courses  at  the  base  of  a  wall  for  the 
purpose  of  distributing  the  weight  over  an  increased  area,  and 
thereby  diminishing  the  liability  to  vertical  settlement  from  com- 
pression of  the  ground. 

Footings,  to  have  any  useful  effect,  must  be  securety  bonded 
into  the  body  of  the  work,  ?md  have  sufficient  strength  to  resist 
the  cross-strains  to  which  they  are  exposed. 


DEFINITIONS   OF  THE   TERMS   USED   IN   MASONRY.   263 

The  beds  should  be  dressed  true  and  parallel. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  the  footing-courses 
of  any  building,  as  upon  them  depends  much  of  the  stability  of 
the  work.  If  the  bottom  course  be  not  solidly  bedded,  if  any 
rents  or  vacuities  are  left  in  the  beds  of  the  masonry,  or  if  the 
materials  be  unsound  or  badly  put  together,  the  effects  of  such 
carelessness  \vill  show  themselves  sooner  or  later,  and  aTwaysata 
period  when  remedial  efforts  are  useless. 

FOOTING-COURSES. -(1ST.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896) .  "  The  foot- 
ing- or  base-course  shall  be  of  stone  or  concrete,  or  both,  or  of 
concrete  and  stepped-up  brickwork,  of  sufficient  thickness  and 
urea  to  safely  bear  the  weight  to  be  imposed  thereon.  If  the 
footing-  or  base-course  be  of  concrete,  the  concrete  shall  not  be 
less  than  12  inches  thick  ;  if  of  stones,  the  stones  shall  not  be  less 
than  2  by  3  feet,  and  at  least  8  inches  in  thickness  for  walls,  and 
at  least  12  inches  wider  than  the  bottom  width  of  said  walls,  and 
not  less  than  10  inches  in  thickness  if  under  piers,  columns,  or 
posts.  All  base-stones  shall  be  well  bedded  and  laid  crosswise, 
edge  to  edge." 

If,  in  place  of  a  continuous  foundation -wall,  isolated  piers 
are  to  be  built  to  support  the  superstructure,  where  the  nature  of 
the  ground  and  the  character  of  the  building  make  it  necessary, 
inverted  arches  shall  be  turned  between  the  piers,  at  least  12 
inches  thick  and  of  the  full  width  of  the  piers,  and  resting  upon 
a  continuous  bed  of  concrete  of  sufficient  area,  and  at  least  18 
inches  thick;  or  two  footing-courses  of  large  stone  may  be  used, 
the  bottom  course  to  be  laid  crosswise,  edge  to  edge,  and  the  top 
course  laid  lengthwise,  end  to  end  ;  or  one  course  of  concrete 
and  one  course  of  stone.  The  stones  shall  not  be  less  than  10 
inches  thick  in  each  course,  and  the  concrete  shall  not  be  less 
than  18  inches  thick,  and  the  area  of  the  lower  course  shall  be 
equal  to  the  area  of  the  base-course  that  would  be  required  un- 
der a  continuous  wall,  and  the  outside  pier  shall  be  secured  to 
the  second  pier  with  suitable  iron  rods  and  plates. 

"  If  stepped-up  footings  of  brick  are  used  in  place  of  stone  above 
the  concrete  the  steps  or  offsets,  if  laid  in  single  courses,  shall 
each  not  exceed  1£  inches,  or,  if  laid  in  double  courses,  then  each 
shall  not  exceed  three  inches,  starting  with  the  brickwork  covering 
the  entire  width  of  the  concrete." 

Chicago  Building  Ordinances,  1893  :  "The  offsets  of  founda- 
tions of  concrete  alone  shall  not  exceed  one-half  the  height  of  the 
respective  courses.  If  reinforced  by  rails  or  beams  the  offsets 


264    DEFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS   USED    IN   MASONRY. 

must  be  so  adjusted  that  the  fibie-strain  per  square  iuch  shall  not 
exceed  12,000  pounds  for  iron  or  16,000  pounds  for  steel. 

"The  offsets  in  layers  of  dimension  stone  must  not  be  more 
than  three  quarters  of  the  height  of  the  individual  stones. 

"  In  brick  piers  there  shall  be  at  every  offset  a  bond-stone  at 
least  8  in.  thick,  and  at  the  top  of  each  pier  a  cap-stone  at  least 
10  in.  thick,  or  in  all  such  cases  a  bond-plate  of  cast  or  rolled 
iron." 

GAUGED-WORK  :  Bricks  cut  and  rubbed  to  the  exact  shape  re- 
quired. 

GROUT  is  a  thin  or  fluid  mortar  made  in  the  proportion  of  1 
of  cement  to  1  or  2  of  sand. 

It  is  used  to  fill  up  the  voids  in  walls  of  rubble  masonry  and 
brick.  Sometimes  the  interior  of  a  wall  is  built  up  dry  and  grout 
poured  in  to  fill  the  voids.  Unless  specifically  instructed  to  per- 
mit its  use,  grout  should  not  be  used  unless  in  the  presence  of  the 
inspector.  When  used  by  masons  without  instructions  it  is  usu- 
ally for  the  purpose  of  concealing  bad  work. 

Grout  is  used  for  solidifying  quicksand.  A  series  of  pipes  are 
sunk  into  the  layer  of  quicksand,  and  through  each  alternate  one 
cement  grout  is  forced  under  pressure.  This,  seeking  an  outlet 
by  the  line  of  least  resistance,  will  make  an  exit  by  the  adjoining 
pipe,  which  opens  into  the  air  above  ;  but  in  so  doing  the  pressure- 
valve  at  the  bottom  of  the  pipe  is  opened  and  results  in  a  dif- 
fusing of  the  grout  in  the  surrounding  quicksand,  which  forms 
with  it  an  artificial  stone,  and  by  gradually  raising  the  pipes  a 
wall  of  stone  is  formed  in  the  layer  of  quicksand. 

The  term  grout  is  also  applied  to  the  waste  stone  in  quarries. 

GROUTING  is  pouring  fluid  mortar  over  last  course  for  the  pur- 
pose of  filling  all  vacuities. 

HEADER. — Also  called  a  bond.  A  stone  or  brick  whose  greatest 
dimension  lies  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  used  for 
the  purpose  of  tying  the  face  to  the  backing  (see  Bond).  A  trick 
of  masons  is  to  use  "  blind  headers,"  or  short  stones  that  look  like 
headers  on  the  face,  but  do  not  go  deeper  into  the  wall  than  the 
adjacent  stretchers.  When  a  course  has  been  put  on  top  of  these 
they  are  completely  covered  up,  and,  if  not  suspected,  the  fraud 
will  never  be  discovered  unless  the  weakness  of  the  wall  reveals  it. 

In  facing  brick  walls  with  pressed  brick  the  bricklayer  will 
frequently  cut  the  headers  for  the  purpose  of  economizing  the 
mote  expensive  material ;  thus  great  watchfulness  is  necessary  to 
secure  a  good  bond  between  the  facing  and  common  brick. 


DEFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY.    205 

HEADERS. — N.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896  "All  stone  foundation- 
walls  24  inches  or  less  in  thickness  shall  have  at  least  one  header 
extending  through  the  wall  in  every  3  feet  '.n.  height  from 
the  bottom  of  the  wall,  and  in  every  4  feet  in  length,  and  if 
over  24  inches  in  thickness  shall  have  one  header  for  every  6 
superficial  feet  on  both  sides  of  the  wall,  and  running  into  the 
wall  at  least  2  feet.  All  headers  shall  be  at  least  18  inches  in 
width  and  8  inches  in  thickness,  and  consist  of  good,  flat  stone. 

"  In  all  brick  walls  every  sixth  course  shall  be  a  heading- 
course,  except  where  walls  are  faced  with  brick  in  running  bond, 
in  which  latter  case  every  sixth  course  shall  be  bonded  into  the 
backing  by  cutting  the  course  of  the  face-brick  and  putting  in 
diagonal  headers  behind  the  same,  or  by  splitting  the  face-brick 
in  half  and  backing  the  same  with  a  continuous  row  of  headers." 

JOINTS. — The  mortar  layers  between  the  stones  or  bricks  nrc 
called  the  joints.  The  horizontal  joints  are  called  "  bed-joints"  ; 
the  end- joints  are  called  the  vertical  joints,  or  simply  the 
"  joints." 

Excessively  thick  joints  should  be  avoided.     In  good   brick 
work  they  should  be  about  ^  to  $  inch  thick  ;    for   ashlar  ma- 
sonry and  pressed-brick  work  about  |  to  T^  inch  thick  ;  for  rubble 
masonry  they  vary  according  to  the  character  of  the  work. 

The  joints  of  both  stone  and  brick  masonry  are  finished  in 
different  ways,  with  the  object  of  presenting  a  neat  appearance 
and  of  throwing  the  rain-water  away  from  the  joint. 

flush  Joints. — In  these  the  mortar  is  pressed  flat  with  the 
trowel  and  the  surface  of  the  joint  is  flush  with  the  face  of  the 
wall. 

Struck-joints  are  formed  jy  pressing  or  striking  back  with 
the  trowel  the  upper  portion  of  the  joint  while  the  mortar  is 
moist,  so  as  to  form  an  outward  sloping  surface  from  the  bottom 
of  the  upper  course  to  the  top  of  the  lower  course.  This  joint  is 
also  designated  by  the  name  "weather-joint."  Masons  generally 
form  this  joint  so  that  it  slopes  inwards,  thus  leaving  the  upper 
arris  of  the  lower  course  bare  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
weather,  The  reason  for  forming  it  in  this  improper  manner 
is  thai  it  is  easier  to  perform. 

Keyed  Joints  are  formed  by  drawing  a  curved  iron  key  or 
jointer  along  the  centre  of  the  flushed  joint,  pressing  it  hard,  so 
that  the  mortar  is  driven  in  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall  .  a  groove 
of  curved  section  is  thus  formed,  having  its  surface  hardened  by 
the  pressure. 


266    DEFINITIONS   OP  THE  TERMS   USED   IN   MASONRY. 

White-skate  or  Groove  Joint  is  employed  in  front  brick-work. 
It  is  about  T3ff  inch  thick.  It  is  formed  with  a  jointer  having 
the  width  of  the  intended  joint.  It  is  guided  along  the  joint  by 
a  straight-edge  and  leaves  its  impress  upon  the  material. 

JOGGLE:  A  joint-piece  or  dowel  pin  let  into  adjacent  faces  of 
two  stones  to  hold  them  in  position.  It  may  vary  in  form,  and 
approach  in  its  shape  either  the  dowel  or  chimp. 

JAMB:  The  sides  of  an  opening  left  in  a  wall. 

LINTEL  :  The  stone,  wood,  or  iron  beam  used  to  cover  a  nar- 
row opening  in  a  wall. 


STONE  LINTELS. 
(N.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896.) 


Width  of  Opening. 

Dimensions  of  Lintel. 

Height. 

Thickness. 

Bearing. 

4ft. 

6  " 
6  to  8  ft. 

8  in. 

12  " 
12  " 

4  in. 

4  " 

5  in. 

"  On  the  inside  of  all  openings  in  which  the  stone  lintel  shall  be 
less  than  the  thickness  of  the  wall  to  be  supported  there  shall  be 
a  good  timber  lintel  on  the  inside  of  the  stone  lintel,  which 
shall  rest  at  each  end  not  more  than  3  inches  on  any  wall,  and 
shall  be  chamfered  at  each  end,  and  shall  have  a  double  row- 
lock or  bonded  arch  turned  over  the  timber  lintel.  Or  the  inside 
lintel  may  be  of  cast  iron,  and  in  such  case  stone  blocks  or  cast- 
iron  plates  shall  not  be  required  at  the  ends  where  the  lintels 
rest  on  the  walls,  provided  the  opening  is  not  more  than  six  feet 
in  width." 

ONE-MAN  STONE  :  A  stone  of  such  size  as  to  be  readily  lifted 
by  one  man. 

PARAPET  WALL  is  a  low  wall  running  along  the  edge  of  a  ter- 
race or  roof  to  prevent  people  from  falling  over. 

"All  exterior  and  division  or  party  walls  over  fifteen  feet  high, 
excepting  where  such  walls  are  to  be  finished  with  cornices, 
gutters,  or  crown  mouldings,  shall  have  parapet  walls  carried  two 


DEFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS   USED   IN   MASONRY.    267 

feet  above  the  roof,  and  shall  be  coped  with  stone,  well-burnt 
terra-cotta,  or  cast  iron."  (N.  Y.  Building-  Laws,  1896.) 

POINTING  a  piece  of  masonry  consists  in  scraping  out  the  mor- 
tar in  which  the  stones  were  laid  from  the  face  of  the  joints  for  a 
depth  of  from  £  to  2  inches,  and  filling  the  groove  so  made  with 
clear  Portland-cement  mortar  or  with  mortar  made  of  1  part  of 
cement  and  1  part  of  sand. 

The  object  of  pointing  is  that  1he  exposed  edges  of  the  joints 
are  always  deficient  in  density  and  hardness,  and  the  mortar  nenr 
the  surface  of  the  joint  is  specially  subject  to  dislodgment,  since 
the  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  masonry  are  liable  either  to 
separate  the  stone  from  the  mortar  or  to  crack  the  mortar  in  the 
joint,  thus  permitting  the  entrance  of  rain-water,  which  freezing 
forces  the  mortar  from  the  joints. 

The  pointing-mortar,  when  ready  for  use,  should  be  rather  in- 
coherent and  quite  deficient  in  plasticity. 

Before  applying  the  pointing  the  joint  must  be  well  cleansed 
by  scraping  and  brushing  out  the  loose  matter,  then  thoroughly 
saturated  'with  water,  and  maintained  in  such  a  condition  of 
dampness  that  the  stones  will  neither  absorb  water  from  the  mor- 
tar nor  impart  any  to  it.  Walls  should  not  be  allowed  to  dry  too 
rapidly  after  pointing. 

Pointing  should  not  be  prosecuted  either  during  freezing  or 
excessively  hot  weather. 

The  pointing-mortar  is  applied  with  a  mason's  trowel,  and  the 
joint  well  calked  with  a  calkiug-iron  and  hammer.  In  the  very 
best  work  the  surface  of  the  mortar  is  rubbed  smooth  with  a  steel 
polishing  -tool.  The  form  given  to  the  finished  joint  is  the  same 
as  described  under  Joints. 

Pointing  with  colored  mortar  is  frequently  employed  to  im- 
prove the  appearance  of  the  work.  Various  colors  are  used,  as 
white,  black,  red,  brown,  etc.,  different-colored  pigments  being 
added  to  the  mortar  to  produce  the  required  color. 

Tuck-pointing,  used  chiefly  for  brickwork,  consists  of  a  project- 
ing ridge  with  the  edges  neatly  pared  to  an  uniform  breadth  of 
about  ^  inch.  White  mortar  is  usually  employed  for  this  class  of 
pointing. 

Many  authorities  consider  that  pointing  is  not  advisable  for 
new  work,  as  the  joints  so  formed  are  not  as  enduring  as  those 
which  are  finished  at  the  time  the  masonry  is  built.  Pointing  is, 
moreover,  often  resorted  to  when  it  is  intended  to  give  the  work 


268    DEFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS   USED    IN   MASONRY. 

a  superior  appearance,  and  also  to  conceal  defects  in  inferior 
work. 

PALLETS,  PLUGS:  Wooden  bricks  inserted  in  walls  for  fastening 
trim,  etc. 

PLINTH:  A  projecting  base  to  a  wall;  also  called  "water- 
table." 

QUARRY-FACED  OR  ROCK-FACED  MASONRY:  That  in  which  the 
face  of  the  stone  is  left  untouched  as  it  comes  from  the  quarry. 

PITCHED-FACE  MASONRY  :  That  in  which  the  face  of  the  stone 
is  roughly  dressed  with  the  pitching-chisel  so  as  to  give  edges 
that  are  approximately  true. 

QUOIN  :  A  corner-stone.  A  quoin  is  a  header  for  one  face 
and  a  stretcher  for  the  other. 

RIP-RAP. — Rip-nip  is  composed  of  rough  undressed  stone  as  it 
comes  from  the  quarry,  laid  dry  about  the  base  of  piers,  abut- 
ments, slopes  of  embankments,  etc.,  to  prevent  scour  and  wash. 
When  used  for  the  protection  of  piers  the  stones  are  dumped  in 
promiscuously,  their  size  depending  upon  the  material  and  the 
velocity  of  the  current.  Stones  of  15  to  25  cubic  feet  are  fre- 
quently employed.  When  used  for  the  protection  of  banks  the 
stones  are  laid  by  hand  to  a  uniform  thickness. 

RISE  :  That  dimension  of  a  stone  which  is  perpendicular  to  its 
quarry-bed  (see  Build). 

RETAINING  WALL  OR  REVETMENT  :  A  wall  built  to  retain  earth 
deposited  behind  it  (see  Breast-wall). 

REVEAL  :  The  exposed  portion  of  the  sides  of  openings  in  walls 
in  front  of  the  recesses  for  doors,  window-frames,  etc. 

SLOPE- WALL  MASONRY  :  A  slope- wall  is  a  thin  layer  of  masonry 
used  to  protect  the  slopes  of  embankments,  excavations,  canals, 
river-banks,  etc.,  from  rain,  waves,  weather,  etc. 

SLIPS  :  See  Wood  Bricks. 

SPALL. -—A  piece  of  stone  chipped  off  by  the  stroke  of  a  ham- 
mer. 

SILL. — The  stone,  iron,  or  wood  on  which  the  window  or  door 
of  a  building  rests. 

In  setting  stone  sills  the  mason  beds  the  ends  only;  the  middle 
is  pointed  up  after  the  building  is  enclosed.  They  should  be  set 
perfectly  level  lengthwise,  and  have  an  inclination  crosswise,  so 
the  water  may  flow  from  the  frame. 

STONE  PAVING  consists  of  roughly  squared  orunsquared  blocks 
of  stone  used  for  paving  the  waterway  of  culverts,  etc.,  it  is 
laid  both  dry  and  in  mortar. 


DEFINITIONS    OF   THE   TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY.    209 

STARLING  :  See  Cutwater. 

STRETCHER  :  A  stone  or  brick  whose  greatest  dimension  lies 
parallel  to  the  face  of  the  wall. 

STRING-COURSE  :  A  horizontal  course  of  brick  or  stone  masonry 
projecting  a  little  beyond  the  face  of  the  wall.  Usually  intro- 
duced for  ornament. 

TEMPLETS  :  Bearing-blocks;  small  blocks  of  stone  inserted  in 
the  wall  to  support  the  ends  of  particular  beams. 

TWO-MEN  STONE  :  Stone  of  such  size  as  to  be  conveniently 
lifted  by  two  men. 

TOOTHING  :  Unfinished  brickwork  so  arranged  that  every  alter- 
nate brick  projects  half  its  length. 

WATER- TABLE  :  See  Plinth. 

WOOD  BRICKS,  PALLETS,  PLUGS,  OR  SLIPS  are  pieces  of  wood 
laid  in  a  wall  in  order  the  better  to  secure  any  woodwork  (hat  it 
may  be  necessary  to  fasten  to  it.  Great  injury  is  often  done  to 
walls  by  driving  wood  plugs  into  the  joints,  as  they  are  apt  to 
shake  the  work.  Hollow  porous  terra-cotta  bricks  are  frequently 
used  instead  of  wood,  bricks,  etc. 

WALLS  are  constructions  of  stone,  brick,  or  other  materials, 
and  serve  to  retain  earth  or  water,  or  in  buildings  to  support  the 
roof  and  floors  and  to  keep  out  the  weather.  The  following 
points  should  be  attended  to  in  the  constructio: .  of  walls  : 

The  whole  of  the  walling  of  a  building  should  be  carried  up 
simultaneously;  no  part  should  be  allowed  to  rise  more  than 
about  3  feet  above  the  rest;  otherwise  the  portion  first  built  will 
settle  down  to  its  bearings  before  the  other  is  attached  to  it,  and 
then  the  settlement  which  takes  place  in  the  newer  portion  will 
cause  a  rupture,  and  cracks  will  appear  in  the  structure.  If  it 
should  be  necessary  to  carry  up  one  part  of  a  wall  before  the 
other,  the  end  of  that  portion  first  built  should  be  racked  buck, 
that  is,  left  in  steps,  each  course  projecting  farther  than  the  one 
above  it. 

Work  should  not  be  hurried  along  unless  done  in  cement  mor- 
tar, but  given  time  to  settle  to  its  bearings. 

Anchoring  Walls. — N.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896:  "In  no  case 
shall  any  wall  or  walls  of  any  buildings  be  carried  up  more 
than  two  stories  in  advance  of  any  other  wall.  The  front, 
rear,  side,  and  party  walls  shall  be  properly  bonded  together,  or 
anchored  to  each  other  every  six  feet  in  their  height  by  wrought- 
iron  anchors,  not  less  than  one  and  a  half  inches  by  three  eighths 
of  an  inch  in  size.  The  side  anchors  shall  be  built  into  the  side 


270   DEFINITIONS   OF   THE   TERMS    USED    IN    MASONRY. 

or  party  walls  not  less  than  sixteen  inches,  and  into  the  frout-aud 
rear  walls,  so  as  to  secure  the  front  and  rear  walls  to  the  side  or 
party  walls,  when  not  built  and  bonded  together." 

Bracing  Walls  during  Erection. — "  The  walls  of  every  building, 
during  the  erection  or  alteration  thereof,  shall  be  strongly  braced 
from  the  beams  of  each  story,  and  when  required  shall  also  be 
braced  from  the  outside,  until  the  building  is  enclosed.  The 
roof  tier  of  wooden  beams  shall  be  safely  anchored  with  plank  or 
joist  to  the  beams  of  the  story  below  until  the  building  is 
enclosed."  (N.  "Y  .  Building  Laws,  1896.) 

Curtain  walls  of  brick  built  in  between  iron  or  steel  columns, 
and  supported  wholly  or  in  part  on  iron  or  steel  girders,  shall  not 
be  less  than  twelve  inches  thick  for  fifty  feet  of  the  uppermost 
height  thereof,  and  every  lower  section  of  fifty  feet,  or  part 
thereof,  shall  have  a  thickness  of  four  inches  more  than  is 
required  for  the  section  next  above  it,  down  to  the  tier  of  beams 
nearest  to  the  curb-level. 

Projection  of  Brick  in  Furred  Walls. — "In  all  furred  walls  the 
course  of  brick  above  the  under  side  and  below  the  top  of  each 
tier  of  floor-beams  shall  project  the  thickness  of  the  furring,  to 
more  effectually  prevent  the  spread  of  fire."  (N.  Y.  Building 
Laws,  1896.) 

Recesses  in  Walls.  —  "No  recess  for  water  or  other  pipes  shall 
be  made  in  any  wall  more  than  one  third  of  its  thickness,  and 
the  recesses  around  said  pipe  or  pipes  shall  be  filled  up  solid 
with  masonry  for  the  space  of  one  foot  at  the  top  and  bottom  of 
each  story."  (N.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896.) 


MASONRY. — THICKNESS   OF    WALLS.  271 

Thickness  of  Walls. 

(N.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896.) 

DWELLING-HOUSES,  HOTELS,  AND  SCHOOLS. 
35  feet  high,  20  feet  wide. 

Basement 12  iucbes 

Exterior 8 

Party 12       " 

35  to  50  feet  higJi,  26  feet  wide. 
Above  foundation-wall 12  inches 

50  to  60  feet  Jiigh. 

Above  basement  if  a  high-stoop  house. 12  inches 

If  not  a  high-stoop  house,  first  story 16      " 

60  to  75  feet  high. 

First  25  ft 16  inches 

Thencetotop 12      " 

75  to  85  feet  high. 

First  20  ft 20  inches 

20ft.to60ft 16      " 

Thence  to  top 12 

85  to  100  feet  high. 

First  35  ft 24  inches 

35ft.  to  75  ft 20      " 

Thence  to  top 16 

100  to  115  feet  high. 

First  25  ft.... , 28  inches 

25ft.to50ft 24      " 

50ft.to90ft 20       " 

Thence  to  top 16 

Over  115  feet  high. 

Increase  each  additional  25  feet  in  height  or  part  thereof  next 
above  the  curb  4  inches,  the  upper  115  feet  remaining  the  same 
as  specified  for  wall  of  that  height. 


272    MASONRY. — SAFE    WORKING    LOADS    FOR    MASONK*. 

Partition-walls  8  inches  thick  shall  not  be  built  vertically  more 
than  50  feet. 

WAREHOUSES,  STORES,  FACTORIES,  ETC. 

40  feet  high,  25  feet  wide. 

12  inches 
40  to  GO  feet  high. 

First  40  ft 16inches 

Thence  to  top 12      " 

60  to  75  feet  high. 

First  25  ft 20  inches 

Thence  to  top 16 

75  to  85  feet. 

First  20  ft 24  inches 

20  ft.  to  60  ft 20      " 

Thence  to  top 16      " 

85  to  100  feet. 

First  25  ft 28  inches 

25  ft.  to  50  ft 24      " 

50  ft.  to  75  ft 20      " 

Thence  to  top 16      " 

If  over  100  ft.  each  additional  25  ft.  or  part  thereof  next 
above  the  curb  shall  be  increased  4  inches  in  thickness,  the 
upper  100  ft.  remaining  as  specified  for  walls  of  that  height. 


Safe  Working  Loads  for  Masonry. 

BRICK  MASONRY  IN  WALLS  OR  PIERS. 

Tons  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Hard  brick  in  lime  mortar  5  to    7 

"        "      "  Rosendale  cement  1  to  3 8  "  10 

Pressed  brick  in  lime  mortar 6  "    8 

"          "       "  Rosendale  cement. 9  "  12 

"Portland          "      12  "  15 

Piers  exceeding  in  height    six    times  their  least  dimension 
should  l>e  increased  4  inches  in  size  for  each  additional  6  feet. 

According  to  tlie  New  York  Building  Laws,  brickwork  in  good 
lime  mortar  8  tons  per  sq.  ft.,    11 J   tons  when   good  lime  and 


MASONRY.  — SAFE    WORKING   LOADS    FOR   MASONRY.    273 

cement  mortar  is  used,  niid  15  tous  when  good  cement  mortar  is 
used. 

According  to  the  Boston  Building  Laws : 
Best  hard-burned  brick  (height  less  than  six  times 
least  dimension)  with 

Ibs.  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Mortar,  1  cement,  2  sand 30,000 

"       1      "         1  lime,  3     "    24,000 

"       lime 16,000 

Best  hard-burned  brick  (height  six  to  twelve  times 
least  dimension)  with 

Mortar,  1  cement,  2  sand 26,000 

"       1       "        1  lime,  8    "    20,000 

lime 14,000 

For  light  hard-burned  brick  use  f  the  above  amounts. 

STOKE  MASONRY. 

Tons  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Rubble  walls,  irregular  stones 3 

' '     coursed,  soft  stone 2^ 

"  "        hardstone 5  to  16 

Dimension  stone  in  cement: 

iSaudstone  and  limestone 10  "  20 

Granite 20  "  40 

Dressed   stone,    with  f-inch    dressed    joints,    in 
cement : 

Granite 60 

Marble  or  limestone 40 

Sandstone  ....   ,  30 

Height  of  columns  not  to  exceed  eight  times  least  diameter. 

MORTARS. 

Tons  per  Sq.  Ft. 
In  |  inch  joints  3  months  old: 

Portland  cement  1  to  4 40 

Rosendale     "        1  "  3 13 

Lime  mortar 8  to  10 

Portland  1  to  2  in  £-inch  joints  for  bedding  iron  plates  ...  70 

CONCRETE. 

Tons  per  Sq.  Ft. 

Portland  cement  1  to  8 8  to  20 

Rosendale     "        1  "6 5  "10 

Lime,  best,   1  to  6 5 


274  MASONRY. — DESCRIPTION    OF    ARCHES. 

HOLLOW  TILE. 

Pounds 
per  Sq.  Ft. 

Hard  fire-clay  tiles 80 

"     ordinary  clay  tiles 60 

Porous  terra-cotta       "    ., 40 

Terra-cotta  blocks,  unfilled, 10,000 

filled  solid  with  brick  or  cement..  20,000 


Description  of  Arches. 

BASKET-HANDLE  ARCH  :  One  in  which  the  intrados  resembles 
a  semi-ellipse,  but  is  composed  of  arcs  of  circles  tangent  to  each 
other. 

CATENARIAN  ARCH  :  One  whose  intrados  is  a  catenary. 

CIRCULAR  ARCH  :  One  in  which  the  intrados  is  a  part  of  a 
circle. 

DISCHARGING  ARCH  :  An  arch  built  above  a  lintel  to  take  the 
superincumbent  pressure  therefrom. 

ELLIPTICAL  ARCH  :  One  in  which  the  iutrados  is  a  part  of  an 
ellipse. 

GEOSTATIC  ARCH  :  An  arch  in  equilibrium  under  the  vertical 
pressure  of  an  earth  embankment. 

HYDROSTATIC  ARCH  :  An  arch  in  equilibrium  under  the  ver- 
tical pressure  of  water. 

INVERTED  ARCHES  are  like  ordinary  arches,  but  are  built  with 
the  crown  downwards.  They  are  generally  semicircular  or  seg- 
meutal  in  section,  and  are  used  chiefly  in  connection  with  foun- 
dations. 

PLAIN  OR  ROUGH  ARCHES  are  those  in  which  none  of  the  bricks 
cut  to  fit  the  spiny.  Hence  the  joints  are  quite  close  to  each 
other  at  the  softit,  are  wider  towards  the  outer  curve  of  the  arch  ; 
they  are  generally  used  as  relieving,  trimmer,  tunnel-lining,  and 
all  arches  where  strength  is  essential  and  appearance  no  particular 
object.  In  constructing  arches  of  this  kind  it  is  usual  to  form 
them  of  two  or  more  four-inch  concentric  rings  until  the  required 
thickness  is  obtained.  Each  of  the  successive  rings  is  built  inde- 
pendently, having  no  connection  with  the  others  beyond  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  mortar  in  the  ring- joint.  It  is  necessary  that  each 
ring  should  be  finished  before  the  next  is  commenced  ;  also  that 
each  course  be  bounded  throughout  the  length  of  the  arch,  and 


MASONRY.— ARCHES.  275 

that  the  ring-joint  should  be  of  a  regular  thickness.  For  if  one 
ring  is  built  with  a  thin  joint  and  another  with  a  thick  one  the 
one  having  the  most  mortar  will  shrink,  causing  a  fracture  and 
depriving  the  arch  of  much  of  its  strength. 

POINTED  ARCH  One  in  which  the  intrados  consists  of  two 
arcs  of  equal  circles  intersecting  overlhe  middle  of  the  span. 

RELIEVING  ARCH  :  See  Discharging  Arch. 

RIGHT  ARCH  :  A  cylindrical  arch  either  circular  or  elliptical, 
terminated  by  two  planes,  termed  heads  of  the  arch,  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  arch. 

SEGMENTAL  ARCH  :  One  whose  intrados  is  less  than  a  semi- 
circle. 

SEMICIRCULAR  ARCH  ;  One  whose  intrados  is  a  semicircle  ; 
also  called  a  full-centred  arch. 

SKEW  ARCH  :  One  whose  heads  are  oblique  to  the  axis.  Skew 
arches  are  quite  common  in  Europe,  but  are  rarely  employed  in 
the  United  States ;  and  in  the  latter  when  an  oblique  arch  is  em- 
ployed it  is  usually  made,  not  after  the  European  method  with 
spiral  joints,  but  by  building  a  number  of  short  right  arches  or 
ribs  in  contact  with  each  other,  each  successive  rib  being  placed  a 
little  to  one  side  of  its  neighbor. 


Definitions  of  Parts  of  Arches. 

ABUTMENT  ;  The  outer  wall  that  supports  the  arch,  and  which 
connects  it  to  the  adjacent  banks. 

ARCH-SHEETING  :  The  voussoirs  which  do  not  show  at  the  end 
of  the  arch. 

CAMBER  is  a  slight  rise  of  an  arch,  as  \  to  £  inch  per  foot  of 
span. 

CROWN  :  The  highest  point  of  the  arch. 

EXTRADOS  •  The  upper  and  outer  surface  of  the  arch. 

HAUNCHES  :  The  sides  of  the  arch,  from  the  springing-liue  half- 
way up  to  the  crown. 

HEADING- JOINT  :  A  joint  in  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  arch.  It  is  not  continuous. 

INTRADOS  OR  SOFFIT:  The  under  or  lower  surface  of  the 
arch. 

INVERT  :  An  inverted  arch,  one  with  its  iutrados  below  the 
axis  or  springing-line  ;  e.  g.,  the  lower  half  of  a  circular  sewer. 

KEYSTONE  :  The  centre  voussoir  at  the  crown. 


276  MASONRY. — CONSTRUCTION   OF   ARCHES. 

LENGTH  :  The  distance  between  face-stones  of  the  arch. 

PIER  :  The  intermediate  support  for  two  or  more  arches. 

RING-COURSE  :  A  course  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  arch. 

RING- STONES  :  The  voussoirs  or  arch-stones  which  show  at  the 
ends  of  the  arch. 

RISE  :  The  height  from  the  sp ringing-line  to  under  side  of  the 
arch  at  the  keystone. 

SKEW-BACK  :  The  upper  surface  of  an  abutment  or  pier  from 
which  an  arch  springs  ;  its  face  is  on  a  line  radiating  from  centre 
of  arch. 

SPAN  :  The  horizontal  distance  from  springing  to  springing  of 
the  arch. 

SPANDREL  :  The  space  contained  between  a  horizontal  line 
drawn  through  the  crown  of  the  arch  and  a  vertical  line  drawn 
through  the  upper  end  of  the  skew-back. 

SPRINGING  :  The  point  from  which  the  arch  begins  or  springs. 

SPRINGER  :  The  lowest  voussoir  or  arch-stone. 

STRING-COURSE  :  A  course  of  voussoirs  extending  from  one 
end  of  the  arch  to  the  other. 

VOUSSOIRS  :  The  blocks  forming  the  arch. 


Construction  of  Arches. 

In  constructing  ornamental  arches  of  small  span  the  bricks 
should  be  cut  and  rubbed  with  great  care  to  the  proper  splay  or 
wedge  like  form  necessary,  and  according  to  the  gauges  or  reg- 
ularly measured  dimensions. 

This  is  not  always  done,  the  external  course  only  being  rubbed, 
so  that  the  work  may  have  a  pleasing  appearance  to  the  eye,  while 
the  interior,  which  is  hidden  from  view,  is  slurred  over,  and  in 
order  to  save  time  many  of  the  interior  bricks  are  apt  to  be  so  cut 
away  as  to  deprive  the  arch  of  its  strength.  This  class  of  work 
produces  cracks  and  causes  the  arch  to  bulge  forward,  and  may 
cause  one  of  the  bricks  of  a  straight  arch  to  drop  down  lower 
than  the  soffit. 

In  setting  arches  the  mason  should  be  sure  that  the  centres  are 
set  level  and  plumb,  that  the  arch-brick  or  -stone  may  rest  upon 
them  square  When  the  brick  or  stone  are  properly  cut  before- 
hand the  courses  can  be  gauged  upon  the  centre  from  the  key 
downwards.  The  soffit,  of  each  course  should  fit  the  centre  per- 
fectly. 


MASONRY. — CENTRING   FOR   ARCHES.  277 

The  mortar-joints  should  be  as  thiii  as  possible  and  well  flushed 
up.- 

In  setting  the  face-stones  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  radius-line, 
and  draw  it  up  and  test  the  setting  of  each  stone  as  it  is  laid. 

The  framing,  setting  up,  and  striking  of  the  centres  are  very 
important  parts  of  the  construction  of  any  arch,  particularly  one 
of  long  span.  A  change  in  the  shape  of  the  centre,  due  to  insuf- 
ficient strength  or  improper  bracing,  will  be  followed  by  a  change 
in  the  curve  of  the  intrados,  and  consequently  of  the  line  of  nsist- 
ance,  which  may  endanger  the  safety  of  the  arch  itself. 


Centring  for  Arches. 

No  arch  become ;  self-supporting  until  keyed  up,  that  is,  until 
the  crown-  or  keystone-course  is  laid.  Until  that  time  the  arch- 
ring,  which  should  be  built  up  simultaneously  from  both  abut- 
ments, has  to  be  supported  by  frames  called  centres.  These  con- 
sist of  a  series  of  ribs  placed  from  3  to  6  or  more  feet  apart, 
supported  from  below.  The  upper  surface  of  these  ribs  is  cut 
to  the  form  of  the  arch,  and  over  these  a  series  of  planks  called 
laggings  are  placed,  upon  which  the  arch-stones  directly  rest. 
The  ribs  may  be  of  timber  or  iron.  They  should  be  strong  and 
stiff.  Any  deformation  that  occurs  in  the  rib  will  distort  the 
arch,  and  may  even  result  in  its  collapse. 

STRIKING  THE  CENTRE. — The  ends  of  the  ribs  or  centre-frames 
usually  rest  upon  a  timber  lying  parallel  to,  and  near,  the  spring- 
ing line  of  the  arch.  This  timber  is  supported  by  wedges,  pref- 
erably of  hardwood,  resting  upon  a  second  stick,  which  is  in  turn 
supported  by  wooden  posts,  usually  one  under  each  end  of  each 
rib.  The  wedges  between  the  two  timbers,  as  above,  are  used  in 
removing  the  centre  after  the  arch  is  completed,  and  are  known 
as  striking -wedges.  They  consist  of  a  pair  of  folding  wedges,  1  to 
2  feet  long,  6  inches  wide,  and  having  a  slope  of  from  1  to  5  to  1 
to  10,  placed  under  each  end  of  each  rib.  It  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the  centres  slowly,  particularly  for  large  arches;  and  hence 
the  striking-wedges  should  have  a  very  slight  taper,  the  larger  the 
span  the  smaller  the  taper. 

The  centre  is  lowered  by  driving  back  the  wedges.  To  lower 
the  centre  uniformly  the  wedges  must  be  driven  back  uniformly. 
This  is  most  easily  accomplished  by  making  a  mark  on  the  side  of 


278  MASONRY. — CENTRING   FOR  ARCHES. 

each  pair  of  wedges  before  commencing  to  drive,  and  then  moving 
each  the  same  amount. 

The  inclined  surfaces  of  the  wedges  should  be  lubricated  when 
the  centre  is  set  up,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  striking. 

Screws  may  be  used  instead  of  wedges  for  lowering  centres. 

Sand  is  also  employed  for  the  same  purpose.  The  method 
followed  is  to  support  the  centre-frames  by  wooden  pistons  or 
plungers  resting  on  sand  confined  in  plate-iron  cylinders.  Near 
the  bottom  of  each  cylinder  there  is  a  plug  which  can  be  with- 
drawn and  replaced  at  pleasure,  thus  regulating  the  outflow  of 
the  sand  and  the  descent  of  the  centre. 

There  is  great  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper  time  for 
striking  centres.  Some  hold  that  the  centre  should  be  struck  as 
so  >n  as  the  arch  is  completed  and  the  spandrel-filling  is  in  place  ; 
while  others  contend  that  the  mortar  should  be  given  time  to 
harden.  It  is  probably  best  to  slacken  the  centres  as  soon  as  the 
keystone-course  is  in  place,  so  as  to  bring  all  the  joints  under- 
pressure. The  length  of  time  which  should  elapse  before  the  cen- 
tres are  finally  removed  should  vary  with  the  kind  of  mortar  em- 
ployed and  also  with  its  amount.  In  brick  and  rubble  arches 
a  large  proportion  of  the  arch-ring  consists  of  mortar,  and  if  the 
centre  is  removed  too  soon  the  compression  of  this  mortar  might 
cause  a  serious  or  even  dangerous  deformation  of  the  arch.  Hence 
the  centres  of  such  arches  should  remain  until  the  mortar  has  not 
only  set,  but  has  attained  a  considerable  part  of  its  ultimate 
strength. 

Frequently  the  centres  of  bridge-arches  are  not  removed  for 
three  or  four  mouths  after  the  arch  is  completed,  but  usually  the 
centres  for  the  arches  of  tunnels,  sewers,  and  culverts  are  removed 
as  soon  as  the  arch  is  turned  and,  suy,  half  of  the  spandrel -filling 
is  in  place. 


CA11PENTHY. —  INSPECTION    OF   CAItPENTllY.        279 


IV.    CARPENTRY. 
Inspection  of  Carpentry. 

The  inspection  of  carpentry  requires  the  examination  (1)  of 
the  material  as  to  quality  and  dimensions  ;  (2)  of  the  workman- 
ship in  framing  and  placing  it. 

In  the  interior  work  of  buildings  there  are  many  points  to  be 
watched,  as  the  placing  of  centres  for  arches,  the  setting  of  lintels, 
wood  bricks,  f urrings,  grounds,  etc.,  the  framing  and  trimming 
around  chimneys  and  openings  in  floors  and  roofs,  the  laying 
and  nailing  of  flooring,  the  jointing  and  setting  of  the  standing 
trim,  etc. 

The  setting  of  window  and  door-frames  requires  precision  on 
the  part  of  the  workman  to  make  them  plumb  and  securely 
fasten  them,  and  the  stuff  used  must  be  perfectly  seasoned  or  the 
best  workmanship  will  be  thrown  away. 

The  hanging  of  doors  requires  considerable  care  so  that  they  may 
move  freely  without  causing  any  injurious  strains  in  the  hinges. 
Door-locks  and  -knobs  require  to  be  carefully  fixed  so  they  may 
work  satisfactorily.  The  striking-plate  is  liable  to  be  carelessly 
placed,  being  set  either  too  high  or  too  low  or  too  far  in  the  re- 
bate, so  that  either  the  latch  or  the  bolt  will  not  enter  the  mortise 
intended  for  it.  The  "roses"  or  round  plates  screwed  on  op- 
posite sides  of  the  door,  in  which  the  stems  of  the  knobs  move, 
are  rarely  placed  opposite  to  each  other,  so  that  the  spindle,  in- 
stead of  being  perpendicular  to  the  door,  is  forced  in  an  oblique 
direction,  causing  the  knobs  to  bind  and  stick  in  turning.  The 
knobs  are  frequently  put  on  without  the  proper  number  of  the 
thin  washers  which  slip  over  the  spindle  for  the  purpose  of  filling 
out  the  space  between  the  lock  and  the  knobs  on  each  side,  and 
the  latter  are  loose  in  consequence. 

The  setting  of  window-sashes  requires  care  ;  nothing  short  of  an 
actual  trial  of  each  sash  of  every  window  will  serve  to  insure  that 
all  are  as  they  shouM  be. 


280  CARPENTRY.— JOINTS. 


Joints. 

In  executing  all  kinds  of  joints  in  timber  the  following  gen- 
eral principles  are  to  be  adhered  to  as  closely  as  may  be  practi- 
cable : 

1.  To  cut  the  joints  and  arrange  the  fastenings  so  as  to  weaken 
the  pieces  of  timber  that  they  connect  as  little  as  possible. 

2.  To  place  each  abutting  surface  in  a  joint  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble perpendicular  to  the  pressure  it  has  to  transmit. 

3;  To  form  and  fit  accurately  every  pair  of  surfaces  that  come 
in  contact. 

Beams  are  joined  in  the  direction  of  their  length  by  the  opera- 
tion called  splicing,  and  the  joints  so  formed  are  described  as 
"  lapping,"  "  fishing,"  and  "  scarfing." 

FISHING. — The  ends  of  the  pieces  are  butted  together,  and  an 
iron  or  wooden  plate  or  "fish-piece"  is  placed  on  each  side 
and  fastened  by  bolts  passing  through  the  beam. 

The  bolts  should  be  placed  checker-wise,  so  that  the  fish-plates 
and  timbers  are  not  cut  through  by  more  than  one  bolt-hole  at 
any  cross-section. 

LAPPING  is  performed  in  a  variety  of  ways,  either  by  simply 
laying  one  beam  over  the  other  for  a  certain  length  aud  fastening 
them  together  with  bolts  or  straps,  or  by  halving  and  dovetailing 
the  lapped  portions. 

SCARFING  consists  in  cutting  away  equally  from  the  ends,  but 
on  the  opposite  sides,  of  two  pieces  of  timber  for  the  purpose  of 
connecting  them  lengthwise.  The  form  given  to  the  scarf  is 
varied  to  suit  the  nature  of  the  strain  it  has  to  bear. 

Much  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in  devising  scarfs  of  very 
intricate  form,  but  the  simplest  are  the  best,  as  they  are  the 
easiest  to  fit  accurately  together. 

HALVING  is  the  simplest  mode  of  jo:ning  timbers  either  length- 
wise or  crosswise.  Half  the  thickness  of  each  piece  is  cut  out 
and  the  remaining  portion  of  one  just  fits  into  the  other,  the 
upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the  pieces  being  flush.  This  is  a 
common  way  of  joining  wall-plates  and  other  timbers  at  an  angle 
where  there  is  no  room  to  let  the  ends  project  so  as  to  cross  one 
another. 

Bevelled  halving  :  in  this  form  the  sides  of  the  checks  are  splayed 
up  and  down. 

Dovetail  halving,  so  called  from  the  shape  of  tlie  pieces  cut  to 


CARPENTRY.— JOINTS.  281 

fit  one  another.  They  are  objectionable  in  heavy  limbers,  be- 
cause the  wood  shrinks  considerably  more  across  the  grain  than 
along  it  ;  the  consequence  is  that  they  are  easily  drawn  apart. 

NOTCHING.— When  one  beam  rests  upon  another  or  crosses  it 
the  upp  ;•  one  is  notched  down  upon  the  lower  one,  either  to 
bring  its  surface  to  a  given  level  or  to  aid  in  keeping  it  in  place. 
When  the  entire  depth  is  cut  from  one  beam  it  is  termed  "  single 
notching."  When  each  timber  is  cut  it  is  called  "  double 
notching." 

MORTISE  AND  TENON. — The  mortise  is  a  rectangular  hole  cut 
to  receive  the  tenon;  the  sides  of  the  mortise  are  called  "  cheeks." 
The  tenon  is  formed  by  dividing  the  end  of  the  stick  of  timber 
into  three  parts,  and  cutting  out  on  both  sides  rectangular  pieces 
each  equal  to  the  part  left  in  the  middle. 

The  tenon  is  usually  made  a  little  shorter  than  the  depth  of 
the  mortise,  so  that  the  shoulders  may  bear  firmly  upon  the  tim- 
ber in  which  the  mortise  is  cut.  The  tenon  is  fastened  in  the 
mortise  by  a  wooden  pin.  The  pin- hole  is  usually  placed  at  \ 
the  length  of  the  tenon  from  the  shoulder,  and  is  in  diameter 
equal  to  £  the  thickness  of  the  tenon. 

The  hole  in  the  tenon  is  made  slightly  larger  (in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  tenon),  so  that  the  pin  when  driven  shall 
draw  the  tenon  tightly  into  the  mortise  and  cause  the  shoulders 
to  butt  close  and  make  neat  work.  Care  is  required  in  driving 
the  pin  so  that  it  will  not  draw  too  much  and  thus  tear  out  the 
bit  of  the  tenon  beyond  the  pin. 

Double  tenons  are  often  used,  but  they  should  be  avoided,  as 
they  weaken  the  timber  into  which  they  are  framed,  and  both 
tenons  seldom  bear  equally,  so  that  a  greater  strain  is  thrown 
upon  one  of  them  than  it  is  intended  to  support, 

ABUTTING  JOINT  :  A  joint  in  which  the  fibres  of  one  piece 
are  perpendicular  to  those  of  the  other. 

BUTT-JOINT  :  A  joint  in  which  the  pieces  come  square  against 
each  other  endwise. 

MITRE  :  A  joint  where  two  pieces  are  framed  together, 
matched,  and  united  upon  a  line  bisecting  the  angle  of  junction. 


282  CARPENTRY.— FLOORING. 


Flooring-. 

Single  flooring  consists  of  a  tier  of  joists  running  from  one  wall 
or  partition  to  another  without  any  intermediate  support,  and 
receiving  the  floor-boards  on  the  upper  edge,  and  the  ceiling 
joists,  if  there  be  one,  on  the  lower  edge. 

Double  flooring  consists  of  girders,  sometimes  called  "binders, 
which  support  the  floor- joists  on  their  upper  surface  and  the  ceil 
ing-joists  on  their  lower  surface,  or  in  some  cases  they  are  left 
exposed  to  view  and  the  ceiling-laths  nailed  directly  to  the  floor 
joists. 

Hardwood  floors  are  laid  either  straight-joint  or  folding,  and 
are  "edge-''  or"  secret-nailed."  In  the  folding  method  two 
boards  are  laid  and  nailed  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  the  space 
is  a  little  less  than  the  aggregate  width  of  3,  4,  or  5  boards 
These  boards  are  then  put  in  their  place,  and  on  account  of  the 
narrowness  of  the  space  left  for  them  they  rise  like  an  arch  and 
require  to  be  forced  down  into  place.  Accordingly  the  boards 
do  not  rest  solidly  upon  the  boards  below,  nor  can  the  floor  be 
laid  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  This  method  should  be 
avoided  in  good  work. 

Straight-joint  flooring  is  when  every  board  is  laid  separately 
and  blind  or  edge  nailed  ;  any  surface  inequalities  are  reduced 
with  the  plane  after  the  flooring  is  laid. 

It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  rough  flooring  should  be  of 
narrow  boards  (about  4  inches  wide) ;  if  wide  boards  are  used 
each  one  of  them  in  shrinking  will  gather  up,  so  to  speak,  a 
cluster  of  the  narrow  hardwood  pieces  above  it  and  draw  them 
tightly  together,  and  will  transfer  its  shrinkage  to  the  joints 
immediately  over  it,  so  that  in  a  short  time  there  will  be  a  con- 
siderable space  between  the  two  floors,  and  the  strain  thrown  on 
the  thin  edge  of  the  grooves  will  cause  them  to  curl  up  or  split. 

It  is  usual  before  laying  the  finished  flooring  to  spread  upon 
the  surface  of  the  rough  floor  one,  two,  or  three  layers  of  felt 
paper  to  prevent  air  from  passing  through  the  joints  and  to 
deaden  sound.  Many  and  various  qualities  are  manufactured, 
and  care  is  required  to  see  that  the  quality  called  for  is  furnished 
and  thaf  it  is  carefully  and  evenly  laid. 


CARPENTRY. — FLOORING.  283 


PARTS  OF  FLOORS 

BAY  :  The  portion  of  a  framed  floor  included  between  two 
girders,  or  a  girder  and  a  wall. 

A  case-bay  is  the  space  between  two  girders. 

A  tail  bay  is  formed  of  common  joists,  where  one  end  of  each 
is  framed  into  or  supported  by  a  header  or  girder. 

BINDING-JOIST  A  joist  whose  ends  rest  upon  the  wall-plate 
and  which  supports  the  floor- joists  above  and  the  ceiling- joists 
below. 

BRIDGING.— By  "  bridging"  is  meant  a  system  of  bracing  floor- 
beams  either  by  means  of  small  struts  set  diagonally  or  by  means 
of  single  boards  set  at  right  angles  to  the  joists  and  fitting  be- 
tween them. 

The  ends  of  the  bridging  should  be  cut  with  exactly  the  same 
angle  or  bevel,  so  as  to  fit  closely  against  the  joist  ;  they  should 
range  in  a  straight  line;  so  that  none  of  their  stiffening  effect  be 
lost. 

They  should  be  fastened  with  two  nails  at  each  end,  and  care 
must  be  taken  in  nailing  not  to  split  them.  To  avoid  this  holes 
may  be  bored  for  the  nails,  or  two  small  saw-cuts  may  be  made 
to  receive  them. 

Single  bridging,  consisting  of  a  single  strut  between  the  joists, 
is  frequently  used  Double  bridging,  consisting  of  two  struts 
crossing  each  other,  is  the  stiffer,  and  should  always  be  em- 
ployed, 

FLOOR-BEAMS. 

JOISTS.— The  horizontal  beams  supporting  floors  and  ceilings, 
Joists  are  usually  spaced  12  inches  centre  to  centre,  and  the  ends 
rest  upon  wall-plates  set  in  the  walls. 

Beveiltng  Ends  of  Joists.  — "  The  ends  of  all  wooden  floor-  and 
roof-beams,  where  they  rest  on  brick  walls,  shall  be  cut  to  a 
bevel  of  three  inches  on  their  depth."  (N.  Y.  B.  L  ,  1896.) 

Dimensions  of  Floor -beams. —  "No  wooden  floor  beams  nor 
wooden  roof  beams  used  in  any  building,  other  than  a  frame 
building,  shall  be  of  less  thickness  than  3  inches/'  (N.  Y.  B, 
L.,  1896.) 

Bearing  of  Beams, — "  Every  wooden  beam,  except  header-  and 
tail-beams,  shall  rest  at  one  end  4  inches  in  the  wall  or  upon  a 
girder."  (N.  Y.  B.  L.,  1896  ) 

A**chorage  of  Beams. —  "  Each  tier  of  beams  shall  be  anchored 


284  C  A  RPEKTRY.— FLOORING. 

to  the  side,  front,  rear,  or  party  walls,  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
six  feet  apart,  with  good  strong  Drought-iron  anchors  of  not  less 
than  one  and  one-half  inches  by  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in  size, 
well  fastened  to  the  side  of  the  beams  by  two  or  more  nails  of 
wrought  iron  at  least  one  fourth  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  where 
the  beams  are  supported  by  girders,  the  girders  shall  be  an- 
chored to  the  walls  and  fastened  to  each  other  by  suitable  iron 
straps. 

"  The  ends  of  beams  resting  upon  girders  shall  be  butted  to- 
gether end  to  end,  and  strapped  by  wrought-iron  straps  of  the 
same  size  and  distance  apart,  and  in  the  same  beam  as  the  wall- 
anchors,  and  sh-ill  be  fastened  in  the  same  manner  as  said  wall- 
anchors,  or  they  may  lap  each  other  at  least  twelve  inches  and  be 
well  spiked  or  bolted  together  where  lapped. 

"  Every  pier  and  wall,  front  or  rear,  shall  be  well  anchored  to 
the  beams  of  each  story,  with  the  same  size  anchors  as  are  re- 
quired for  side  walls,  which  anchors  shall  hook  over  the  same 
beam. 

"Each  tier  of  beams,  front  and  rear,  opposite  each  pier  shall 
have  hardwood  or  Georgia  pine  anchor-strips  dovetailed  into  the 
beams  diagonally,  which  strips  shall  cover  at  least  four  beams, 
and  be  one  inch  thick  and  four  inches  wide,  but  no  such  anchor- 
strips  shall  be  let  in  within  four  feet  of  the  centre  line  of  the 
beams,  or  wooden  strips  shall  be  nailed  on  the  top  of  the  beams 
and  kept  in  place  until  the  floors  are  being  laid."  (N,  Y.  B.  L., 
1896.) 

TRIMMING  is  the  mode  of  framing  around  openings  in  floors,  as 
where  a  chimney  or  stairway  passes  through. 

TRIMMER-BEAMS  •  The  trimmer-  or  carriage-beams  are  those 
which  support  the  header-beams.  The  headers  are  mortised  into 
the  trimmer-beams,  or  may  be  supported  by  iron  beam-hangers 
fastened  to  the  trimmer-beams. 

HEADER-BEAMS,  or  headers,  are  those  which  support  the  ends 
of  the  joist  at  one  side  of  an  opening. 

TAIL  BEAMS  :  The  beams  or  joists  supported  at  each  end  by  a 
header-beam. 

RULES  GOVERNING  TRIMMING. — New  York  Building  Laws, 
1896  : 

"  All  wooden  trimmer-  and  header-beams  shall  not  be  less  than 
one  inch  thicker  than  the  floor-  or  roof-beams  on  the  same  tier 
where  the  header  is  four  feet  or  less  in  length  ;  and  where  the 
header  is  more  than  four  feet  and  not  more  than  fifteen  feet  in 


CARPENTRY. — FLOORING.  285 

length  Ibe  trimmer-  and  header- beams  shall  be  at  least  double  the 
thickness  of  the  floor-  or  roof-beams,  or  shall  each  be  made  of 
two  beams  forming  such  thickness  properly  spiked  or  bolted  to- 
gether, and  where  the  header  is  more  than  fifteen  fee  in  length 
wrought-iron  flitch-plates  of  proper  thickness  aud  depth  shall  be 
placed  between  two  wooden  beams  similarly  bolted  together  to 
and  through  the  iron  plates,  or  wrought-irou  or  rolled-steel  beams 
of  sufficient  length  may  be  used. 

"  Every  wooden  header  or  trimmer  more  than  four  feet  long 
shall  be  hung  in  stirrup-irons  of  suitable  thickness  for  the  size 
of  the  timbers. 

"All  wooden  beams  shall  be  trimmed  away  from  all  flues, 
whether  the  same  be  a  smoke-,  air-,  or  any  other  flue.  The  trim- 
mer-beam to  be  8  inches  from  the  inside  face  of  a  flue  in  a  straight 
way,  and  4  inches  from  the  outsi  le  of  a  chimney-breast,  and  the 
header  2  inches  from  the  outside  face  of  the  flue." 

STRENGTH  OP  WOODEN  BEAMS  AND  GIUDEUS. — New  York 
Building  Laws,  1892-96  : 

"  The  breaking  strength  of  wooden  girders  and  beams  shall  be 
computed  according  to  the  formulae  in  which  the  constants  for 
transverse  strains  for  central  loads  shall  be  as  follows  : 

Hemlock 400 

White  pine 450 

Spruce 450 

Pitch  or  Georgia  pine , 550 

Oak,  American 550 

For  wooden  beams  and  girders  carrying  a  uniformly  distrib- 
uted load  the  constants  will  be  doubled. 

The  factors  of  safety  shall  be  as  1  to  4  for  all  beams,  girders 
and  other  pieces  subject  to  a  transverse  strain." 


286  CARPENTRY. — ROOFS. 


Roofs. 

The  framing  of  roofs  is  determined  by  the  drawings,  but  the 
material  and  workmanship  require  to  be  closely  scrutinized  to  see 
that  the  framing  is  properly  executed,  that  the  various  bolts, 
straps,  and  other  fastenings  are  properly  placed.  The  roof- 
boarding  is  to  be  inspected  for  quality;  it  should  be  planed 
smooth  on  one  side,  with  smooth  straight  edges,  aiid  be  free  from 
loose  knots. 

PARTS  OF  ROOFS. 

ANGLE  RAFTER  :  A  rafter  at  the  hip  of  a  roof  receiving  the 
heads  of  the  jack-rafters  or  cripple-studding. 

ARRIS-GUTTER:  A  V  gutter  fixed  to  the  dripping-eaves  of  a 
roof. 

BARGE-BOARD  :  A  board  beneath  the  gable  holding  the  hori- 
zontal timbers.  It  is  perforated,  scalloped,  or  crenated  to  give  it 
a  light  and  ornamental  appearance. 

COLLAR-BEAM  :  A  horizontal  piece  of  timber  connecting  and 
bracing  two  opposite  rafters. 

DRAGON-BEAM  :  A  piece  of  timber  to  receive  and  support  the 
foot  of  the  hip-rafter. 

HAMMER-BEAM  :  A  tie-beam  connecting  the  feet  of  a  pair 
of  principal  rafters,  but  having  its  middle  portion  removed,  the 
ends  of  the  gap  being  stayed  by  ribs  springing  from  corbels 
below. 

EAVES  are  the  lower  edges  of  the  slopes  of  a  roof. 

FACIA-BOARD  :  A  board  fixed  to  the  ends  of  the  rafters  and  to 
which  the  gutter  is  attached. 

JACK-RAFTER  .  One  of  the  short  rafters  used  in  a  hip-roof. 

KING-POST  :  A  main  post  beneath  the  crown  or  ridge  of  a  roof- 
frame. 

PURLIN  :  A  horizontal  timber  resting  on  a  principal  rafter. 

QUEEN-POST  :  The  post  in  a  roof-truss  placed  between  the 
ridge  and  the  eaves. 

RAFTER  ;  One  of  the  pieces  of  timber  which  follow  the  slope 
of  a  roof,  and  to  which  are  attached  the  laths,  boards,  etc., 
which  support  the  roof-covering. 

RIDGE  :  The  upper  horizontal  edge  or  comb  of  a  roof. 

RIDGE-BEAM  :  A  beam  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  rafters  beneath 
the  ridge. 


CARPENTRY. — STAIRS.  287 

STRUTS  —  The  posts  or  braces  which  run  from  the  foot  of  the 
king-post  to  the  centre  of  the  rafters.  Struts,  being  under  com- 
pression, should  be  made  of  full  length  and  of  well-seasoned 
wood  ;  otherwise  upon  shrinking  they  will  allow  the  rafters  to 
bend. 

STRAINING-BEAM  :  A  beam  used  in  a  queen-post  roof  to  keep 
the  heads  of  the  queen- posts  apart. 

TIE  BEAM  :  The  beam  uniting  the  ends  of  a  pair  of  principal 
rafters  to  prevent  spreading. 

TRIMMING  :  Wherever  rafters  come  across  any  obstacle,  such 
as  a  chimney,  they  must  be  trimmed  in  the  same  way  as  a  floor. 

WALL-PLATES  are  the  timber  laid  on  the  tops  of  walls  to  carry 
the  foot  of  roof-trusses,  rafters,  or  ends  of  tie-beams.  They  are 
usually  fastened  to  the  wall  by  iron  anchor-bolts. 

At  the  angles  of  the  walls  the  plates  are  halved  or  notched 
into  one  another,  and  well  spiked  together,  and  halved  or  scarfed 
wherever  it  is  necessary  to  join  them  in  the  direction  of  their 
length  ;  they  should  be  in  long  pieces,  so  as  to  avoid  this  as  much 
as  possible. 

Anchor-bolts  should  be  built  at  every  angle  and  at  intervals 
of  about  ten  feet.  The  bolts  should  be  not  less  than  one  inch  in 
diameter  and  three  to  four  feet  in  length,  with  a  square  plate  of 
iron  at  the  lower  end  ;  they  should  be  built  in  vertically  and  so 
set  that  the  threaded  end  may  project  at  least  an  inch  above  the 
top  of  the  wall-plate.  In  setting  this  holes  are  bored  for  the 
bolts,  and  nuts  with  large  washers  are  put  in  and  screwed  down 
firmly. 

Stairs. 

The  workmanship  on  stairs  must  be  closely  examined  to  insure 
that  the  treads  and  risers  are  properly  framed  and  secured,  that 
the  risers  are  of  proper  height,  and  that  the  carriages  or  strings 
are  properly  set.  Stairs  of  varying  height  or  out  of  level  are  both 
dangerous  and  unsightly.  The  wall-string  must  be  carefully 
examined  to  see  that  it  is  securely  fastened  to  the  wall. 

The  securing  of  the  handrail  must  be  carefully  looked  after. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  mortising  or  dovetailing  of  the 
balusters  is  dispensed  with,  nails  driven  through  the  tread 
being  substituted  ;  this  is  a  weak  construction  and  should  not  be 
permitted.  The  securing  of  the  end  of  a  handrail  which  abuts 
against  a  wall  is  liable  to  be  made  in  a  shiftless  manner  unless 
specific  directions  are  given  for  its  proper  securing. 


288  CARPENTRY.— STAIRS. 

The  risers  are  united  to  the  treads  by  joints,  which  may  be 
tongued  and  grooved  or  rebated  ;  in  either  case  the  joint  is  glued 
and  blocked.  The  riser  often  has  only  its  upper  end  tongued, 
the  lower  butting  upon  the  tread  below.  This  is  not  good  con- 
struction. A  common  practice  is  to  house  the  lower  edge  of  the 
riser  into  the  tread  below.  The  tread  is  sometimes  tongued  into 
the  riser,  but  this  is  not  good  construction. 

The  joints  between  the  tread  and  riser  should  be  strengthened 
by  small  triangular  or  square  bl  -cks  glued  in  the  angle.  The 
inner  ends  of  the  treads  where  they  rest  upon  the  strings  and  also 
where  they  rest  upon  carriages  should  be  supported  by  rough 
blocks  or  pieces  of  boards  nailed  to  the  strings  and  carriages.  In 
some  cases  a  board  is  notched  out  like  a  string  and  nailed 
along  the  side  of  the  strings  and  carriages  to  answer  for  the  rough 
blocks. 

In  some  cases  the  upper  edge  of  the  risers  is  housed  or  dove- 
tailed into  the  treads,  and  the  back  of  the  treads  screwed  up  to 
the  lower  edge  of  the  risers. 

PAKTS  OF  STAIRS. 

BALUSTER  :  Small  pillar  supporting  a  rail,  as  in  a  handrail. 

BALUSTRADE  :  A  railing  composed  of  balusters. 

CARRIAGE  OR  STRING  ;  One  of  the  inclined  pieces  which  sup- 
ports the  steps  of  stairs. 

FLIGHT  is  a  continued  series  of  steps  without  a  landing. 

HANDRAIL  :  The  moulded  rail  parallel  nearly  throughout  its 
length  to  the  general  inclination  of  the  stairs. 

LANDING  is  the  flat  resting-place  at  the  top  of  any  flight  of 
stairs. 

NEWEL  •  The  principal  post  at  the  angles  and  foot  of  a  stairs. 

NOSING  :  The  outer  edge  of  the  tread.  In  most  cases  it  pro- 
jects beyond  the  face  of  the  riser  and  is  rounded  or  ornamented 
by  a  moulding. 

RISE  :  The  vertical  height  between  two  treads. 

RISER  is  the  face  or  vertical  portion  of  the  step. 

STRINGS. — The  inclined  pieces  which  support  the  steps  of 
stairs.  There  are  two  classes — open  strings,  which  are  cut  to 
show  the  outline  of  the  steps  ;  close  strings  have  their  upper  and 
lower  surfaces  parallel,  the  steps  being  housed  into  them.  The 
wall  string  is  the  string  placed  against  the  wall  and  fastened  to 
it.  The  outer  string  is  the  one  farthest  from  the  wall.  In  wide 
stairs  which  require  more  support  than  is  afforded  by  the  strings 


CARPENTRY. — DOORS.  289 

one  or  more  rough  strings  called  carriages  are  placed  between  the 
wall-striug  and  the  outer  string. 

TREAD  :  The  horizontal  upper  surface  of  a  step. 

WINDER  :  The  triangular  or  tapering  steps  required  in  turning 
a  corner  or  going  round  a  curve. 

Doors. 

HARDWOOD  DOORS  are  usually  veneered  upon  a  core  of  well- 
seasoned  pine  to  prevent  warping.  It  is  necessary  to  examine 
them  upon  delivery  to  see  that  the  veneers  are  of  the  proper 
thickness  and  that  the  framing  is  properly  executed. 

PINE  AND  WHITE-WOOD  DOORS  intended  for  oil  finish  must  be 
free  from  sap,  knots,  stain,  pitch-streaks,  and  gum-spots,  and 
finished  with  the  grain. 

PARTS  OF  DOORS. 

PANELLED  DOORS  consist  of  a  framework  of  narrow  pieces 
of  equal  thickness  put  together  with  mortise-and-teuon- joints  and 
grooved  on  the  inside  to  receive  the  panels.  The  parts  of  doors 
are  designated  as  follows  : 

STILES  :  The  vertical  rails  or  bars. 

HANGING-STILE  :  The  stile  to  which  the  hinges  are  attached. 

SHUTTING-STILE  :  The  stile  on  which  the  lock  is  placed. 

RAILS  -.  The  horizontal  bars  of  the  framing,  designated  as  the 
top-rail,  frieze-rail,  middle  or  lock  rail,  and  bottom  rail. 

Panelled  doors  are  distinguished  by  different  technical  names 
expressing  their  thickness,  the  number  of  panels  they  contain,  and 
the  kind  of  panelling. 

PANELLING.— There  are  several  forms  of  panels,  known  by 
technical  names  depending  upon  the  manner  in  which  they  are 
respectively  constructed  and  ornamented. 

Flush  Panels  have  their  surfaces  "flush"  or  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  surface  of  the  frame.  A  panel  may  be  flush  on 
one  or  both  sides. 

Square  and  Flat  Panels  are  those  in  which  the  boards  are 
of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  thinner  than  the  frame,  sunk 
square  below  its  surface,  and  not  ornamented  by  beads  or 
mouldings. 

Moulded  Square  and  Flat :  When  the  edge  of  the  panel, 
close  to  the  framing,  is  ornamented  by  a  moulding  either 
"  planted  "  or  "stuck"  on  the  inner  edge  of  the  frame. 


290        CARPENTRY. — STANDING    FINISH   OR  TRIM. 

Bead-flush  panels  have  a  bead  nil  round  close  to  the  inner 
edge  of  the  framing. 

Bead  and  Butt  :  Framing  in  which  the  panels  are  flush 
and  have  beads  stuck  upon  the  two  edges. 

Bead  and  Quirk :  A.  bead  stuck  on  the  edge  of  a  piece  of 
stuff  flush  with  its  surface. 

Bead,  Butt,  and  Square  :  Framing  with  bead  and  butt  oil 
one  side  and  square  on  the  other. 

Solid  Panels  are  those  in  which  the  panel  is  in  one  piece  of 
the  same  thickness  as  the  frame,  and  flush  on  both  sides  with  its 
surface. 

Chamfered  Panel:  The  edges  of  the  framing  are  cham- 
fered. 

Raised  Panel  has  the  surface  nearly  flush  with  the  frame  in 
the  centre,  but  recessed  back  at  the  sides  where  it  meets  the 
frame. 

Panelling  is  often  enriched  with  mouldings  of  different  de- 
signs ;  these  are  either  "  stuck"  on  the  frame  or  "  planted"  in 
strips  bradded  on  its  inner  side.  Sometimes  the  panelling  is  re- 
quired to  have  a  different  appearance  on  each  side.  It  is  then 
formed  differently  on  the  two  sides  and  named  accordingly. 


Standing  Finish  or  Trim. 

ARCHITRAVES  are  mouldings  fixed  round  the  openings  of  doors 
and  windows  for  ornament  and  also  to  conceal  the  joint  between 
the  frame  and  the  plastering.  The  architrave  should  be  of  well- 
seasoned  wood,  should  be  blind-nailed,  and  should  not  be  fixed  in 
place  until  the  plastering  is  completed  and  quite  dry. 

BASE-BOARD,  SKIRTINGS. — A  board  from  6  to  18  inches  in  width 
placed  round  the  base  of  the  wall  of  a  room,  etc.  The  base-board 
may  be  plain  or  ornamented. 

The  base-boards  should  be  tongued  or  dovetailed  and  mitred  at 
the  internal  angles.  They  should  be  tongued  wherever  they  are 
pieced  in  length.  They  should  be  so  fastened  to  the  wall  as  to 
allow  for  contraction  and  expansion  without  splitting. 

The  plastering  behind  the  base-board  should  be  carried  down 
tight  to  the  floor  and  no  space  left  between  the  board  and  the 
wall. 

The  base-board  should  be  put  in  place  before  the  finished  floor- 
ing is  laid  ;  in  this  way  the  base-board  will  extend  below  its  sur- 


CARPENTRY. — STANDING   FINISH   OR  TRIM.         291 

f:\ce  and  thus  can  shrink  without  opening  a  crack  between  it  and 
the  floor. 

LININGS  are  coverings  of  wood,  usually  some  hard  wood,  so 
placed  as  to  conceal  or  ornament  portions  of  the  interior  of  build- 
ings. There  are  several  varieties  of  linings,  distinguished  by 
technicnl  names  denoting  the  position  in  which  they  are  fixed,  as 
jamb-  and  soffit-linings  to  doors  and  windows. 

All  linings  should  be  of  narrow  boards,  ploughed,  tongued,  and 
grooved  or  rebated,  so  framed  and  nailed  as  to  be  free  to  expand 
and  contract.  Joints  require  careful  attention  in  making,  so  that 
any  shrinkage  that  may  take  place  will  not  be  visible. 

MOULDINGS  are  of  various  designs  and  are  used  merely  for 
ornament. 

When  a  moulding  is  formed  on  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  timber  in 
the  substance  of  the  wood  itself  it  is  said  to  be  "stuck." 

When  it  is  on  a  separate  slip  of  wood  and  attached  to  the  piece 
it  is  to  ornament  it  is  said  to  be  "laid  in  "  or  "planted." 

In  panelled  work  the  mouldings  are  as  a  rule  in  separate  slips, 
braclded  or  "planted  "on  to  the  inner  edges  of  the  frames,  not 
on  the  panels,  as  the  shrinkage  of  the  latter  would  draw  them 
away  from  the  frame. 

If,  however,  the  moulding  is  "  stuck  "  on  the  frame  the  groove 
for  the  panel  should  be  deeper  than  the  moulding ;  otherwise 
when  the  framing  shrinks  daylight  will  be  seen  through  the  open 
mitred  corners  of  the  moulding. 

Machine-wrought  mouldings  frequently  have  slight  indenta- 
tions on  the  surface  varying  from  a  quarter  to  one  third  of  an 
inch  apart.  These  marks  should  be  removed  by  sand-papering 
or  if  necessary  by  planing  to  prevent  their  showing  after  varnish- 
ing. 

Care  is  required  in  splicing  mouldings  to  see  that  the  adjoin- 
ing pieces  are  properly  matched  and  that  the  joints  do  not  come 
in  prominent  places. 

The  wall-moulding,  i.  e.,  strips  of  moulding  placed  round  the 
outside  of  architraves  and  linings,  must  be  securely  and  neatly 
fastened. 

WAINSCOTING  :  A  wooden  facing  about  3  feet  high  around  the 
walls  of  rooms. 

WAINSCOTING,  FILLING  BEHIND — "When  wood  wainscot- 
ing is  used,  in  any  building  hereafter  erected,  the  surface  of  the 
wall  or  partition  behind  such  wainscoting  shall  be  plastered 
down  to  the  floor-line,  and  any  intervening  space  between  the 


292  CARPENTRY. — WINDOWS. 

said  plastering  aud  wainscot  shall  be  filled  in  solid  with  incom- 
bustible material."    (K  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896.) 

Windows. 

Windows  consist  of  two  parts  :  the  sash  or  sashes  which  hold 
the  glass,  and  the  frame  enclosing  the  sash. 

The  frame  in  which  the  sash  slides  is  either  cased  or  solid. 
The  former  has  boxes  at  each  side  for  the  weights.  The  latter 
consists  of  strips  fastened  to  the  window-jambs. 

A  sash-casing  consists  of  four  pieces  :  the  pulley-piece  and  in- 
side and  outside  and  back  lining.  The  strips  which  form  the  sash- 
slides  are  the  inside  and  outside  beads  and  the  p&Tiiug-bead. 

The  parts  of  a  sash-frame  are  the  head,  sill,  stool,  and  sides  or 
casings. 

Frames  require  to  be  set  plumb  aud  securely  fastened.  If  dur- 
ing the  construction  of  the  mason-work  they  get  out  of  plumb 
they  must  be  taken  out  and  reset.  After  the  frames  are  set 
pieces  of  boards  should  be  nailed  over  the  sills  and  if  necessary 
on  the  sides  to  protect  them  from  injury  during  the  progress  of 
the  work. 

The  material  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  frames  must  be 
thoroughly  seasoned  and  should  be  put  together  with  paint  made 
of  'inseed-oil  and  white  lead. 

The  top  of  the  frame  is  sometimes  covered  with  water-proof 
felt  or  a  flashing  of  tin  so  as  to  prevent  water  from  getting  into 
the  frames. 

SASHES. — The  sashes  are  constructed  like  ordinary  framing. 
The  upright  sides  are  the  stiles,  and  the  transverse  or  horizontal 
ones  which  are  tenoned  into  the  ends  of  the  stiles  are'the  rails,  and 
the  interior  pieces  are  the  bars.  If  the  bars  are  mitred  at  the 
joints  they  require  dowels  in  the  ends  to  act  as  tenons. 

The  upper  posts  of  the  sashes  have  grooves  taken  out  of  their 
sides  about  |  inch  square  and  extending  downwards  about  6 
inches  from  the  top,  with  a  hole  bored  below  it  for  3  or  4  inches, 
which  terminates  in  a  large  hole  sunk  in  the  side  of  the  stile  to  re- 
ceive the  ends  of  the  sash-lines,  which  are  secured  by  a  knot  and 
nailed  ;  these  pass  over  iron  or  brass  pulleys  fixed  in  slots  near  the 
top  of  the  pulley-stiles,  and  are  attached  to  the  weights  which 
counterbalance  the  sashes. 

The  weights  are  of  cast  iron,  either  circular  or  rectangular  in 
section.  In  selecting  them  the  sash  is  weighed  and  two  weights 
are  chosen  which  just  balance  the  sash. 


CARPENTRY. — TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY.   293 

The  weights  are  introduced  through  a  rectangular  hole  formed 
in  the  pulley-stiK  Tliis  hole  is  called  the  pocket  and  is  covered 
by  a  flush  cover,  or  pocket-piece.  The  upper  end  of  this  cover  is 
usually  rebated  and  undercut,  and  the  lower  end  bevelled  to  fit 
snugly  into  the  pulley-stile.  There  are  various  ways  of  making 
the  joint,  but  in  whatever  manner  it  is  made  the  ends  of  the  cover 
should  be  fastened  with  brass  screws. 

Terms  used  in  Carpentry. 

ANGLE-STAFF  :  A  strip  of  wood  fixed  to  the  vertical  angle  of 
a  wall  flush  with  the  plastering  of  the  two  planes.  It  is  designed 
as  a  substitute  for  plaster  in  a  situation  so  much  exposed. 

A  round  staff  is  known  as  an  angle  bead. 

ANGLE-TIE  :  A  brace  in  the  interior  angle  of  a  wooden  frame 
securing  two  side-pieces  together  and  occupying  thereto  the  posi- 
tion of  a  hypotenuse. 

ASHLARING  :  Short  upright  pieces  between  the  floor-beams  and 
rafters  in  garrets  for  nailing  the  laths  to. 

ASTRAGAL  :  (a)  A  small  moulding  of  a  semicircular  section 
with  a  fillet  beneath  it ;  (b)  one  of  the  rabbeted  bars  which  hold 
the  panes  of  glass  in  a  window. 

BARGE-COUPLE  :  A  beam  mortised  into  another  to  strengthen 
the  structure. 

BATTEN. — A  strip  of  wood  from  £  to  2£  inches  thick,  and  from 
1  to  7  inches  wide. 

A  cleat  or  bar  nailed  transversely  on  a  structure  of  jointed 
planks,  such  as  a  door  or  shutter,  to  prevent  warpin.-;  and  to  pre- 
serve the  relative  position  of  the  parts. 

A  strip  nailed  to  the  rafters  to  which  slates,  etc.,  are  nailed. 

A  batten  door  is  formed  of  planks  laid  side  by  side,  and  secured 
together  by  battens  fastened  across  them  without  any  exterior 
framing. 

BEAD  :  A  small  convex  moulding  of  semicircular  section  ;  the 
circular  portion  is  the  bead,  and  the  indentation  on  the  side  is 
called  a  quirk. 

BEAM. — A  straight  stick  of  timber,  usually  occupying  a  rela- 
tively horizontal  position  in  a  structure.  Specific  denominations 
have  been  conferred  upon  beams  in  framed  structures  of  wood, 
as : 

Straining-beam  :  One  used  in  a  truss  or  frame  to  confine  prin- 
cipal parts  in  place. 


294   CARPENTRY. — TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY. 

Truss-beam  :  The  principal  horizontal  timbers  of  a  truss,  called 
the  top  and  bottom  chords,  and  from  which  proceed  the  stays 
aud  braces  which  hold  aud  confer  rigidity  upon  the  frame. 

Arched  Beam  :  A  beam  bent,  cut,  or  built  iuto  an  arched  form. 

Built  Beam :  One  made  up  of  several  parts  scarfed  or  strapped 
together. 

Kerfed  Beam :  A  beam  whose  under  side  has  a  number  of  trans- 
verse kerfs  or  saw-cuts  penetrating  to  a  certain  depth,  so  as  to  en- 
able it  to  be  bent. 

BEARD  :  The  sharp  edge  of  a  board. 

BEAIIER  :  A  beam  employed  to  carry  other  portions,  as  joists 
or  short  pieces  to  support  gutters. 

BEVELLING  :  The  sloping  of  an  arris  ;  removing  the  square 
edge. 

BIRD'S-MOUTH  •  The  notch  at  the  foot  of  a  rafter  where  it  rests 
upon  or  against  the  plate. 

BLOCK. — A  square  or  triangular  piece  of  wood  fitted  in  the  re- 
entering  angle  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  pieces  of  board. 
The  blocks  are  glued  at  the  rear  aud  strengthen  the  joint. 

BOARD. — A  sawed  piece  of  wood,  relatively  broad,  long  and 
thin,  exceeding  4|  inches  in  width  and  less  than  2£  inches  in  thick- 
ness. The  term  plank  is  applied  to  a  grade  thicker  than  boards, 
though  the  two  terms  are  often  used  indiscriminately. 

1.  Clapboard,  a  rived  slab  of  wood. 

2.  Feather-edged,  one  edge  thinner  than  the  other. 

3.  Listed,  the  sap-wood  removed. 

4.  Edge-shot,  the  edge  planed  true. 

5.  Wrought,  planed  on  one  side. 

6.  Matched,  tongued  and  grooved. 

7.  Jointed,  lined  and  edge-planed  so  as  to  come  together  cor- 
rectly. 

BOLSTER  :  A  horizontal  cap-piece  laid  upon  the  top  of  a  post 
or  pillar  to  shorten  the  bearing  of  the  beam  or  string-piece 
above. 

BOX-FRAME  :  A  casing  behind  a  window-jamb  for  counterbal- 
ance-weights. 

BRACE  :  A  diagonal  stay  or  scantling  connecting  the  horizon- 
tal and  vertical  members  of  a  truss  or  frame. 

BREAST-SUMMER  :  A  beam  inserted  flush  with  the  house-front 
which  it  supports,  and  resting  at  its  ends  upon  the  walls  and  at 
intermediate  points  upon  pillars  or  columns. 


CARPENTRY. — TERMS  USED  IK  CARPENTRY.   295 

BRIDGE-BOARD  :  A  notched  board  to  which  the  treads  and 
risers  of  u  stair  are  fastened. 

CAP  :    The  timber  placed  on  the  top  of  piles  or  posts, 

CHAMFER. — A  bevel  or  slope  forward  by  cutting  off  the  square 
edge  of  a  board  or  beam.  Stop-chamfer  is  one  iu  which  the 
chamfer  is  not  carried  to  the  extremity  of  the  timber,  but  stopped 
and  sloped  or  curved  up  at  the  end  till  it  dies  away  again,  into  the 
square  angle. 

CLAPBOARD. — A  term  irregularly  used.     It  means  : 

1.  A  weuther-1  oard  on  the  side  of  a  house,  laid  on  lapping  over 
the  one  below  it. 

2.  A  roofing-board    larger  than  a  shingle,  and   not  usually 
shaved.     A  common  size  is  a  riven  board  48  inches  long  and  8 
inches  broad.     They  are  rived  in  the  direction  of  the  medullary 
rays,  and  the  edge  toward  the  heart  is  the  thinner  of  the  two. 

CLEAT  :  A  strip  of  wood  secured  to  another  to  strengthen  it. 

CORBEL  :   A  bolster  ;  a  wooden  supporting-piece  or  bracket. 

CREST  :   The  ridge  of  a  roof. 

DIAGONALS  :   Boards,  etc.,  nailed  on  diagonally. 

DADO:  A  rectangular  groove  formed  in  a  board  with  a  tool 
called  a  dado-plane  (see  Housing). 

DOVETAIL  :  A  flaring  tenon  adapted  to  fit  into  a  mortise  with 
receding  sides  to  prevent  withdrawal  in  the  direction  of  the  ten- 
sion it  will  be  exposed  to  in  the  structure. 

DOWEL  :  A  pin  used  to  connect  adjacent  pieces,  penetrating  a 
part  of  its  length  into  each  piece  at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
junction. 

DRAW-BORE. — A  hole  so  made  through  a  tenon  and  mortise 
that  the  pin  will  draw  up  the  shoulder  to  the  abutment.  The 
hole  through  the  tenon  is  bored  at  a  distance  from  the  shoulder 
less  than  the  thickness  of  the  cheeks  measured  between  the  hole 
through  the  mortise  and  the  face  of  the  abutment  against  which 
the  shoulder  is  drawn. 

FLATTED  :  Timber  that  is  hewn  or  sawn  on  two  opposite  sides 
only. 

FTJRRINGS  are  strips  of  wood  nailed  to  joists,  rafters,  or  walls 
to  bring  their  surface  to  a  uniform  level  before  placing  the  laths 
for  plastering. 

GAIN  :  A  notch  made  in  the  side  of  a  timber  to  receive 
another. 

HOUSING  consists  in  letting  the  whole  end  of  one  piece  of  tim- 
ber for  a  short  distance  into  another.  The  groove  or  recess 


296   CARPENTRY.— TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY. 

formed  in  one  piece  is  called  the  housing,  and  one  piece  is  said 
to  be  housed  or  dadoed  into  the  other. 

LINTELS  :  Short  beams  over  the  heads  of  doors  and  windows 
for  supporting  the  superincumbent  wall. 

MATCHED  BOARDING  :  Boards  planed  so  as  to  form  a  close 
joint ;  also  applied  to  boards  provided  with  a  tongue  and  groove 
on  opposite  sides. 

PLATE. — A  beam  on  a  wall  or  elsewhere  to  support  other  por- 
tions of  a  structure.  Sill-plates  are  timbers  laid  upon  foundation- 
walls.  Floor-plates  or  interties  are  timbers  which  are  framed 
into  the  studding,  for  the  floor-beams  to  rest  upon.  Wall-plates 
are  the  timbers  placed  on  top  of  the  wall  to  support  the  ends  of 
the  roof. 

PLOUGH  GROOVE  :  A  recess  formed  by  a  tool  called  a  plough 
(see  Dado). 

REBATE  OR  RABBET  :  A  half  groove  along  the  edge  of  a 
board  or  moulding  forming  a  longitudinal  recess. 

SCANTLING  :  Lumber  under  6  inches  square. 

SCARF  :  A  joint  uniting  two  pieces  endwise. 

SEASONED     Dried  lumber. 

SPLICE  :  A  scarf-joint  by  which  timbers  are  united  for  the 
purpose  of  lengthening  them. 

SCRIBING  ;  Cutting  the  edge  of  a  board  to  fit  an  irregular 
surface. 

SPLINE  :  A  strip  of  wood  or  iron  used  instead  of  a  tongue  for 
driving  in  the  grooves  of  planks  (used  in  sheet  piling). 

SECRET-  OR  BLIND-NAILED  :  Nails  driven  so  that  the  heads 
are  concealed,  as  in  flooring  nailed  through  the  tongue. 

SHOT  :  The  edges  of  a  board  are  said  to  be  shot  when  it  is 
planed  perfectly  straight. 

STRINGER  :  A  horizontal  beam. 

STUD  :  The  vertical  piece  in  a  stud  partition. 

STILES  :  The  upright  pieces  of  a  door-  or  shutter- frame. 

SILL. — A  sill  in  framing  is  a  timber  which  is  laid  across  a  tier 
of  beams  in  order  to  receive  the  feet  of  the  partition-studs.  Mud. 
sill,  the  bottom  timber  in  a  trestle- bent. 

TONGUE  :  A  fin  on  the  edge  of  a  board  adapted  to  fit  into  a 
groove  on  an  adjacent  board;  called  a  tongue-aud-groove  joint 

TONGUE,  SPLINE,  OR  FEATHER  :  A  detached  strip  of  wood  or 
iron  used  instead  of  the  tongue  formed  on  the  side  of  a  plank  for 
driving  in  the  grooves  formed  in  the  plank  (used  chiefly  in  sheet- 
piling). 


CARPENTRY.— TERMS  USED  IN  CARPENTRY.   297 

TRANSOM  :  A  horizontal  cross-bar  or  inulliou  separating  a  door 
from  a  window  over  it;  also  applied  to  the  window  formed  over 
a  door. 

UPRIGHT  ;  A  pillar  or  post  in  a  frame  or  structure. 

VENEERED  :  Covered  by  a  thin  sheeting  of  ornamental  wood. 

WASH-BOARDS  •  The  boards  surrounding  a  room  at  the  floor  to 
a  heighth  of  6  to  18  inches  (see  Base- board  and  Skirtings). 

WEATHER- BOARDING  :  An  outer  covering  of  boards,  which  are 
generally  placed  horizontally,  so  that  the  higher  board  overlaps  to 
one  below;  sometimes  they  are  placed  vertically  with  battens  over 
the  joints. 

WOOD  BRICKS  are  pieces  of  wood  of  the  same  thickness  as 
bricks  built  into  the  walls  as  the  work  progresses  for  nailing  the 
casings  of  doors,  windows,  etc.,  to. 


298      ERECTION  OP  IROH   AKD   STEEL  STRUCTURES. 


V.  IRON-  AND  STEEL-WORK. 
Erection  of  Iron  and  Steel  Structures. 

In  erecting  iron  or  steel  structures  care  must  be  exercised  to 
protect  the  material  from  injury  by  falls  or  heavy  shocks. 

In  bringing  the  several  parts  together  for  bolting  or  riveting 
the  use  of  heavy  mauls  for  driving  should  not  be  allowed. 
Wooden  mauls  should  be  used.  Parts  must  not  be  forced  to- 
gether, and  any  failure  of  members  to  come  together  properly 
must  be  noted  and  reported  daily  to  the  engineer  or  architect.  If 
any  difficulty  arises  which  cannot  be  overcome  by  the  ordinary 
appliances  at  hand  it  must  be  reported  to  the  engineer  before  any 
radical  measures  are  used  to  meet  it. 

Special  care  must  be  exercised  to  keep  columns  plumb  and  the 
entire  work  in  line.  Probably  the  worst  practice  in  the  erection 
of  architectural  ironwork  is  the  very  common  use  of  shims  in 
the  joints  between  the  successive  column-sections,  thus  concen- 
trating the  loads  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  cross-section.  The 
columns  are  usually  kept  plumb  in  this  manner,  but  the  practice 
is  extremely  vicious  and  should  not  be  allowed.  If  the  faces  of 
the  ends  of  the  columns  are  properly  planed  or  milled  off,  and 
the  base -plate  set  level,  the  use  of  shims  will  not  be  necessary. 
The  greatest  difficulty  is  in  setting  the  base-plate  in  a  truly  hori- 
zontal plane.  The  ordinary  carpenter's  level  is  not  sufficiently 
delicate;  an  engineer's  level  should  be  used. 

During  wet  weather  the  ironwork  should  be  protected  by 
water-proof  canvas,  tarred  paper,  or  other  material  to  prevent 
water  from  lodging  in  the  concealed  parts  of  the  work. 

COLUMN-BEARINGS,  BED-  AND  CAP-PLATES. —  N.  Y.  Building 
Laws,  1896  : 

"  All  cast-iron,  wrought-iron,  and  steel  columns  shall  have 
their  bearings  faced  smooth,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
column;  and  when  one  column  rests  upon  another  column  they 
shall  be  securely  bolted  together. 

"All  cast-iron,  wrought-iron,  or  rolled-steel  columns  shall  be 
made  true  and  smooth  at  both  ends,  and  shall  rest  on  iron  or  steel 


SETTING  AND   CONNECTING   BEAMS.  299 

bed-plates,  and  have  iron  or  steel  cap-plates,  which  shall  also  be 
made  true. 

"  In  columns  of  rolled  iron  or  steel  the  different  parts  shall  be 
riveted  to  each  other,  and  shall  be  united  by  riveted  connections 
to  the  beams  and  girders  resting  upon  them. 

"  In  cast-iron  columns  each  successive  column  shall  be  bolted 
to  the  one  below  it  by  at  least  three  |-in.  bolts,  and  the  beams  and 
girders  shall  be  bolted  to  the  columns." 

SETTING  BEAMS  PARALLEL. — In  placing  beams  which  are  to 
support  floor  arches,  too  great  care  cannot  be  exercised  to  have 
them  all  parallel,  especially  where  one  or  both  ends  rest  on  brick- 
work. Beams  placed  out  of  parallel  make  it  very  expensive  to 
construct  the  arches,  and  cause  injury  by  the  consequent  defec- 
tive form  and  jointing  of  the  arches.  In  tile  arches  it  causes  cut- 
ting of  tiles,  which  is  injurious,  and  should  not  be  done. 


Setting  and  Connecting-  Beams. 

(N.  Y.  Building  Laws,  1896.) 

LENGTH  OF  BEARING  ON  WALLS. — "  All  wrought-iron  or  rolled- 
steel  beams  8  inches  deep  and  under  shall  have  bearings  equal  to 
their  depth  ;  9  to  12  inch  beams  shall  have  a  bearing  of  10  inches, 
and  all  beams  more  than  12  inches  in  depth  shall  have  bearings 
of  not  less  than  12  inches. 

"  Where  beams  rest  on  iron  supports,  and  are  properly  tied  to 
the  same,  no  greater  bearings  shall  be  required  than  one-third  of 
the  depth  of  the  beam. 

' '  Under  the  ends  of  all  iron  or  steel  beams  where  they  rest  on 
the  walls  a  stone  or  cast-iron  template  shall  be  built  into  the 
walls.  Said  template  shall  be  eight  inches  wide  in  twelve  inch 
walls,  and  in  all  walls  of  greater  thickness  said  template  shall  be 
twelve  inches  wide,  and  such  templates,  if  of  stone,  shall  not  be 
in  any  case  less  than  two  and  one-half  inches  in  thickness,  and 
no  template  shall  be  less  than  twelve  inches  long." 

BEAM  CONNECTIONS. — "All  iron  or  steel  trimmed  beams, 
headers,  and  tail-beams  shall  be  suitably  framed  and  connected 
together. 

"Where  beams  are  framed  into  headers,  the  angle-irons  which 
are  bolted  to  the  tail-beams  shall  have  at  least  two  bolts  for  all 
beams  over  seven  inches  in  depth,  and  three  bolts  for  all  beams 
twelve  inches  and  over  in  deplh,  and  these  bolts  shall  not  be  less 


300  LIKTELS   AND    GIRDERS. 

than  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  Each  one  of  such 
angles  or  knees,  when  bolted  to  girders,  shall  have  the  same 
number  of  bolts  as  stated  for  the  other  leg.  The  angle-iron  in  no 
case  shall  be  less  in  thickness  than  the  header  or  trimmer  to 
which  it  is  bolted,  and  the  width  of  the  angle  in  no  case  shall  be 
less  than  one-third  the  depth  of  the  beam,  excepting  that  no  an- 
gle-knee shall  be  less  than  two  and  one-half  inches  wide,  nor 
require  to  be  more  than  six  inches  wide." 

ARRANGEMENT  AND  DEFLECTION  OF  FLOOR-BEAMS. — New 
York  Building  Laws,  1896:  "  Iron  or  sleel  floor-beams  shall  be 
so  arranged  as  to  the  spacing  and  length  of  beams  that  the  load 
to  be  supported  by  them,  together  with  the  weight  of  the  materials 
used  in  the  construction  of  said  floors,  shall  not  cause  a  deflection 
of  the  said  beams  of  more  than  -^  of  an  inch  per  linear  foot  of 
span,  and  they  shall  be  tied  together  at  intervals  of  not  more  than 
eight  times  the  depth  of  the  beam." 

ANCHORING  BEAMS. — "  The  iron  girders,  columns,  beams, 
trusses,  and  all  other  ironwork  of  all  floors  and  roofs  shall  be 
strapped,  bolted,  anchored,  and  connected  together,  and  to  walls, 
in  a  strong  and  substantial  manner."  (New  York  Building  Laws, 
1896.) 

Anchor-straps  should  be  bolted  to  the  end  of  each  girder  and  to 
the  wall  end  of  every  alternate  joist,  binding  the  walls  firmly  from 
falling  outwards  in  the  event  of  fire  or  other  accident. 

Lintels  and  Girders  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

(New  York  Building  Laws,  1896.) 

LENGTH  OF  BEARINGS. — New  York  Building  Laws,  1896:  "  All 
iron  or  steel  lintels  shall  have  bearings  proportionate  to  the  weight 
to  be  imposed  thereon,  but  no  lintel  used  to  span  any  opening 
more  than  10  feet  in  width  shall  have  a  bearing  less  than  12 
inches  at  each  end  if  resting  on  a  wall,  but  if  resting  on  an  iron 
post  such  lintel  shall  have  a  bearing  of  at  least  6  inches  at  each 
end  by  the  thickness  of  the  wall  to  be  supported. 

"When  the  lintels  are  supported  at  the  ends  by  brick  walls  or 
piers  they  shall  rest  upon  cut  granite  or  bluestoue  blocks  at  least 
12  inches  thick,  or  upon  cast-iron  plates  of  equal  strength  by  the 
full  size  of  the  bearings.  In  case  the  opening  is  less  than  12  feet 
the  stone  blocks  may  be  6  inches  in  thickness,  or  cast-iron  plates 
of  equal  strength  by  the  full  size  of  the  bearings  may  be  used. 


FIRE- PROOF   FLOORS.  301 

This  requirement  shall  not  apply  to  cast-iron  lintels  used  at  the 
back  of  stone  lintels  over  openings  not  exceeding  6  feet  in 
width, 

"  In  all  cases  where  the  girde  rcarries  a  wall  and  rests  on  brick 
piers  or  walls,  the  bearings  shall  be  sufficient  lo  support  the 
weight  above  with  safety." 

SIZE  OF  IKON  AND  STEEL  LINTELS  AND  GIRDERS.  —  New  York 
Building  Laws,  1896  :  "No  cast-iron  lintel  or  beam  shall  be  less 
than  f  of  an  inch  in  thickness  in  any  of  its  parts. 

"  Iron  beams  or  girders  used  to  span  openings  more  than  16 
feet  in  width,  upon  which  walls  rest  or  upon  which  floor- beams 
are  carried,  shall  be  of  wrought  iron  or  rolled  steel  and  of  suffi- 
cient strength  ;  or  cast-iron  arch-girders  may  be  used  having  a  rise 
of  not  less  than  one  inch  to  each  foot  of  span  between  bearings, 
with  one  or  more  wrought- iron  tie-rods  of  sufficient  strength  to 
resist  the  thrusts,  well  fastened  at  each  end  of  the  girder. 

"All  lintels  or  girders  placed  over  any  opening  in  the  front, 
rear,  or  side  of  a  building,  or  returned  over  a  corner  opening, 
when  supported  by  brick  or  stone  piers  or  iron  columns,  shall  be 
of  iron  or  steel,  and  of  the  full  breadth  of  the  wall  supported." 


Fire-proof  Floors. 

The  term  "fire-proof  floor  "  is  applied  to  floors  constructed  of 
fire-proof  material  supported  on  or  between  iron  or  steel  beams 
or  girders,  or  fire-proof  walls,  and  entirely  protecting  the  metal- 
work  from  the  action  of  fire. 

The  materials  employed  are  ordinary  building  brick,  hollow 
porous  tile,  hollow  dense  tile,  thin  plates  of  dense  tile,  iron  in 
various  forms  imbedded  in  concrete  composed  of  Portland 
cement  and  either  cinders,  broken  stone,  brick  or  tile  ;  and  also 
compositions  made  with  plaster  of  Paris  as  a  cementing  material. 

Brick  Arches.  — These  usually  consist  of  a  single  4-inch  course 
of  brick  with  a  rise  at  the  centre  of  3  or  4  inches  (the  preferable 
rise  is  not  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  span),  resting  either  on  the 
lower  flanges  of  the  I  beams  or  on  cast-iron  or  rolled  steel  skew- 
backs  fastened  to  the  b-jams.  If  the  floor  is  designed  for  very 
heavy  loads  several  courses  of  brick  are  used. 

For  first-class  work  the  bricks  should  be  ground  to  the  tape.r  of 
the  arch,  and  be  laid  in  place  with  as  little  mortar  as  possible. 

The  space  above  the  arch  is  usually  filled  in  with  concrete,  iu 


302  FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS. 

which  are  imbedded  wooden  strips  3x4  inches  for  securing  the 
wooden  flooring. 

The  horizontal  thrust  of  the  arches  is  provided  for  by  the  use 
of  tie-rods  from  f  to  1  inch  in  diameter,  spaced  along  the  centre 
line  of  the  beams  or  a  little  below,  at  regular  intervals  of  from  5 
to  7  feet.  The  last  rod  is  securely  anchored  to  the  wall,  where 
an  angle,  channel,  or  simply  a  wall-plate  is  used  to  support  the 
arch  and  to  properly  distribute  the  load  upon  the  wall. 

In  many  cases  where  the  arches  abut  against  each  side  of  the 
beam  tie-rods  are  omitted,  but  it  is  always  safer  to  use  them,  as 
the  outside  "  bay  "  of  the  floor  might  be  pushed  off  side  wise  if  the 
whole  were  not  tied  together  ;  also,  if  one  of  the  arches  should 
fall  or  break  through,  the  rods  would  keep  the  other  arches  in 
place. 

FORMULA  FOR  TIE-RODS  FOR  BEAMS  SUPPORTING  BRICK 
ARCHES.  —  The  horizontal  thrust  of  brick  is  as  follows  : 

1.5  TO2 
Pressure  in  pounds  per  lineal  foot  of  arch  =      —  =  --  . 

W  =  load  in  pounds  per  square  foot. 
8  =  span  of  arch  in  feet. 

H  =  rise  of  arch  in  inches. 

Place  the  tie-rods  as  low  through  the  webs  of  the  beams  as  pos- 
sible and  spaced  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  arches  as  obtained  by 
the  above  formula  will  not  produce  a  greater  stress  than  15,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch  of  the  least  section  of  the  bolt. 

The  beams  supporting  flat  tile  arches  should  invariably  be 
bolted  together  with  f-iuch  tie-rods,  placed  as  nc-ar  the  bottom 
flange  as  practicable  and  drawn  up  tightly  by  nut  and  thread  ; 
when  so  placed  the  floors  are  much  stiffer  and  there  is  less  lia- 
bility to  cracks  in  ceilings  than  when  the  tie-rods  are  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  beams.  The  tie-rods  should  be  spaced  from  5 
to  7  feet,  centre  to  centre. 

The  formula  for  the  diameter  of  the  tie-rod  for  any  floor  is 


r  62832r* 

.D*  =  diameter  of  rod  in  inches. 

W  =  weight  of  floor  and  superimposed  load  resting  on  the 
arch,  halfway  between  the  tie-rods  on  each  side,  in  pounds. 
S=  span  of  arch  in  feet. 
r  —  rise  of  arch  in  feet. 


FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS.  303 

Hollow  Tile. — These  are  furnished  by  the  manufacturers  in 
a  great  variety  of  patterns  and  of  a  strength  to  meet  the  desired 
requirements.  Two  general  forms  of  construction  are  used,  the 
segmental  and  the  "flat "  arch.  The  flat  arch  usually  has  bevel 
joints  ;  radial  joints  are  seldom  used.  Two  methods  of  con- 
structing the  flat  arch  are  practised:  one  in  which  the  blocks  abut 
end  to  end  continuously  between  the  beams,  and  one  in  which 
they  lie  side  by  side,  with  broken  joints  between  the  beams.  In 
the  end  system  it  is  not  usual  to  have  the  blocks  in  one  row  break 
joints  with  those  in  another,  as  it  entails  extra  expense  in  setting. 
When  it  is  done  the  strength  of  the  floor  is  much  increased. 

When  dense  tile  are  used  they  are  backed  up  with  concrete  in 
which  is  imbedded  the  wooden  strips  for  attaching  the  flooring. 
These  strips  should  be  of  sound,  seasoned  wood,  2  inches  thick 
by  2  inches  wide  on  top,  bevelled  on  each  side  to  4  inches  wide 
on  the  bottom,  placed  about  16  inches  between  centres.  The 
concrete  should  be  firmly  bedded  beneath  and  against  each  side. 
When  the  finished  floor  is  to  be  marble  or  tile  the  wooden  strips 
are  omitted. 

When  porous  tile  is  used  they  are  generally  made  the  full  depth 
of  the  beam,  the  concrete  backing  being  dispensed  with,  as  they 
receive  nails  as  readily  as  wood. 

LAYING  TILE. — In  laying  tile  a  mortar  composed  of  lime  mixed 
with  coarse -screened  sand,  in  proportions  of  one  to  four,  is  used. 
A  mortar- joint  exceeding  £  inch  in  thickness  should  not  be  per- 
mitted. 

The  best  form  of  centring  for  flat  arches  is  that  in  which  T 
bolts  are  used,  and  double  2x6  inch  sound  lumber  centre  pieces 
below,  plaqed  midway  between  the  beams  and  extending  parallel 
with  them,  and  like  centre-pieces  above,  crossing  the  beams.  The 
planks  on  which  tiles  are  laid  should  be  2-inch,  dressed  on  one 
side  to  uniform  thickness,  and  should  lie  on  lower  centres,  at 
right  angles  to  the  beams  and  placed  close  together.  The  soffit- 
tile  should  be  a  separate  key-shaped  piece,  of  same  width  as  the 
beam,  and  laid  directly  under  the  beam  on  the  planking,  after 
which  the  centring  is  lightened  by  screwing  down  the  nuts  on 
the  T  bolts,  until  the  soffit-tile  are  hard  against  the  beams  and 
the  planking  has  a  crown  not  exceeding  £  inch  in  spans  of  six 
feet. 

The  tiles  should  be  laid  "  shoved,"  with  close  joints;  and  keys 
should  fil  close. 

The  centres  should  remain  in  place  from  12  to  36  hours,  accord- 


304 


FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS. 


ing  to  conditions  of  weather,  depth  of  tiling,  and  kind  of  mortar 
used. 

When  centres  are  "  struck,"  the  ceiling  should  be  straight, 
even,  and  free  from  open  joints,  crevices,  and  cracks. 

The  laying  of  flat  tile  arches  in  winter  weather  without  roof 
protection  should  not  be  practised  in  climates  where  frequent 
rain  and  snow  storms  are  followed  by  hard  freezing  and  thawing, 
as  the  mortar-joints  are  liable  to  be  weakened  or  ruptured,  re- 
sulting in  more  or  less  deflection  of  the  arches. 

TABLE  59. 
WEIGHT  AND  SPANS  OF  FLAT  HOLLOW  DENSE-TILE  ARCHES. 


Depth  of 
Arch. 

Span  between 
Beams. 

Weight  per 
Square  Ft. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

6 

3.  6"  to  4.0" 

29 

7 

4.0        4.6 

32 

8 

4.6        5.6 

35 

9 

5.0        5.9 

37 

10 

5.9        6.6 

41 

12 

6.6        7.6 

48 

TABLE  60. 

WEIGHTS  AND  SPANS  OF  FLAT  HOLLOW  POROUS-TILE  ARCHES. 


Depth  of 
Arch. 

Span  between 
Beams. 

Weight  per 
Square  Ft. 

Inches. 

Pounds. 

6 

3.0" 

to    5.0" 

21 

7 

3.6 

5.6 

24 

8 

4.0 

6.0 

27 

9 

4.6 

6.6 

30 

10 

5.0 

7.0 

33 

12 

6.0 

8.0 

37 

15 

7.6 

10.0 

43 

Six-inch  hollow  tile  of  either  kind  for  segmental  arches  weigh  from  26  to 
36  Ibs.  per  square  foot. 

STRENGTH  OF  FLAT-TILE  ARCHES. — Flat  arches  should  in  all 
cases  be  capable  of  sustaining  without  serious  deflection,  after 
being  set  in  place,  an  equally  distributed  load  of  500  pounds  per 
square  foot  of  surface. 


FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS.  305 

Tests  for  Tile  Floors. — Each  arch  shall  be  subjected  to  a 
test  of  a  moving  loud  consisting  of  a  roller  weighing  1000  pounds 
to  each  lineal  foot,  and  applied  48  hours  after  the  centres  have 
been  struck  and  before  the  concrete  has  been  tilled  in. 

lu  addition  to  the  rolling  test,  the  arches  after  being  set  in 
place  72  hours  shall  be  subjected  to  a  dropping  test  made  in  the 
following  manner  :  Before  the  concrete  is  applied  on  the  arches 
a  bed  of  sand  two  inches  thick  shall  be  spread  loosely  over  the 
top  of  the  arches,  and  a  wooden  block  or  timber  weighing  200 
pounds  shall  be  dropped  thereon  from  a  height  of  ten  feet.  If 
the  arches  withstand  this  impact  for  three  continuous  blows 
without  breaking  through,  the  test  shall  be  considered  satisfac- 
tory, and  the  floor  arches  be  accepted. 

Concrete  Floors. — There  are  several  systems  of  construct- 
ing concrete  floors.  In  some  the  concrete  is  supported  on  cor- 
rugated or  other  special  forms  of  sheet  iron  ;  in  others  the  con- 
crete is  employed  as  an  arch,  being  made  self-supporting  by  im- 
bedding in  it  iron  or  steel  rods  and  bars  of  various  forms.  Metal 
lath,  and  wire  netting  of  various  forms.  Wire  cables  aie  also 
used. 

The  various  systems  of  concrete  and  composition  flooring  are 
in  nearly  all  cases  covered  by  patent,  and  full  information  con- 
cerning them  can  be  obtained  from  the  manufacturers. 

Construction  of  Fireproof  Floors. — New  York  Building 
Laws,  1896.  "All  brick  or  stone  arches  placed  between  iron  or  steel 
floor-beams  shall  be  at  least  four  inches  thick  and  have  a  rise  of  at 
least  one  and  a  quarter  inches  to  each  foot  of  span  between 
beams.  Arches  of  over  five  feet  span  shall  be  properly  increased 
in  thickness,  as  required  by  the  superintendent  of  buildings,  or 
the  space  between  the  beams  may  be  filled  in  with  sectional 
hollow  brick  of  hard-burned  clay,  porous  terra-cotta,  or  some 
equally  good  fire-proof  material,  having  a  depth  of  not  less  than 
one  and  one  quarter  inches  to  earh  foot  of  span,  a  variable  distance 
being  allowed  of  not  over  6  inches  in  the  span  between  beams. 
The  said  brick  arches  shall  be  laid  to  a  line  on  the  centres,  with 
close  joints,  and  the  bricks  shall  be  well  wet,  and  the  joints  filled 
with  cement  mortar  in  proportions  of  not  more  than  2  of  sand 
to  1  of  cement  by  measure.  The  arches  shall  be  well  grouted 
and  pinned  or  chinked  with  slate,  and  keyed. 

"  The  bottom  flanges  of  all  wrought-iron  or  rolled  steel  floor- 
beams,  and  all  exposed  portions  of  such  beams  below  the  abut- 
ments of  the  floor-arches,  shall  be  entirely  incased  with  hard-burnt 


306  FIRE-PROOF    FLOORS. 

clay  or  porous  terra-cotta ;  or  with  wire  metal  lath  properly 
secured  and  plastered  ou  the  urnler  side  The  exposed  sides  and 
bottom  plates  or  flanges  of  wrought  iron,  or  rolled  steel  girders 
supporting  irou,  steel,  or  wooden  floor-beams,  or  supporting  floor- 
arches  or  floors,  shall  be  entirely  incased  in  the  same  manner." 


ROOFING. — INSPECTION  OF  ROOFING.      307 


VI.  ROOFING. 
Inspection  of  Roofing. 

The  inspection  of  roofing  requires  considerable  care  because  of 
the  difficulty  of  detecting  defects  after  the  work  is  done  until  at- 
tention is  called  to  them  by  damp  walls  or  damaged  ceilings. 

The  first  points  to  be  examined  are  the  quality  and  dimensions 
of  the  materials  ;  2d,  the  quality  of  the  workmanship  in  cutting, 
lilting,  and  placing  the  roof-frame,  the  laying  of  the  sheathing, 
purlins,  etc.,  and  the  laying,  fastening,  etc.,  of  the  roof-covering, 
and  the  forming  of  the  flashings,  gutters,  connecting  of  leaders, 
etc. 

In  slating,  tiling,  and  shingling  an  important  point  is  the 
sufficiency  of  the  bond  or  lap.  These  materials  are  said  to  be  laid 
so  many  inches  to  the  weather,  meaning  the  amount  of  the  ex- 
posed portions.  By  increasing  the  length  of  the  exposed  portion, 
thus  reducing  the  lap,  a  less  number  of  courses  will  be  required 
to  cover  the  roof. 

The  siieatliing-boards  should  be  sound,  free  from  large  knots, 
and  well  seasoned,  laid  with  close  joints  in  regular  courses 
diagonally  across  the  rafters  and  nailed  with  two  nails  to  each 
bearing  .  All  joints  should  be  made  in  the  centre  of  bearings,  the 
ends  of  the  boards  being  cut  to  the  required  angle. 

The  sheathiug-boards  arc  usually  covered  with  asphalted  felt, 
tarred  felt,  or  paper.  In  laying  this  material  the  joints  should 
have  a  lap  of  2  inches  and  be  nailed  at  intervals  of  2  or  3  inches 
with  |-in.  roofing-nails.  One  pound  of  nails  should  be  allowed  for 
each  100  square  feet  of  roof.  Dry  or  rosin-sized  felt  should  not  be 
used  on  roofs. 

On  the  completion  of  the  roofing  all  accumulations  of  rubbish 
in  the  gutters  must  be  cleared  out,  and  nothing  left  to  impede  the 
flow  of  the  water  to  the  leaders. 

Tin  Roofing. — For  laying  on  the  roof  the  sheets  of  tin  are 
joined  together  by  having  the  edges  bent  in  the  form  of  a  hook, 
called  both  "  single  "  and  "  double  "  groove  or  lock  ;  the  sheets 
are  hooked  together,  then  hammered  flat,  and  then  soldered.  Sev- 


308       ROOFING. — INSPECTION  OF  ROOFING. 

eral  sheets  are  thu-i  joined  and  formed  into  a  roll.  The  rolls  are 
carried  to  the  roof  and  spread  out;  their  sides  are  joined  by  form- 
ing- a  single  groove  on  each  edge,  flattened  down,  and  soldered. 

In  soldering  the  joints,  rosin  as  a  flux  is  generally  preferred, 
although  some  roofers  recommend  the  use  of  dilute  chloride  of 
zinc. 

For  a  steep  roof,  tin  should  be  put  on  with  a  standing  groove 
and  with  the  cross-seams  double-locked  and  soldered.  The  tin 
should  be  laid  with  the  smallest  dimension  for  the  width,  as  it 
makes  the  roof  stronger,  and  allows  a  greater  amount  of  expan- 
sion and  contraction;  but  it  is  much  cheaper  to  lay  them  the  other 
way,  as  less  cleats,  solder,  nails,  and  labor  are  required.  For  flat 
roofs  with  flat  seams  it  does  not  make  any  difference  which  way 
the  plates  are  laid,  as  the  entire  roof  is  practically  a  solid  sheet. 

A  very  common  and  cheaper  method  for  steep  roofs  is  to  dou- 
ble-lock both  the  vertical  and  cross  seams,  .and  fill  the  joints  with 
white  lead  instead  of  soldering;  but  the  other  method  is  much 
the  best. 

To  hold  the  tin  securely  to  the  sheathing-boards,  pieces  of  tin 
three  or  four  inches  long  by  two  inches  wide,  called  "  cleats,"  are 
nailed  to  the  boards  at  about  every  eighteen  inches  along  the 
joints  of  the  rolls  that  are  to  be  united,  and  arc  bent  over  with  a 
double  groove.  They  should  be  nailed  with  a  fourpenny  slating- 
nail,  which  has  a  broader  head  than  common  nails;  and  as  the 
nails  are  not  exposed  to  the  weather,  they  may  be  of  plain  iron. 
The  nails  should  not  be  driven  through  the  roofing-plates. 

The  under  side  of  the  tin  should  be  painted  before  laying  on 
the  roof 

One  or  more  layers  of  felt  paper  should  be  placed  under  the 
tin,  to  serve  as  a  cushion,  and  also  to  deaden  the  noise  produced 
by  the  rain  str'Idng  the  tin. 

Before  painting  all  grease  and  rosin  should  be  thoroughly 
scraped  and  cleaned  off. 

The  tin  used  for  gutters  and  flashings  should  be  of  the  heaviest 
coated  or  dipped  plates  and  should  always  be  of  IX  thickness. 

Roofing- tiles  are  thin  slabs  of  baked  clay. 

Plain  roofing-tiles  are  usually  made  f  of  an  inch  in  thickness, 
10J  inches  long,  and  6}  inches  wide.  They  weigh  from  2  to  2£ 
pounds  each,  and  expose  one  half  to  the  weather.  Plain  tiles  are 
also  made  with  grooves  and  fillets  on  the  edges,  so  that  they  are 
laid  without  overlapping  very  far. 

Pan-tiles  have  a  wavy  surface,  lapping  under  and  being  over- 


ROOFING.— INSPECTION   OF    ROOFING. 


309 


lapped  by  the  adjacent  tiles  of  the  same  course.  They  are  made 
14!  X  10|  inches,  expose  10  inches  to  the  weather,  and  weigh 
from  5  to  5^  pounds  each. 

Tiles  are  laid  in  the  same  manner  as  slates,  fastened  with  two 
nails  to  each  tile. 

Crown-,  ridge-,  hip  ,  and  valley-tiles  are  semi  cylindrical,  or 
segments  of  cylinders,  used  for  the  purpose  indicated  by  the  name. 

Tiles  should  be  well  burned  and  be  free  from  fire-checks, 
cracks,  blisters,  and  flaws. 

Shingles. —The  principal  requisites  of  good  shingles  are 
freedom  from  knots,  cross-grain,  and  an  approximation  to  uni- 
form width.  The  wood  usually  employed  for  shingles  is  cedar, 
cypress,  and  Michigan  pine  (spruce  is  occasionally  used  ;  but 
makes  shingles  of  a  very  inferior  quality). 

Shingles  are  usually  laid  in  three  thicknesses,  except  for  an 
inch  or  two  at  the  upper  ends,  where  there  are  four.  They  are 
nailed  to  sawed  shingliug-laths  of  oak,  spruce,  or  pine,  about  16 
feet  long,  2^  inches  wide,  and  1  inch  thick,  placed  in  horizontal 
rows  about  8£  inches  apart.  Two  nails  are  used  for  each  shingle, 
near  its  upper  end  ;  they  should  not  be  of  less  size  than  400  to  a 
pound.  Wrought  nails  are  the  best;  cut  nails  are  apt  to  break  off 
by  the  warping  of  the  shingles. 

Shingles  are  usually  27  inches  long  by  from  6  to  7  inches  wide, 
about  \  inch  thick  at  the  upper  end,  and  about  f  inch  at  the  lower 
end  or  butt,  and  are  laid  in  courses  exposing  from  4  to  6  inches 
to  the  weather — One  thousand  shingles  require  about  5  Ibs.  of 
nails. 

TABLE  61. 

NUMBER  AND  WEIGHT  OF  SHINGLES  (PINE)  PER  SQUARE. 


Number  of  Inches 
exposed  to  Weather. 

Number  of  Shingles 
per  Square.* 

Weight  per  Square. 
Pounds. 

4 

900 

216 

4% 

800 

192 

5 

720 

173 

5% 

655 

157 

6 

600 

144 

*  For  hip-roofs  add  5  per  ceut. 

Slates  are  laid  either  on  a  broad  sheathing  (rough  or  tongued 
and  grooved)  covered  with  tarred  paper  or  felt,  or  on  roofing- 


310      ROOFING.  -  INSPECTION  OF  ROOFING. 

laths,  2  to  8  inches  wide  and  from  1  to  1£  inches  thick,  nailed  to 
the  rafters  at  d  stances  apart  to  suit  the  gauge  of  the  slates. 

The  slates  are  fastened  with  two  3d.  or  4d.  nails,  one  near  each 
upper  corner.  Copper,  composition,  tinned,  or  galvanized  nails 
should  be  used.  Plain  iron  nails  are  frequently  used  ;  they 
are  speedily  weakened  by  rust,  break,  and  allow  the  slates  iff  be 
blown  off.  When  used  they  should  be  heated  and  immersed  in 
boiled  linseed-oil  as  a  partial  preservative  from  rust. 

On  iron  roofs  slates  are  often  placed  directly  on  small  iron 
purlins  spaced  at  suitable  distance  to  receive  them.  There  the  slates 
are  fastened  with  wire  passed  through  the  holes  in  the  slate  and 
twisted  around  the  purlins.  Special  forms  of  fasteners  are  also 
used  instead  of  wire. 

The  gauge  of  a  slate  is  the  portion  exposed  to  the  weather. 
The  slater  estimates  the  length  of  the  slate  from  the  nail-hole  to 
the  tail,  discarding  the  narrow  strip  between  the  nail-hole  and 
the  head.  In  order  that  the  showing  lower  edge  of  the  slates  shall 
when  laid  form  regular  straight  lines  along  the  roof  the  nail- 
holes  are  made  at  equal  distances  from  the  lower  edges. 

As  the  slates  do  not  lie  exactly  parallel  to  the  boarding,  and 
consequently  do  not  lie  flat  upon  it,  those  at  the  lower  edge  would 
be  easily  broken.  To  prevent  this  a  UUing-strip  (a  lath  with  its 
upper  side  planed  to  a  bevel  corresponding  to  the  slope  of  the 
roof  is  first  nailed  at  the  eaves  for  the  tail  of  the  lowest  course  of 
slates  to  rest  on. 

The  upper  side-  of  a  slate  is  called  its  lack,  the  lower  one  its  bed. 

The  area  of  roof  covered  by  a  slate  of  given  dimensions  is  as- 
certained by  multiplying  the  gauge  by  the  width  of  the  slate  in 
inches. 

Slates  should  be  sorted  in  sizes  when  they  are  not  all  of  one 
size,  and  the  smallest  placed  near  the  ridge. 

The  top  course  of  slate  on  the  ridge,  and  the  slates  for  two  to 
four  feet  from  all  gutters,  and  one  foot  each  way  from  all  valleys 
and  hips,  should  be  bedded  in  Portland-cement  paste. 

In  laying  slates  the  great  object  to  be  attained  is  that  the  bottom 
edge  or  "  tail  "  of  every  slate  should  fit  as  closely  as  possible  to 
the  backs  of  those  below  it.  The  vertical  joints  between  the 
slates  should  be  as  clo-e  as  possible,  and  each  should  fall  on  the 
central  line  of  the  slate  below. 

In  good  slating  the  vertical  joints  of  the  alternate  courses 
should  range  in  straight  lines  from  ridge  to  eaves,  and  the  tails 
of  the  slates  should  be  in  perfectly  horizontal  lines. 


ROOFING. — INSPECTION    OF    ROOFING.  3ll 

CHAUACTERIS  PICS  OP  GOOD  SLATES.— A  good  slate  should  be 
both  hard  and  tough. 

Softness  or  liability  to  abrasion  does  not  always  indicate  in- 
ferior roofing  slate.  A  moderate  degree  of  softness  indicates 
good  weathering  qualities. 

If  it  is  too  soft,  it  will  absorb  moisture,  the  nail-holes  will  be- 
come enlarged,  and  the  slate  will  become  loose. 

If  it  be  brittle,  it  will  break  in  the  process  of  squaring  and 
holing. 

A  good  slate  should  give  a  sharp  metallic  ring  when  struck 
with  the  knuckles.  It  should  not  splinter  under  the  slater's  axe, 
should  be  easily  "  holed  "  without  danger  of  fracture,  and  should 
not  be  tender  or  friable  at  the  edges. 

A  good  roofing-slate  should  not  absorb  water  to  any  percepti- 
ble extent. 

A  common  and  easily  applied  test  for  roofing-slate  is  to  place 
one  on  edge  to  half  its  depth  in  water,  and  if  in,  say,  12  hours  the 
line  of  absorbed  water  approaches  the  top  of  the  slate,  it  should 
be  rejected.  If  it  does  not  rise  beyond  one-eighth  of  an  inch,  the 
slate  may  be  considered  as  practically  non absorbent. 

Another  method  is  to  weigh  a  well-dried  slate,  and  after  soak- 
ing it  for  12  hours  in  water  to  weigh  again  ;  the  difference  in 
weight  will  show  the  quantity  of  water  absorbed. 

A  good  slate  after  12  hours'  soaking  in  water  should  not  have 
absorbed  more  than  ^ff  part  of  its  weight. 

As  a  test  of  the  weathering  quality  it  is  recommended  to 
breathe  on  the  slate.  If  a  clayey  odor  be  strongly  emitted,  it  is 
inferred  that  the  slate  will  not  "  weather  "  well. 

NOTES  ON  SLATES. — (Northampton  County  (Pa.)  Slate.)— The 
best  slates  are  called  "  No.  1  stock."  Those  with  one  ribbon 
crossing  them  are  "No.  1  Rib,"  and  those  with  two  ribbons 
"No.  2  Rib." 

Ribbons  are  seams  which  traverse  the  slate  in  approximately 
parallel  directions,  and  which  differ  in  color  and  composition 
from  the  slates  proper.  In  the  upper  beds  the  ribbons  are  soft 
and  of  inferior  quality  to  the  slate  proper  ;  in  the  lower  they  are 
often  harder  than  the  slates. 

Slates  containing  soft  ribbons  are  inferior,  and  should  not  be 
used  in  good  work. 

The  soft  slates  weigh  about  173  Ibs.  per  cubic  foot,  aud  the 
best  qualities  have  a  modulus  of  rupture  of  from  7000  to  10,000 
Ibs.  per  square  inch. 


312 


ROOFING. — INSPECTION   OF   ROOFING. 


The  stronger  the  slate  the  greater  is  its  toughness  and  softness 
and  the  less  its  porosity  and  corrodibility. 

The  strongest  slate  stands  the  weather  best,  so  that  a  bending 
test  affords  an  excellent  index  of  all  its  properties. 

The  strongest  and  best  slate  has  the  highest  percentage  of  sili- 
cates of  iron  and  aluminum,  but  is  not  necessarily  the  lowest  in 
carbonates  of  lirne  and  magnesia. 

Chemical  analyses  give  only  imperfect  conclusions  regarding 
either  durability  or  physical  properties. 

Betiding  tests  should  be  required  by  the  specifications. 

Slates  are  made  in  numerous  sizes,  varying  from  6  X  12  to  16 
X  26  inches.  In  proper  roofing  a  triple  lap  of  3  inches  is  al- 
lowed ;  thus  for  a  24-inch  slate  10£  inches  of  each  slate  are  un- 
covered, 10|  inches  are  covered  by  one  thickness,  and  3  inches  by 
two  thicknesses. 

The  amount  of  slate  required  to  cover  a  space  10  X  10  feet  is 
called  a  square. 

TABLE  62. 

SLATE. 
DIMENSIONS  AND  NUMBER  PER   SQUARE. 


Dimensions. 
Indies. 

Number  per 
Square. 

Dimensions. 
Indies. 

Number  per 
Square. 

6  X  12 

533 

12  X  18 

160 

7  X12 

457 

10  X  20 

169 

8  X  12 

400 

11  X  20 

154 

9  X  12 

355 

12  X  20 

141 

7  X  14 

374 

14  X  20 

121 

8  X  14 

327 

16  X  20 

137 

9  X  14 

291 

12  X  22 

126 

10  x  14 

261 

14  X  22 

108 

8X  16 

277 

12  X  24 

114 

9  X  16 

246 

14  X  24 

9» 

10  x  16 

221 

16  X  24 

8ft 

9  X  18 

213 

14  X  26 

>,»     89* 

10  X  18 

192 

16  X  26 

78 

Thickness 


,  Tff 


",  increasing  by  eights,  to  1  inch. 


The  weight  of  slate  is  about  174  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  or,  per 
square  foot  of  various  thicknesses,  as  follows  : 
Thickness,  inches    i      T%       i        f       i       f        |          1        1 
Weight,  pounds.   1.81  2.71  3.62  5.43  7.25  9.06  10.8812.6914.50 


ROOFING.—  IN SPKCTION    OF    ROOFING. 


313 


Galvanized  Iron. 

Galvanized  iron,  both  flat  aud  corrugated,  is  used  for  the  roofs 
and  sides  of  buildings. 

Flat  iron  is  usually  laid  upon  a  sheathing  of  boards,  but  the 
strength  of  corrugated  iron  obviates  the  necessity  for  this.  It  is 
usually  laid  directly  upon  the  purlins,  aud  held  in  place  by  means 
of  clips  of  hoop-iron,  which  encircle  the  purlin,  and  are  spaced 
about  12  inches  apart. 

The  corrugated  sheets  are  fastened  together  with  rivets  of 
galvanized  wire  about  |  inch  in  diameter  ;  the  rivet-holes  are 
spaced  about  3  inches  apart  and  are  punched  by  machinery,  so 
as  to  insure  coincidence  in  the  several  sheets.  The  rivets  must  be 
well  driven,  so  us  to  exclude  rain,  and  the  projecting  edges  at  the 
eaves  and  gable-ends  of  the  roof  must  be  well  secured,  or  the  wind 
will  loosen  the  sheets  and  fold  them  up. 

TABLE  63. 

GALVANIZED  IRON. 

WEIGHT  PER  SQUARE  FOOT. 


Nc.  by 
Birming- 
ham Wire 
Gauge. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

Flat. 
Lbs. 

Corru- 
gated. 
Lbs. 

No.  by 
Birming- 
ham Wire 
Gauge. 

Thick- 
ness in 
Inches. 

Flat. 
Lbs. 

Corru- 
gated. 
Lbs. 

30 

.012 

.806 

.896 

21 

.032 

1.63 

1.81 

29 

.013 

.857 

.952 

20 

.035 

1.75 

1.94 

28 

.014 

.897 

.997 

19 

.042 

2.03 

2.26 

'      27 

.016 

.978 

1.09 

18 

.049 

2.32 

2.58 

26 

.018 

1.06 

1.18 

17 

.058 

2.68 

2.98 

1     25 

.020 

1  14 

1.27 

16 

.065 

2.96 

3.29 

24 

.022 

1.22 

1.36 

15 

.072 

3.25 

3.61 

23 

.025 

1.34 

1.49 

14 

.083 

3.69 

4.10 

22 

.028 

1.46 

1.62 

13 

.095 

4.18 

4.64 

314          ROOFING. — COPPER  ROOFING. 


Copper  Roofing. 

The  copper  used  for  roofing  usually  weighs  from  12  to  14 
ounces  per  square  foot.  It  is  laid  on  boards  in  the  same  manner 
as  tin  except  that  solder  is  not  used.  The  thin  sheets  are  often 
found  with  slight  cracks  or  flaws,  which  if  used  in  roofing  will 
soon  cause  it  to  become  leaky. 

The  weight  of  copper  sheets  used  for  flashing  is  from  12  to  18 
ounces  per  square  foot. 

TABLE  64. 
APPROXIMATE  WEIGHT  OF  VARIOUS  ROOF- COVERINGS. 

Material  Weight  in  Pounds  per 

Square  of  Roof. 

Yellow  pine,  Northern,  sheathing,  1"  thick 300 

Yellow  pine,  Southern,  "  "  "  400 

Spruce,  "  "  "  200 

Chestnut  or  maple,  "  "  "  400 

Ash  or  oak,  "  "  "  ....  500 

Shingles,  pine 200 

Slates  i"  thick 900 

Sheet  iron  3V  thick 300 

"  "  "  andlaths 500 

Iron,  corrugated 100  to  375 

"  galvanized,  flat 100"  350 

Tiu...... 70"  125 

Felt  and  asphalt 100 

Felt  and  gravel 800"  1000 

Skylights,  glass  T36~"  to  |"  thick 250  "  700 

Sheet  lead 500"  800 

Copper 80"  125 

Zinc 100"  200 

Tiles,  flat 1500  "  2000 

.  "  "  withmortar 2000  "  3000 

"      pan 1000 


ROOFING. — FLASHING.  315 


,. 

Flashing. 

FLASHING  is  the  name  given  to  the  covering  of  the  joint  at  the 
juucliou  of  a  sloping  roof  and  a  wall  or  chimney.  The  material 
employed  is  tin,  copper,  zinc,  and  lead.  The  flashing  is  formed 
by  bending  the  edge  of  the  sheet  of  metal  at  right  angles  for  one, 
two,  or  more  inches,  and  inserting  the  portion  so  bent  into  the 
joints  of  the  masonry,  and  is  stepped  down  as  the  roof  descends. 

Counter- or  cop-flashings  are  of  tin,  copper,  or  lead,  and  are  laid 
between  the  courses  in  the  masonry,  and  turned  down  over  the 
ordinary  flushing.  In  flashing  against  stonework  small  grooves  or 
reglets  often  have  to  be  cut  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  counter- 
flashing. 

Flashing  must  be  carefully  executed  to  insure  a  tight  roof. 

GUTTERS  are  metal  troughs  or  wood  troughs  lined  with  metal, 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  rain-water  from  roofs.  They  are 
of  different  forms,  and  should  have  a  fall  of  1  inch  in  10  feet  to 
the  leader  or  pipe  which  conducts  the  water  to  the  ground  or 
drain.  The  metal  used  is  either  tin,  galvanized  iron,  zinc,  or 
lead.  The  sides  of  gutters  which  abut  against  walls  should  be 
turned  up  from  6  to  8  inches  against  them  and  be  covered  with  an 
apron.  In  gutters  formed  along  the  eaves  of  roofs  the  metal 
should  be  turned  up  and  extend  upon  the  top  of  the  roof-board- 
ing for  not  less  than  10  inches  and  be  securely  nailt  d  thereto. 

VALLEYS  are  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two  roof-slopes 
forming  a  re-entering  angle.  They  are  made  water-tight  by 
covering  with  a  flashing  of  tin,  lead,  or  zinc,  the  sides  of  which 
are  turned  up  along  the  roof  boarding  for  a  distance  of  from  5  to 
7  inches. 

A  •'  close  valley  "  is  one  in  which  the  roof-covering  is  mitred 
and  flashed  in  each  course  so  that  no  metal  can  be  seen. 

An  "open  valley"  is  one  in  which  the  metal  is  exposed  to 
view  in  the  finished  roof. 

Suitable  provision  must  be  made  for  the  expansion  and  con- 
traction of  the  metal  used  in  valleys;  when  lead  is  used  no  sheet 
should  be  laid  in  a  length  greater  than  10  feet  without  an  ex- 
pansion-joint formed  by  a  "drip,"  "roll,"  or  break  of  some 
kind. 

The  joints  of  the  metal  sheets  in  ridges,  hips,  and  valleys 
should  have  a  lap  of  about  4  inches. 


316  ROOFING.  —  FLASHING. 

The  weight  of  lead  used  for  flashings  is  usually  5  Ibs.  per 
square  foot,  for  liips,  ridges,  and  small  gutters  6  Ibs.,  and  for  flats 
aud  mam  gutters  7  Ibs. 

The  weight  of  copper  used  for  cap-flashiug  is  usually  sixteen 
ounces. 


PLUMBING. — INSPECTION    OF    PLUA1BINQ.  31' 


VH.     PLUMBING. 

Inspection  of  Plumbing. 

The  work  of  the  plumber  comprises  the  placing  of  the  pipes 
and  fittings  required  for  the  water-supply  and  the  removal  of 
sewage  from  buildings.  Each  municipality  usually  has  regula- 
tions giving  specific  directions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  the 
work  must  be  executed. 

The  duty  of  the  inspector  is  : 

1.  To  examine  the  quality  and  dimensions  of  the  materials  to 
be  used. 

2.  To  see  that  the  work  is  executed  in  accordance   with  the 
specifications  and  in  conformity  with  the  plumbing  regulations. 

3.  To  test  the  finished  work  and  see  that  it  is  gas-  and  water- 
tight. 

LEAD  PIPES  should  be  examined  as  delivered.  The  weight 
per  foot,  or  the  letter  denoting  the  same  thing,  is  stamped  on 
the  ends  of  the  coils  ;  after  the  ends  are  cut  off  it  is  difficult  to 
ascertain  whether  they  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the 
specification,  for  the  saw  used  in  cutting  spreads  out  the  lead, 
thus  giving  the  enrl  an  apparently  greater  thickness.  Pipes 
showing  unequal  thickness  of  metal  and  those  having  a  honey- 
combed appearance  or  in  any  way  corroded  should  be  rejected. 

TABLE  65. 
WEIGHT  OF  LEAD  WASTE-PIPE. 

H  in 2  Ibs.  per  foot 

2  " 3  and  4  Ibs.  per  foot 

3  " 31  and  5  Ibs.  per  foot 

3£" 4  Ibs.  per  foot. 

4  " 5,  6,  and  8  Ibs.  per  foot 

4£  " 6  and  8  Ibs.  per  foot 

5  " 8,  10,  and  12  Ibs.  per  foot 


318    .        PLUMBING. — INSPECTION    OF    PLUMBING. 


TABLE  66. 

WEIGHT  AND  THICKNESS  OF  LEAD  PIPE. 


1 

s 

1 

1 

•O  jj 

6*0 

I1 

Thickness. 

Mean  burst- 
ing pressure. 

Safe  working 
pressure. 

Caliber. 

ij 
5 
i 

b 

« 
•3  ^ 

600 

°<2 
£ 

Thickness. 

Mean  burst- 
ing pressure. 

Safe  working 
pressure. 

1 

1 

in*. 

lb.  oz. 

ins. 

IbH. 

11)8. 

1118. 

lb.  oz. 

ins. 

Iba. 

lb*. 

:j 

!S 

AAA 

1  12 

0.18 

1968 

492 

1 

A 

4  0 

0.21 

857 

214 

2 

8 

AA 

1  5 

0.15 

1627 

406 

1 

B 

3  4 

0.17 

745 

186 

3 

*< 

A 

1  2 

0.13 

1381 

347 

1 

C 

2  8 

0.14 

562 

140 

i 

B 

1  0 

0.125 

1342 

335 

1 

D 

2  4 

0.125 

518 

129 

3 
8 

C 

0  14 

0.11 

1187 

296 

1 

E 

2  0 

0.10 

475 

118 

1 

_ 

0  10 

0.087 

1085 

271 

1 

_ 

1  8 

0.09 

325 

81 

Is 

_ 

0  9£ 

0.08 

775 

193 

u 

AAA 

6  12 

0.275 

962 

240 

i 

AAA 

3  0 

0.25 

1787 

446 

u 

AA 

5  12 

0.25 

823 

205 

1  *• 

- 

2  8 

0.225 

1655 

413 

li 

A 

4  11 

0.21 

685 

171 

£ 

A  A 

2  0 

0.18 

1393 

346 

1\ 

B 

3  11 

0.17 

546 

136 

I 

A 

1  10 

0.16 

1285 

321 

n 

C 

3  0 

0.135 

420 

105 

4 

B 

1  3 

0.125 

980 

245 

u 

D 

2  8 

0.125 

350 

87 

i 

C 

1  0 

0.10 

782 

195 

H 

o*  i 

2  0 

0.095 

322 

80 

i 

I) 

0  9 

0.065 

468 

117 

U 

AAA 

8  0 

0.29 

742 

irn 

* 

•y*  9 

0  10 

0.07 

556 

139 

U 

A  A 

7  0 

0.25 

700 

175 

i 

- 

0  12 

0.09 

625 

156 

H 

A 

6  4 

0.22 

628 

157 

,  1 

AAA 

3  8 

0.23 

1548 

387 

li 

B 

5  0 

0.18 

506 

126 

1 

A  A 

2  12 

0.21 

1380 

345 

H 

C 

4  4 

0.15 

430 

107 

I 

A 

2  8 

0.18 

1152 

288 

i| 

D 

3  8 

0.14 

315 

78 

I 

B 

2  0 

0.16 

987 

246 

ii 

_ 

3  0 

0.12 

245 

61 

i 

!C  •' 

1  7 

0.117 

795 

198 

If 

B 

5  0 

_ 

_ 

116 

8 

;1^  •" 

1  4 

0.10 

708 

177 

15 

C 

4  0 

_ 

_ 

93 

1 

AAA 

4  14 

0.29 

1462 

365 

15 

D 

3  10 

0.125 

318 

79 

3 

4 

AA 

3  8 

0.225 

1225 

306 

2 

AAA 

10  11 

0.30 

611 

152 

I 

A 

3  0 

0.19 

1072 

268 

2 

A  A 

8  14 

0.25 

511 

127 

I 

B 

2  3 

0.15 

865 

216 

2 

A 

7  0 

0.21 

405 

101 

1 

C 

1  12 

0.125 

782 

195 

2 

B 

6  0 

0.19 

360 

90 

! 

D 

1  3 

0.09 

505 

126 

2 

C 

5  0 

0.16 

260 

65 

i 

AAA 

6  0 

0.30 

1230 

307 

2 

D 

4  0 

0.09 

200 

50 

i 

AA 

4  8 

0.23 

910 

227 

'LUMHING. — INSPECTION    OF    1'LUMBING. 


319 


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320  PLUMBING. — INSPECTION    OF    PLUMBING. 

TABLE  68. 
WEIGHT  OF  BLOCK-TIN  PIPE. 

|  in , 4^,  6^,  ami  8  ozs.  per  foot 

i" 6,7£,andlO"  "  " 

f  " 8  and  10         "  "  " 

f  " lOaud  12       "  "  " 

1  " 15  and  18       "  "  " 

1»   " ]£  and  1|  Ibs.  "  " 

1£  " 2and2|     "  "  " 

2  " S^and  3     "  "  " 

CAST-IRON  SOIL-PIPES  should  be  carefully  exainiiied  for  light 
weight  and  unequal  thickness  of  metal;  the  poorer  qualities  are 
generally  much  thinner  on  one  side  than  the  other.  The  making 
of  the  joints  must  be  closely  watched  to  see  that  an  excess  of 
oakum  is  not  used,  nor  that  such  improper  materials  as  cotton 
waste,  paper,  and  shavings  are  used  in  place  of  the  oakum;  also 
to  see  that  a  sufficiency  of  lead  is  used  and  that  the  joint  is  prop- 
erly calked.  Melted  lead  simply  poured  in  will  not  make  a  tight 
joint,  since  on  cooling  the  shrinkage  draws  it  away  from  the  iron, 
and  it  must  be  forced  again  into  contact  with  the  calking-iron, 
applied  at  every  point  of  the  circumference;  the  finished  joint 
should  show  the  marks  of  the  tool  all  around. 

The  practice  of  partly  filling  the  hub  with  lead  and  afterwards 
filling  it  up  with  putty  should  not  be  permitted.  Such  joints 
may  stand  the  test,  but  are  not  durable. 

TABLE  69. 
WEIGHT  OF   CAST  IRON  SOIL-PIPE. 

(Extra  heavy.) 


Diameter. 
Inches. 
2    

Average  Weight 
per  Foot. 
Pounds. 

5i 

3  

9£ 

4  

13 

5  

17 

6  

20 

7  

27 

8  

33£ 

10  

45 

12.. 

.  54 

PLUMBING. — INSPECTION    OF    PLUMBING.  321 

All  sizes  made  in  o-ft.  lengths  except  12-iu.,  which  is  6  ft.  The 
length  does  not  iuclude  the  hub. 


TESTING  PLUMBING. 

Several  methods  are  practised  for  testing  the  tightness  of 
plumbing,  namely,  air-pressure,  water-pressure,  peppermint,  and 
smoke  tests.  The  work  is  usually  subjected  to  two  tests.  The 
first  is  called  the  "  Roughing  Test,"  and  the  second  the  "Final 
Test." 

THE  WATER  TEST  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  the  roughing 
test.  It  should  be  applied  after  the  rough  iron-  and  lead-work  is 
in  place,  and  just  before  setting  the  fixtures.  The  manner  of 
applying  it  is  as  follows  ; 

The  main  pipe  is  plugged  outside  of  the  house-trap  and  the 
system  of  pipes  filled  until  the  water  rises  to  the  top  of  the  high- 
est pipe.  While  the  pipes  are  full  of  water  all  joints  should  be 
examined  closely  for  leaks,  and  those  showing  signs  of  leaking 
at  once  calked.  The  pipes  should  also  be  closely  examined  for 
cracks,  etc.,  and  if  any  are  found  defective  they  should  be 
marked  for  removal. 

PEPPERMINT  TEST. — The  oil  of  peppermint,  on  account  of  its 
powerful  odor,  is  extensively  employed  for  testing  the  tightness 
of  plumbing.  It  is  sold  expressly  for  this  purpose  in  hermeti- 
cally sealed  vials  containing  two  ounces.  The  method  of  using 
it  is  as  follows  :  All  the  traps  of  the  system  are  filled  with  water, 
the  air-  and  ventilating-pipes  are  stopped  up,  the  oil  is  poured 
into  the  main  soil-pipe  at  its  highest  point.  Usually  this  point  is 
three  or  four  feet  above  the  roof.  After  the  oil  there  is  poured 
in  a  quart  or  more  of  boiling  water,  and  the  mouth  of  the  pipe 
immediately  stopped  up.  The  peppermint  is  volatilized  by  the 
heat  of  the  water,  and  the  vapor,  unable  to  escape,  penetrates 
every  part  of  the  system.  The  pipes  are  then  thoroughly 
examined  The  slightest  odor  of  peppermint  in  the  building 
indicates  a  defect  either  in  a  joint  or  in  the  pipe,  which  must  be 
sought  for  and  remedied. 

The  man  who  carries  and  applies  the  peppermint  should  not 
be  permitted  to  enter  the  house  until  the  test  is  completed,  as  he 
is  liable  to  carry  with  him  some  trace  of  the  odor,  which  will 
make  the  test  useless.  If  no  leak  has  been  detected  the  plumbing 
can  be  pronounced  safe. 


322  PLUMBING. — INSPECTION   OF    PLUMBING. 

THE  SMOKE  TEST  is  considered  the  best  for  the  final  test.  It  is 
applied  by  burning  cotton  waste  or  paper  saturated  with  turpen- 
tine or  kerosene  in  a  suitable  apparatus  placed  at  the  mouth  of 
the  main  outlet-pipe.  Each  joint  should  be  closely  inspected, 
and  the  slightest  odor  of  the  smoke  is  an  indication  that  the  joint 
is  not  tight. 

When  air-pressure  is  used  a  pressure  of  10  pounds  per  square 
inch  is  generally  exacted. 

During  the  final  test  the  places  where  leaks  are  most  liable  to 
be  found  are  at  the  back  vent  horns  of  porcelain  fixtures,  floor 
connections  of  water  closets  and  coupling  joints;  these  should  be 
carefully  examined,  as  in  his  hurry  to  finish  the  job  the  plumber 
may  have  forgotten  to  put  in  the  washers. 

The  tightness  of  the  water-service  pipes  is  tested  by  a  hydraulic 
test-pump  under  a  pressure  of  about  twice  the  pressure  in  the  city 
supply-mains. 


PLASTERING. — DEFINITION    OJJ1    PLASTERING.        323 


Vin.    PLASTERING. 
Definition  of  Plastering, 

PLASTER  is  the  name  given  to  the  various  compositions  em- 
ployed for  covering  the  interior  walls  and  ceilings  of  buildings. 

The  term  stucco  is  applied  to  the  mortar  coverings  placed  on 
the  exterior  of  walls  to  protect  the  materials  of  the  walls  from 
disintegration,  also  to  secure  a  smooth  finish  for  the  purpose  of 
imitating  stone. 

The  material  most  extensively  employed  for  interior  work  is 
lime  mixed  with  sand,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  hair  or 
plaster  of  Paris.  Many  patented  cements  and  plasters  are  now  on 
the  market.  They  are  known  by  specific  names,  such  as  Keene's 
cement,  Acme  and  Climax  cement  plaster,  Windsor  cement,  Bock- 
wall  plaster,  Adamant,  etc.  The  three  last  named  are  mixed 
with  the  proper  proportion  of  sand  by  the  manufacturers,  and 
only  require  to  be  "wet  up"  before  using.  They  should  be 
manipulated  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  directions  furnished 
by  the  manufacturers. 

For  exterior  work  Portland  or  Rosendale  cement  and  sand  are 
generally  used. 

The  operation  of  plastering  comprises:  1st.  The  preparing  of 
the  groundwork,  which  is  formed  of  either  wooden  laths,  wire 
netting,  perforated  steel  sheets,  hollow  brick,  or  the  bare  brick  or 
stone  wells.  2d.  The  spreading  and  finishing  of  the  plaster. 

Plastering  is  divided  into  three  classes,  according  to  the  man- 
ner in  which  it  is  executed,  as  one-coat,  two-coat,  and  three-coat 
work. 

The  cements  or  mortars  employed  for  plastering  are  usually 
divided  into  three  classes,  known  as  course  stuff,  fine  stuff,  and 
finishing. 


324      MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTEKING. 


Materials  and  Terms  used  in  Plastering. 

ANGLE-BEAD  :  Vertical  beads,  generally  of  wood,  fixed  to  the 
exterior  angles  of  walls,  flush  with  the  intended  surface  of  the 
plaster. 

ANGLE- STAFF.  —  A  strip  of  wood  fixed  to  the  vertical  angle  of 
a  wall,  flush  with  the  plastering  of  the  two  planes.  It  is  de- 
signed as  a  substitute  for  plastering  in  a  situation  so  much  ex- 
posed. A  round  staff  is  known  as  an  angle-bead. 

BLACK  MORTAR  is  made  by  mixing  anthracite  (hard  coal)  coal 
dust  with  the  lime,  instead  of  sand. 

BROWN  COAT  or  Browning  is  the  name  given  to  the  second 
coat  in  three-coat  work.  It  is  composed  of  the  same  ingredi- 
ents as  the  first  or  scratch  coat,  with  the  addition  of  more  sand 
to  make  it  poorer,  and  therefore  less  liable  to  crack.  Its  thick- 
ness varies  from  one  quarter  to  three  eighths  of  an  inch.  If 
the  first  coat  has  become  too  dry  it  must  be  moistened  with 
water  before  applying  the  browning. 

On  brick  and  stone  walls  the  scratching  is  sometimes  omit- 
ted, and  the  brown  coat  is  applied  directly  to  the  surface  of  the 
wall,  and  of  the  propirr  thickness  to  receive  the  finishing  coat. 

COARSE  STUFF.— The  material  employed  for  the  first  coat. 
When  lime  is  used  as  the  cementing  medium  it  consists  of  about 
one  part  of  quicklime  to  four  parts  of  sand  and  about  two 
pounds  of  hair.  The  sand  and  lime  are  mixed  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  mortar  for  brickwork.  The  hair  is  added  by  the  use  of 
a  rake  or  hoe.  When  the  patent  plasters  are  used  the  coarse 
stuff  is  usually  furnished  ready  prepared  by  the  manufacturers, 
and  only  requires  to  be  mixed  with  water  for  use. 

COAT. — A  layer  of  plastering. 

A  scratch-coat  is  the  first  of  three  coats. 

One-coat  work  is  plastering  in  one  coat  without  finish. 

Two -coat  work  is  plastering  in  two  coats. 

Screed-coat:  A  coat  set  even  with  the  edges  of  the  screeds. 

Floated  coat :    A  first  coat  laid  on  with  a  float. 

Slippped  coat  is  the  smoothing  off  of  a  brown  coat  with  a  small 
quantity  of  iime  putty. 

The  term  "slipped  "  is  also  applied  to  the  operation  of  apply- 
ing the  brown  coat  to  the  first  coat  without  scratching  ,  this 
operation  is  also  called  laid- off  work. 


MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTERING.      325 

CORNICE  :  Any  moulded  projection  which  crowns  or  finishes 
the  part  to  which  it  is  affixed. 

DOTS  :  Nulls  driven  into  a  wall  to  n  certain  depth,  so  that  their 
protruding  heads  form  a  gauge  of  depth  in  laying  on  a  coat  of 
plaster. 

DUBBING  OUT  :  Filling  up  with  coarse  stuff  irregularities  in 
the  face  of  a  wall  previous  to  finishing  it.  with  finer  plaster. 

FINE  STUFF  is  made  of  pure  lump  lime  slaked  <o  paste  with  a 
moderate  quantity  of  water  and  afterwards  diluted  with  water 
to  the  consistency  of  cream,  then  placed  in  barrels,  where  it  is 
allowed  to  settle  and  stiffen  by  evaporation  to  the  proper  con- 
dition for  working. 

Fine  stuff  is  used  for  what  is  termed  a  "  slipped  coat,"  and 
with  the  addition  of  a  sm-ill  quantity  of  white  sand  or  plaster 
of  Paris  it  is  used  for  a  finishing  coat. 

FINISHING  COAT. — The  third  or  last  coat  of  plaster. 

FIRST  COAT. — The  primary  coat  of  coarse  stuff.     That  of  two- 
coat  work  is  called  laying  when  executed  on  lath,  and  rendering 
when  on  brickwork.     The  first  coat  of  three-coat  work  when  on 
lath  is  called  the  scratctt-cotit,  and  when  on  brickwork  rough 
ing  in, 

FLOATED  LATH  AND  PLASTER.  Plastering  of  three  coats, 
whereof  the  first  is  the  scratch-coat,  the  second  floating  or  floated 
work,  and  the  last  of  fine  stuff. 

FLOATED  WORK  :  Plastering  rendered  perfectly  plane  by 
means  of  a  float. 

FLOATING-SCRKEDS  :  Strips  of  plaster  previously  set  out  on  the 
work,  at  convenient  intervals,  fcr  the  range  of  the  floating-rule 
or  float. 

FURRINGS  are  strips  of  wood  nailed  to  joists,  rafters,  or  walls 
to  bring  their  surfuce  to  a  level  before  nailing  the  plaster-laths. 

GAUGE-STUFF  OR  HARD  FINISH  is  composed  of  fine  stuff  and 
plaster  of  Paris,  in  proportions  regulated  by  the  degree  of  rapidity 
required  in  hardening.  As  it  sets  rapidly,  it  should  be  prepared 
in  small  quantities  at  a  time.  It  is  used  for  the  finishing  coat  of 
walls,  for  cornices,  mouldings,  and  other  kinds  of  ornamentation. 
The  usual  proportions  are,  for  finishing,  3  to  4  volumes  of  putty 
to  1  volume  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  for  cornices,  etc.,  about 
equal  volumes  of  each. 

Hard  finish  is  applied  with  the  trowel,  to  the  depth  of  about  £ 
of  an  inch.  It  is  polished  with  the  water-brush  and  trowel. 
Hard  finish  is  also  made  with  1  part  of  fine  stuff,  2  parts  of 


320      MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IK"  PLASTERING. 

white  sand,  and  1  part  of  marble-dust.  When  so  composed 
it  is  called  "stucco." 

GROUNDS. — These  are  strips  of  wood  sawed  or  planed  carefully 
to  a  uniform  thickness,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  or  more  whero 
the  plastering  is  to  be  three  coat,  or  five  eighths  for  two-coat 
work,  secured  to  the  furriugs  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  convenient 
nailings  for  the  subsequent  finishings,  one  row,  for  instance, 
being  set  an  inch  or  so  below  the  top  of  the  future  base-board, 
two  or  three  in  the  height  of  a  wainscoting,  a  border  around 
each  door  and  window,  and  so  on.  Being  of  equal  thickness, 
and  straightened  with  the  straight-edge  and  plumb-rule  to  correct 
any  irregularity  in  the  furrings  or  studs,  they  afford  guides  for 
bringing  the  plaster  to  an  even  surface. 

HATH. — The  hair  used  for  plastering  is  obtained  from  the  hides 
of  cattle.  It  should  be  long,  free  from  grease,  dirt,  and  salt  (hair 
from  salted  hides  will  make  the  walls  damp) ;  it  should  be  well 
beaten,  so  as  to  straighten  out  the  hairs,  and  then  dried.  The 
mixing  of  the  hair  and  the  mortar  must  be  carefully  done,  so  as 
not  to  break  the  hair  into  short  bits. 

Hair  is  put  up  in  paper  bags,  each  bag  being  supposed  to  con- 
tain one  bushel  of  hair  when  beaten  up.  It  is  sold  by  the  bushel, 
which  weighs  from  14  to  15  pounds.  It  is  classed  according  to 
quality  as  Nos  1,  2,  and  3,  the  last  being  the  best. 

Jute  is  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  hair,  and  with  satisfac- 
tory results. 

HAND-FLOATING. — This  is  performed  by  using  the  float  in  the 
right  hand,  and  a  hair-brush  holding  water  in  the  left;  both 
instruments  are  passed  quickly  over  the  wall  at  the  same  time, 
the  brush  preceding  the  float  and  wetting  the  surface  to  the  re- 
quired degree.  The  firmness  and  tenacity  of  plastering  are  very 
considerably  increased  by  hand-floating.  The  operation  must 
take  place  while  the  mortar  is  green,  when  it  is  intended  as  a 
preparation  for  the  setting  coat. 

HARD  FINISH  ;  See  Gauge-stuff. 

KEENE'S  CEMENT  is  a  plaster  produced  by  recalcining  plaster 
of  Paris  after  soaking  it  in  a  saturated  solution  of  alum.  It  is 
made  in  two  qualities,  coarse  and  superfine.  The  latter  is  white 
and  capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish  ;  the  former  is  not  so 
white  or  able  to  take  so  good  a  polish,  but  sets  hard.  It  is  used 
for  interior  decorations,  artificial  marbles,  cornices,  etc. 

LAID  AND  SET  :  The  terms  used  to  describe  two -coat  plas- 
tering. 


MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTERING.       327 

LATHS,  WOOD. — Plasteriug-laths  are  usually  of  mill-sawed 
white  or  yellow  pine,  spruce,  or  hemlock,  in  lengths  of  4  feet, 
and  are  about  1-J-  inches  wide  and  |-  inch  thick,  and  should  be 
free  from  knots. 

They  are  nailed  up  horizontally  to  the  studs  and  spaced  f  of 
an  inch  apart ;  if  placed  Learer  together  the  mortar  will  not  be 
effectually  pressed  through  the  spaces,  and  its  hold  will  be  feeble; 
if  farther  apart  it  will  not,  while  soft,  sustain  its  own  weight. 
Joints  should  be  broken  every  course  ;  if  the  ends  all  joint  on 
one  stud  the  plaster  will  crack  at  that  point  when  the  stud  dries 
and  shrinks.  In  placing  laths  above  door-  and  window-heads 
they  should  extend  at  least  to  the  next  stud  beyond  the  jauib,  so 
;.s  to  prevent  the  radiating  cracks  which  are  apt  to  appear  at  that, 
point. 

No  deviation  from  the  horizontal  direction  of  the  laths  should 
be  permitted,  as  cracks  will  show  in  the  finished  work  where  the 
change  of  direction  was  made. 

Laths  are  sold  by  the  1000  in  bunches  containing  100  laths. 

&L  hundred  square  feet  of  plastering  requires  about  1400  laths. 

A  lather  will  nail  up  from  10  to  20  bunches  in  a  day. 

LATHS,  METALLIC.— Metallic  lathing  is  now  made  in  a  variety 
of  forms,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  different  plastering 
compositions  and  the  varying  conditions  of  construction. 

In  placing  metallic  lathings  care  is  necessary  to  see  that  they 
are  securely  fastened  and  stretched,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
bulges  or  irregularities  in  the  finished  work. 

LATH-NAILS  are  from  f  to  1  inch  long.  To  lath  100  square 
yards  requires  10  pounds  of  3d.  nails. 

LAYING  :  The  first  coat  of  plastering  in  two-coat  work. 

LIME  :  The  lime  used  in  plastering  should  be  the  best  quality 
wood-burned  stone  lime. 

LIME  MORTAR. — The  mortar  for  plaster  should  be  well  made. 
The  lime  should  be  thoroughly  slaked,  and  brought  to  a  paste  or 
putty  state.  It  should  remain  in  the  mortar-bed  until  it  is  per- 
fectly cool.  In  this  way  only  can  the  occurrence  of  particles  of 
unslaked  or  partially  slaked  lime  in  the  mortar  be  guarded 
against  ;  the  presence  of  such  particles  in  the  finished  work  causes 
cracks  and  blisters  by  absorbing  moisture. 

Authorities  disagree  as  to  the  length  of  time  the  lime  should  be 
allowed  to  cool.  The  usual  lime  is  from  six  to  fourteen  days. 

Newly  made  mortar,  if  immediately  applied,  will  chip,  crack, 
and  become  mottled. 


328      MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTERING. 

Iii  slaking  the  lime  care  must  be  taken  that  neither  too  much 
nor  toe  little  water  is  used.  If  too  much  is  used  the  lime  will  be 
"chilled,"  and  lose  a  part  of  its  strength  ;  if  too  little  it  will 
"burn,"  uud  a  portion  of  it  will  pass  into  the  mortar-bed  un- 
slaked and  cause  trouble  there. 

Mixing  the  Mortar. — In  regard  to  the  manner  of  mixing  the 
practice  varies.  1st.  The  lime  is  slaked  and  when  thoroughly 
cooled  sufficient  for  the  day's  work  is  taken  from  the  heap  and 
mixed  with  the  required  proportions  of  sand  and  hair,  then 
immediately  spread  upon  the  wall.  The  disadvantages  of  this 
process  are  the  difficulty  of  distributing  the  hair  evenly  through 
the  stiffened  paste  without  the  help  of  water  to  loosen  the  tufts, 
and  the  increased  labor  required  to  work  the  mortar.  The  advan- 
tages are  the  perfect  hydration  of  the  lime,  by  which  chip-cracks 
and  blisters  are  avoided  ;  the  smoothness  and  hardness  of  the 
finished  plastering,  and  its  greater  tenacity,  since  the  hair  not  being 
added  until  the  lime  is  cold  retains  its  full  strength  instead  of 
being  burned  and  corroded  by  steeping  in  the  hot  caustic  mix- 
ture, which  is  the  first  result  of  slaking.  2d.  The  lime  is 
spread  out,  water  poured  on,  and  after  a  little  stirring  the  hair  is 
added  and  mixed  with  the  steaming  liquid.  The  sand  is  then 
added  and  mixed  after  which  the  mixture  is  piled  for  use.  The 
hair  in  this  method  deteriorates  as  fast  as  the  lime  improves,  and  a 
season  of  cooling,  which  would  be  very  beneficial  to  the  latter 
ingredient,  will  nearly  destroy  the  former,  so  that  a  course  midway 
between  the  extremes  should  be  taken. 

LIME  PUTTY  is  lime  dissolved  in  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
fresh  lime  being  added  from  time  to  time,  and  the  mixture  stirred 
with  a  stick  until  the  lime  is  entirely  slaked,  and  the  whole 
becomes  of  the  consistence  of  cream  ;  it  is  next  while  still  warm 
sifted  or  run  through  a  hair  sieve  in  order  to  separate  the  coarser 
parts  of  the  lime,  and  is  then  ready  for  use.  The  material  which 
remains  in  the  sieve  should  be  thrown  away. 

MARBLE-DUST  is  sometimes  used  for  hard  finishing.  It  should 
not  be  too  fine,  as  it  will  then  not  make  good  work.  If  left 
about  as  coarse  as  sand  it  will  be  found  to  give  the  best  satisfac- 
tion. 

When  marble-dust  is  used  it  should  not  be  mixed  with  the 
lime  until  a  few  moments  before  using,  and  no  more  should 
be  prepared  at  one  time  than  can  be  used  up  at  once,  as  it  "  sets  " 
quickly,  after  which  it  should  not  be  used. 

The  marble-dust  must  be  prepared  especially   for  plastering, 


MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IK  PLASTERING.      329 

and  must  not  be  the  refuse  from  either  grinding  or  sawing 
marble  for  commercial  purposes,  us  such  refuse  contains  particles 
of  iron  which  will  oxidize  and  show  rust-spots  in  the  finished 
plaster. 

ONE-COAT  WORK  :  Plastering  in  one  coat  without  finish. ' 

PARGE-WORK  ;  PARGETTING  :  A  particular  sort  of  plaster- 
work,  having  patterns  and  ornaments  raised  upon  it  or  indented. 

PUGGING  :  Stuff  laid  between  ceilings  or  on  partition-walls  to 
deaden  sounds. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS  is  a  white  powder  of  sulphate  of  lime  pro- 
duced by  the  gentle  calcination  of  gypsum  to  a  point  short  of 
the  expulsion  of  the  whole  of  the  moisture.  Paste  made  from  it 
sets  in  a  few  minutes,  and  attains  its  full  strength  in  an  hour  or 
two.  At  the  time  of  setting  it  expands  in  volume,  which  makes 
it  valuable  for  filling  up  holes  and  other  defects  in  ordinary  work. 
It  is  added  to  lime  and  other  compositions  in  order  to  make  them 
harden  more  rapidly.  It  is  used  for  making  all  kinds  of  orna- 
ments for  ceilings,  cornices,  angle-beads,  etc.  Some  of  these  are 
cast  by  forcing  it  when  in  a  pasty  condition  into  moulds  made  of 
wax,  plaster,  etc.  rl  here  are  three  qualities  of  plaster  of  Paris  on 
the  market — the  superfine,  fi/<e,  and  coarse. 

It  should  be  mixed  by  putting  the  powder  into  the  water,  not 
the  water  amongst  the  powder. 

RENDERED  AND  SET  is  complete  two-coat  work  on  brick  or 
stone. 

RENDERING  :  The  first  coat  of  plastering  on  brickwork.  It  is 
followed  by  the  floating  coat  and  \.\\v  setting  coat. 

ROUGH  CAST  :  A  mode  of  finishing  outside  work  by  dashing 
over  the  second  coat  of  plaster  while  quite  wet  a  layer  of  washed 
fine  gravel  or  shells  in  in  g  with  lime  and  water. 

RULE  :  A  strip  or  screed  of  wood  or  plaster  placed  on  the  face 
of  a  wall  as  a  guide  to  assist  in  keeping  the  plane  surface. 

SAND  for  plaster  should  be  angular,  not  too  coarse  nor  too  fine, 
and  should  be  free  from  all  foreign  substances,  particularly  fine 
loam  or  clay  Clean  river,  or  pit-sand,  carefully  screened,  is 
generally  considered  the  best  for  plaster.  Sea-sand  is  deficient 
in  sharpness  and  contains  alkaline  salts,  which  attract  moisture, 
and  is  therefore  unfit  for  use  in  plaster.  Sand  containing  clay  or 
loatn  may  be  cleansed  by  washing  in  a  wooden  trough  having  a 
current  of  water  flowing  through  it  ;  when  thoroughly  cleaned  it 
will  leave  no  stain  when  rubbed  between  moist  hands.  Salts  can 


330      MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTERING. 

be  detected  by  the  taste,  and  the  size  aud  sharpness  can  be 
judged  by  the  eye  or  by  the  use  of  a  microscope. 

SAND-FINISH  has  a  rough  surface  resembling  sandpaper  ;  it  is 
composed  of  lime  putty  and  coarse  sand  in  equal  proportions, 
and  it  is  finished  with  a  wooden  or  cork  float. 

SCAGLIOLA  is  composed  of  plaster  of  Paris  with  alum  and  some 
color  mixed  into  a  paste,  and  afterwards  beaten  on  a  prepared 
surface  with  fragments  of  marble.  It  is,  when  properly  prepared, 
very  hard  aud  susceptible  of  a  fine  polish.  It  is  used  in  the  for- 
mation of  columns,  walls,  and  ornamental  work  in  imitation  of 
marble.  The  surface  on  which  it  is  to  be  placed  has  a  rough 
coating  of  lime  mortar  with  hair. 

When  the  composition  has  been  laid  on  the  prepared  surface 
and  is  properly  hardened  the  polishing  is  commenced  by  rub- 
bing the  surface  with  pumice-stone  and  dampening  it  with  a  wet 
sponge.  It  is  next  rubbed  with  tripoli  and  charcoal,  aud  there- 
after with  a  felt  rubber  dipped  in  oil  and  tripoli,  and  finally 
finished  o'ff  with  felt  or  cotton  dipped  in  oil  only. 

SCRATCH-COAT.— The  first  coat  applied.  It  is  intended  to  form 
a  foundation  for  the  succeeding  coats.  Its  thickness  varies  from 
one  quarter  to  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  When  lime  is  used 
it  is  composed  of  one  part  of  quicklime  to  four  parts  of  sand  aud 
about  two  pounds  of  hair  to  each  bushel  of  lime  ;  this  mixture  is 
generally  called  coarse  stuff.  The  operation  of  applying  it  to 
bare  brick  or  stone  walls  is  termed  rendering,  and  when  applied  on 
laths  laying.  When  completed  aud  partially  dry,  though  still 
quite  soft,  it  is  roughly  scored  or  scratched  (hence  its  name) 
with  pointed  sticks  nearly  through  its  thickness  by  lines  run- 
ning diagonally  across  each  other;  these  scorings  are  from  two  to 
four  inches  apart,  and  assist  the  adhesion  of  the  succeeding  coat. 

Before  applying  the  scratch-coat  to  solid  brick  or  stone  walls 
the  joints  of  the  masonry  should  be  raked  out  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  one  half  inch  the  surface  freed  from  dust  and  moistened 
with  water.  Old  masonry  if  smoked  or  greasy  should  be  also 
roughened. 

In  applying  to  wood  or  metal  laths  the  coarse  stuff  should  be 
well  tempered,  and  of  such  moderate  consistency  that  when 
pressed  with  force  against  the  laths  it  will  penetrate  between 
them  and  bend  down  on  the  inside  so  as  to  form  a  good  key.  As 
this  is  the  Only  way  in  which  the  whole  body  of  the  plaster  can 
be  kept  on  the  walls,  it  is  very  essential  that  this  work  be  well 
executed.  Sometimes  when  plaster  is  applied  to  the  surface  of 


MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTERING.      331 

brick  or  stone  walls  the  scratch  coat  is  omitted  and  the  brown 
coat  applied  directly  of  the  required  thickness  to  receive  the 
finishing  coat. 

SCREEDS  are  a  kind  of  gauge  or  guide  formed  by  applying  to 
the  first  or  scratch  coat,  when  partly  dried,  vertical  or  horizontal 
strips  of  plastering-mortar,  about  eight  inches  wide  and  two  to 
four  feet  apart,  all  around  the  room.  These  are  made  (o  proj<ct 
out  from  the  first  coat  to  the  intended  face  of  the  second  coat, 
and  while  soft  are  carefully  made  perfectly  straight  and  out  of 
wind  with  each  other  by  means  of  the  plumb-line,  stiaight-edge, 
etc.  When  this  is  done  the  second  coat  is  put  on,  filling  up  the 
horizontal  spaces  between  them,  and  is  readily  brought  to  a 
perfectly  flat  surface  corresponding  to  that  of  the  screeds  by 
means  of  long  straight-edges  extending  over  two  or  more  of  the 
screeds 

SCREED-COAT  AND  SET  are  terms  used  also  to  designate  two- 
coat  work.  The  screeds  are  strips  of  mortar,  six  to  eight  inches 
in  width  and  of  the  required  thickness  of  the  second  coat,  applied 
on  the  scratch-coat  at  the  angles  of  the  room,  and  parallel,  at  in- 
tervals of  3  to  5  feet,  all  over  the  surface  to  be  covered.  These 
screeds  are  carefully  worked  so  as  to  be  accurate!}'  in  the  same 
plane  by  the  frequent  application  of  the  straight-edge  in  all 
possible  directions.  When  they  have  become  sufficiently  hard  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  straight-edge  the  "filling  out"  of  the 
interspaces  flush  with  the  surface  of  the  screeds  takes  place,  so  as 
to  produce  a  continuous,  straight,  and  even  surface.  The  surface 
is  then  hand -floated. 

SKIM-UOAT  is  generally  composed  of  lime  putty  and  washed 
beach-sand  in  equal  proportions.  It  is  finished  by  trowelling  over 
the  surface  from  three  to  five  times  with  a  steel  trowel  and  wet 
brush. 

SLIPPED-COAT. — A  slipped-coat  is  merely  a  smoothing  off  of  a 
brown  coat  (coarse  stuff)  with  the  smallest  quantity  of  fine  stuff 
or  lime  putty  that  will  answer  to  secure  a  comparative!}'  even 
surface. 

STEARATE  OF  LIME  is  composed  of  lime  and  beef  suet.  It  is 
used  as  a  finishing  coat.  The  walls  are  prepared  in  the  usual 
manner,  with  a  scratch -coat  and  a  browning  coat,  the  latter  being 
"floated."'  When  the  browning  is  sufficiently  dry  the  "stearate" 
is  applied  "hot"  with  an  ordinary  whitewash-brush.  Two  coats 
arc  generally  applied. 

STUCCO  for  interior  work  is  composed  of  lime,  putty,  and  white 


332      MATERIALS  AND  TERMS  USED  IN  PLASTERING. 

sand.  The  usual  proportions  are  three  to  four  volumes  of  sand 
to  one  of  putty  (marble  dust  is  sometimes  added).  It  is  applied 
with  the  trowel  to  the  thickness  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch. 
It  is  well  hand-floated,  the  water-brush  being  used  freely  while 
so  doing.  After  the  wooden  float  has  been  used  it  is  gone  over 
with  the  cork  float  in  the  same  manner.  The  surface  is  po.ished 
with  the  trowel  and  brush. 

STUCCO  (COMMON)  consists  of  three  parts  clean  f.harp  sand  and 
one  part  of  lime. 

STUCCO  (BASTAKD)  consists  of  fine  stuff  and  a  small  quantity 
of  sand,  and  sometimes  hair  is  added. 

STUCCO  (TROWELLED)  is  composed  of  two-thirds  fine  stuff 
and  one-third  fine  clean  sand,  it  is  used  for  surfaces  intended  to 
be  pain'ed 

STUCCO  — The  name  stucco  is  ulso  given  to  the  plastering  on 
exterior  walls.  The  materials  used  for  this  work  are  generally 
Portland  or  Rosendale  cement  and  sand.  The  mortar  made  from 
either  of  these  cements  is  applied  in  two  coats,  laid  on  in  one 
operation  That  for  the  first  coat  should  be  somewhat  thinner 
t!  an  that  for  the  second,  in  order  that  it  may  be  pressed  into 
thorough  contact  with  the  wall,  The  second  coat  is  applied 
upon  the  first,  while  the  latter  is  yet  soft.  The  two  coats  thus 
laid  should  form  one  compact  coat  of  about  one-half  inch  in 
tlrckness.  The  finished  stucco  should  be  kept  shaded  from  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  some  days,  and  be  moistened  from  time 
to  time. 

As  a  modification  of  the  above  process  the  first  coat  is  some- 
times omitted,  or  rather  replaced  by  a  wash  of  thick  cream  of 
pure  cement,  applied  with  a  stiff  brush  from  time  to  time,  just 
before  the  mortar  is  put  on.  If  the  brushwork  is  faithfully 
done,  and  not  allowed  to  dry  before  the  surface  receives  the 
stucco  an  intimate  contact  and  firm  adhesion  are  sure  to  result, 

A  necessary  precaution  in  this  kind  of  work  is  to  secure  the 
services  of  a  faithful  workman — one  who  will  not  spare  his 
strength,  or  lay  on  any  of  the  mortar  too  loosely,  or  on  too  dry  a 
surface  ,  otherwise  there  will  be  portions  without  adhesion  that 
W7ill  be  thrown  off  ou  the  first  occurrence  of  frost. 

After  the  stucco  has  been  on  for  a  few  days  the  whole  surface 
should  be  carefully  sounded  with  a  small  iron  instrument  like  a 
tack-hammer  when  all  places  destitute  of  adhesion  will  be  readily 
detected  by  their  hollow  sound.  From  these  the  stucco  should 


TOOLS  USKD  IN  PLASTERING.          333 

be  carefully  removed,  the  surface  roughened  and  wetted,  and 
new  mortar  applied. 

TWO-COAT  WORK. — Plastering  in  two  coats  is  done  either  in  a 
laying  coat  and  set,  or  in  a  screed-coat  and  set.  The  screed- coat  is 
also  called  the  floated  coat.  Laying  the  first  coat  in  two-coat 
work  is  resorted  to  in  common  work  instead  of  screeding,  when 
the  finished  surface  is  not  required  to  be  exactly  even  to  a  straight 
edge. 

After  the  first  coat,  whether  it  be  a  laying  coat  or  a  screed-coat, 
has  become  partially  dry  so  as  to  resist  the  pressure  of  the 
trowel,  it  is  ready  for  the  setting  or  finishing  coat.  This  may  be 
either  in  slipped  work,  stucco,  bastard  stucco,  or  hard  finish  In  all 
cases  the  surface  to  receive  it  must  be  roughened  or  scratched 
with  a  suitable  tool,  and  if  too  dry  must  be  moistened. 

THREE-COAT  WORK.— The  first  and  second  coat  are  termed 
respectively  the  scratcJt-co&t  and  brown  coat,  and  the  third  coat  is 
either  hard-finish  or  stucco. 

WHITE-COATING  generally  means  a  composition  of  lime,  putty, 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  marble  dust  or  white  sand. 

Tools  Used  in  Plastering. 

DARBY  :  A  float-tool  .,  it  is  either  single  or  double,  as  may  be 
required,  the  single  being  for  one  man  to  use,  the  double  for 
two  The  single  oue  should  be  4  feet  5  inches  long  and  about  4 
inches  wide,  with  a  handle  near  one  end,  and  a  cleat  near  the 
other  end  running  lengthwise  of  the  blade.  The  long  darbys 
have  a  handle  on  each  end. 

FLOAT,  A  trowel  used  in  spreading  or  floating  the  plaster  on 
to  a  wall  or  other  surface. 

The  Long  Float  is  of  such  a  length  as  to  require  two  men  to  use 
it. 

The  Hand  Float,  made  of  pine,  is  used  for  finishing. 

The  Quick  Float  is  used  in  finishing  mouldings. 

The  Angle  Float  is  shaped  to  fit  the  angle  formed  by  the  walls. 

The  Cork  Float  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  wooden 
float. 

HAWK  :  A  square  piece  of  board  with  a  handle  in  the  centre 
of  one  side  ;  it  is  used  for  holding  and  conveying  the  mortar. 

HOD  for  carrying  mortar  is  formed  by  two  boards,  eleven  and 
twelve  inches  wide  respectively,  and  eighteen  inches  long,  the  wide 
board  being  nailed  on  the  edge  of  the  narrow  one,  making  a  right- 


334          TOOLS  USED  IN  PLASTERING. 

nngled  trough  :  one  end  is  inclosed,  and  the  end  piece  is  rounded 
over  the  top  ;  the  boards  forming  the  sides  are  rounded  at  the 
opening  A  handle  about  four  feet  long  and  two  inches  in  di- 
ameter is  fastened  about  two  inches  forward  of  the  middle,  nearer 
to  the  open  end.  and  a  piece  of  wood  called  a  pad  is  fitted  with  a 
V  groove  on  the  angle  just  back  of  the  handle. 

MITHING  HOD  is  a  tool  one  foot  or  more  long,  and  about  oue- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  three  inches  wide  ;  the  longest  edge 
is  sharp,  and  one  end  is  bevelled  off  to  about  thirty  degrees,  It 
is  used  for  cleaning  out  quirks  in  mouldings,  angles,  and 
cornices. 

MORTAR  BEDS  are  made  of  rough  plank,  and  should  be 
strongly  put  together 

MORTAR-BOARD  is  a  board  similar  to  a  table  top,  and  is  about 
forty  inches  square.  It  is  used  for  holding  the  mortar  delivered 
from  the  hod. 

MORTAR  BOX     See  Slack-box, 

MOULDS  These  are  used  for  running  cornices,  and  are  infinite 
in  shape  and  variety  The  reverse  of  the  contour  of  the  cornice 
is  cut  out  of  sheet  copper  or  iron,  and  is  firmly  attached  to  a 
piece  of  wood  which  is  also  cut  out  the  reverse  shape  of  the 
intended  moulding. 

PADDLE  :  This  is  a  piece  of  pine  wood  less  than  three  inches 
wide,  and  six  long,  by  one  thick  :  it  is  made  wedge-shaped  on 
one  end,  the  other  end  being  rounded  off  for  a  handle.  Its  use  is 
to  carry  stuff  into  angles  when  finishing. 

POINTER. — This  is  a  trowel  of  nearly  the  same  shape  as  a  brick- 
layer's, but  only  about  four  inches  long.  It  is  used  for  mending 
broken  or  defective  cornices,  etc. 

SCRATCHER. — This  is  generally  made  of  short  pieces  of  pine 
two  inches  wide  and  one  inch  thick;  five  or  seven  of  them  are 
nailed  to  two  cleats,  and  are  placed  about  an  inch  apart.  The 
centre  one  is  left  longer  than  the  others,  so  as  to  form  a  handle. 
The  ends  opposite  to  the  handle  are  cut  off  square  and  pointed. 
When  completed  it  resembles  a  gridiron.  Its  use  is  to  make 
grooves  in  the  first  coat  to  form  a  key  for  the  second  coat. 

SIEVES  of  either  hair  or  wire  are  used  for  straining  through 
putty  for  finishing. 

SLACK-BOX. — This  is  generally  made  of  boards,  eight  or  nine 
feet  long  and  from  two  to  four  feet  wide,  and  twelve  or  sixteen 
inches  in  depth.  The  bottom  should  be  made  as  tight  as  rough 
boards  will  permit. 


MATERIALS    REQUIRED    FOR    PLASTERING. 


335 


STOPPING  AND  PICKING  OUT  TOOLS,  also  called  mitring  tools, 
are  made  of  fine  steel  plates,  seven  or  eight  incbes  long,  and  of 
various  widths  and  shapes.  They  are  used  for  modelling  and  for 
finishing  mitres  and  returns  to  cornices  by  hand  where  the 
moulds  cannot  work, 

TROWELS  are  of  several  kinds:  the  one  for  ordinary  use  is 
formed  of  light  steel  four  inches  wide  and  about  twelve  inches 
long;  this  is  the  laying  and  smoothing  tool.  The  gauging  trowel 
is  used  for  gauging  tine  stuff  for  courses,  etc. ;  it  varies  in  size 
from  three  to  seven  inches  in  length,  and  iu  form  resembles  a 
bricklayer's  trowel. 


TABLE  70. 

QUANTITY  OF  MATERIALS  REQUIRED  FOR  PLASTERING. 


One-coat 

Materials. 

Work. 
Scratch- 
coat. 

Two-coat 
Work. 
%"  Thick. 

Three-coal 
Work. 
%"  Tiiick. 

Hard  Finish. 
W  Thick. 

96"  Thick. 

Per  Sq.  Yd. 

Per  Sq.  Yd. 

Per  Sq.  Yd. 

Per  Sq.  Yd 

Lime  (unslaked)  

.15  CU    ft. 

.25  CU.  ft. 

.33  CU.  ft. 

.lOcu.  ft. 

Sand.  

.23  "     " 

38  "     •• 

38    "      " 

Hair  

10  Ib 

17  Ib 

18  Ib 

Water  

li  gals 

2  gals 

2-i  u.als 

1  iral 

Plaster  of  Paris.  ...... 

.03  cu.  ft. 

TABLE  71. 
AREA  COVERED  WITH  ONE  CUBIC  FOOT  OF  CEMENT  AND  SANL 

Thickness.     Inches. 


materials,   uuoic  t?  eet. 

hi 

% 

1 

Cement  1  .... 

Sq.  Yds. 

22- 

Sq.  Yds. 

14 

Sq.  Yds. 
H 

3* 

8f 

If 

1,    "      2.,  

4| 

3| 

4 

For  rubble  or  very  rough  brick  walls  the  area  in  the  above  table  will  be 
decreased. 


336  INSPECTION    OF    PLASTERING. 


Inspection  of  Plastering. 

MORTAR, — It  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  by  the  appearance  of  a 
heap  of  plastering-morttir  whether  the  lime,  sand,  and  hair  are  of 
good  quality  and  in  suitable  proportions.  If  properly  mixed, 
which  will  be  shown  by  the  absence  of  streaks  in  the  mas.",  a 
small  quantity  should  be  taken  up  on  a  trowel.  If  it  hangs  down 
from  the  edge  without  dropping  off  the  quantity  of  hair  is  suffi- 
cient. 

On  drying  a  small  quantity  of  the  mortar  an  excess  of  sand 
will  be  shown  by  its  being  easily  rubbed  away  with  the  fingers 

The  quality  of  the  lime  is  best  tested  by  observing  the  slaking. 
It  should  slake  energetically  and  fall  into  a  smooth  paste  without 
any  refractory  lumps  or  particles  of  "  core."  If  such  are  found 
all  the  packages  of  that  brand  should  be  rejected. 

During  the  application  of  the  scratch  coat  on  laths  the  opera 
tion  should  be  closely  watched  to  see  that  the  workman  exerts 
sufficient  pressure  to  force  the  mortar  through  the  openings  and 
cause  it  to  bend  over  and  form  a  hook  or  key.  It  is  necessary 
that  ceiling  plaster  should  clinch  well  over  every  lath  and  wall 
plaster  over  every  second  or  third.  The  scratching  should  be 
thoroughly  executed  It  affords  the  key  for  the  second  coat,  The 
application  of  the  second  or  brown  coat  should  not  be  begun  un- 
til the  first  coat  is  thoroughly  dry. 

After  the  brown  coat  is  dry  the  rule-joints  at  the  angles  should 
be  first  made,  then  screeds  worked  in  between  Thestraightness 
and  accuracy  of  corner  and  angles  should  be  insisted  upon,  as 
the  eye  detects  any  irregularity  in  the  angle  between  walls,  or 
between  the  wall  and  ceiling,  while  inequalities  of  the  interme- 
diate portions  are  not  so  noticeable  When  the  screeds  have  har- 
dened a  little  the  space  between  them  is  filled  in  with  "  brown" 
mortar,  which  is  easily  made  perfectly  even  by  means  of  the 
straight-edge. 

Cornices  should  be  run  before  the  last  coat  of  plaster  is  ap 
plied.  The  angles  should  be  as  rough  as  possible  to  give  them 
sufficient  "  key.  "  If  there  is  a  large  mass  of  mortar  to  be  left  in 
the  angle  nails  should  be  driven  to  hold  up  the  coarse  mortar 
used  for  "  dubbing  out  "  the  cornice  before  the  finishing  coat  is 
applied 

See  that  the  laths  are  properly  spaced  and  nailed  and  that  the 
joints  are  properly  broken.  When  wire  lathing  is  used  see  that 


INSPECTION    OF    PLASTERING.  337 

it  is  securely  fastened  and  well  stretched,  so  that  there  may  be  no 
bulges  or  irregularities  in  the  finished  work. 

lu  applying  plaster  directly  to  the  surface  of  brick  or  stone 
walls  the  joints  should  be  raked  out  to  a  depth  of  at  least  half  an 
inch,  the  surface  cleaned  of  dust  and  then  thoroughly  wetted. 

Care  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  injury  of  plastering  by  freez- 
ing in  winter  or  by  too  rapid  drying  in  summer.  From  the  latter 
cause  the  finished  work  near  the  windows  is  often  found  covered 
with  a  network  of  minute  cracks,  particularly  on  the  side  which 
the  wind  strikes,  while  a  breeze  barely  at  the  freezing-point  will 
cover  the  surface  with  radiating  crystals,  disintegrating  it  so  that 
on  thawing  again  the  mortar  will  scale  off  in  patches.  The  rem- 
edy for  this  is  to  keep  all  openings  protected  by  temporary  win- 
dows or  screens,  consisting  of  wooden  frames  covered  with  cot- 
ton cloth  well  fitted  to  the  openings.  These  coverings  should  not 
be  removed  until  the  glazed  sashes  are  ready  to  take  their  place, 
because  by  opening  the  windows  while  the  plaster  is  green  and 
admitting  a  draft  those  portions  exposed  to  iis  action  will  dry  so 
rapidiy  that  it  will  crack,  warp,  and  break  bond. 

PLASTEHING  TILE  AIICHES. — When  it  is  intended  to  plaster 
the  under  side  of  tile  arches  the  inspector  should  see  that  the 
smoke  and  soot  from  the  boiler  used  for  the  hoisting-plant  are 
not  allowed  to  strike  the  arches,  as  neither  can  be  removed,  and 
they  will  stain  the  plaster.  For  the  same  reason  he  should  see 
that  only  clean  water  is  used  for  mixing  the  mortar,  and  that  it 
is  not  allowed  to  How  over  the  arches. 

Plaster  should  not  be  applied  to  the  arches  until  they  are  well 
dried  out,  otherwise  stains  are  liable  to  appear  which  cannot  be 
concealed  even  by  oil-paint. 


338  GLASS. 


IX.    GLASS  AND  GLAZING, 

Glass. 

The  defects  of  glass  are  very  apparent,  and  consist  of  waves.. 
air-bubbles,  twists,  sand-specks,  blisters,  and  patches  of  color. 
The  difference  between  first  and  second  quality  glass  is  very 
slight,  and  must  be  learned  by  observation.  Double- thick  glass 
shows  unevenness  of  surface  more  plainly  than  single-thick. 

The  tensile  strength  of  common  glass  varies  from  2000  pounds 
to  3000  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  its  crushing  strength  from 
6000  pounds  to  10,000  pounds. 

Ordinary  window-glass  is  sold  by  the  box,  whatever  may  be 
the  size  of  the  panes  ;  a  box  contains  as  nearly  50  square  feet  as 
the  dimensions  of  the  panes  will  allow.  Panes  of  any  size  can  be 
made  to  order.  A  great  variety  of  sizes  are  usually  kept  in 
stock,  ranging  from  6  X  8  to  44  X  56  inches. 

SHEET  GLASS  is  of  various  qualities,  weighing  from  12  to  42 
ounces  per  square  foot. 

SINGLE  THICK  GLASS  is  about  ^th  of  an  inch  thick. 

DOUBLE  THICK  is  about  £-th  inch  thick. 

PLATE  GLASS  ranges  in  thickness  from  TVh  to  £lh  of  an  inch. 

POLISHED  PLATE  ranges  from  T\  to  £  inch  thick. 

ROUGH-CAST  PLATE,  used  for  flooring,  is  usually  6  inches 
wide,  11  inches  long,  and  from  £  to  1  inch  thick. 

CROWN  GLASS  is  made  in  single  and  extra  thick.  It  is  said  to 
be  more  free  from  color  than  sheet  glass,  and  it  has  a  liner 
surface. 

FRENCH  POLISHED  PLATE  GLASS  is  considered  to  be  the 
highest  grade  of  window-glass  in  the  market.  May  be  obtained 
in  lights  varying  from  a  piece  one  inch  square  to  a  light  8  feet 
wide  and  14  feet  long. 

The  weight  averages  3|  pounds  per  square  foot. 


GLAZING. 


339 


TABLE  72. 

THICKNESS  AND  WEIGHT  OF  SHEET  GLASS. 


No. 

Thickness, 
Inches. 

Weight  per. 
Sq.  Ft. 
Ounces. 

No. 

Thickness. 
Inches. 

Weight  per 
Sq.  Ft. 
Ounct-s. 

12 

.059 

12 

21 

.100 

21 

13 

.063 

13 

24 

.111 

24 

15 

.071 

15 

26 

.125 

26 

16 

.077 

16 

32 

.154 

32 

17 

.083 

17 

36 

.167 

36 

19 

.091 

19 

42 

.200 

42 

TABLE  73. 
THICKNESS  AND  WEIGHT  OF  SKYLIGHT-GLASS. 


Dimensions. 
Inches. 

Thickness. 
Inches. 

Weight  per 
Sq.     Lbs. 

12  X  48 

A 

250 

15  X  60 

350 

20  X  10 

1 

500 

94  X  156 

* 

700 

Glazing. 

Glass  is  secured  in  the  sashes  by  triangular  pieces  of  tin  called 
sprigs  and  putty  ;  the  panes  of  glass  should  be  a  little  smaller 
than  the  sash  in  which  they  are  to  rest,  so  that  the  edges  of  the 
glass  nowhere  actually  touch  the  frame. 

A  layer  of  putly  is  spread  over  the  narrow  part  of  the  rebates, 
upon  which  the  glass  is  firmly  bedded — this  is  called  the  lack- 
putty  ;  as  the  glass  is  pressed  upon  it  the  superfluous  putty  is 
squeezed  out  round  the  edges  of  the  panes  and  cut  off. 

The  glass  is  then  front-puttied,  the  rebate  is,  stopped,  that  is, 
filled  in  with  putly  to  a  triangular  section. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  the  putty  does  not  project  beyond  the 
front  of  the  rebate  so  as  to  be  seen  from  the  inside  of  the 
window. 

Glazing  in  roofs  is  usually  done  without  putty  ;  galvanized  iron 
sashes  are  usually  employed  for  this  purpose. 

Large  panes  of  plate  glass  are  not  usually  back-puttied,  rubber 
and  leather  are  usually  employed  for  heavy  panes. 


340     PAINTING. — MATERIALS   EMPLOYED   FOR   PAINT, 


X.    PAINTING- 
Materials  employed  for  Paint. 

A  paint  consists  of  a  base  (usually  a  metallic  oxide),  a  vehicle, 
and  a  solv  nt. 

BASES  are  white  lead,  red  lend,  zinc  white,  oxide  of  iron,  etc. 

VEHICLES  are  water  and  drying-oils. 

SOLVENTS  are  spirits  of  turpentine. 

DRIERS  are  red  lead,  litharge,  acetate  of  lead,  sulphate  of 
zinc,  binoxide  of  manganese,  etc.;  they  are  used  to  make  the 
vehicle  dry  more  rapidly. 

STATNEKS  —When  the  finished  color  is  desired  to  be  different 
from  that  of  the  base,  coloring-pigments  are  used.  They  must  be 
more  or  less  finely  ground,  so  as  to  be  capable  when  mixed  with 
the  vehicle  of  being  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer  or  film  over  the 
surface  to  be  painted. 

BASES. 

WHITE  LEAD  (hydrated  carbonate  of  lead).— There  are  two 
methods  of  producing  white-lead  pigment.  In  the  older  or 
Dutch  method  thin  sheets  of  lead  are  placed  over  pots  containing 
a  weak  acelic  acid,  and  the  pots  imbedded  in  fermenting  tan- 
bark,  the  temperature  of  which  varies  from  140°  to  150°  F.  The 
fumes  from  the  acid  convert  the  lead  into  the  carbonate  in  a  few 
weeks,  which  is  removed  and  ground  to  a  fine  powder. 

In  the  more  modern  process  oxide  of  lead  (litharge)  is  mixed 
with  water  and  about  1  per  cent  of  neutral  acetate  of  lend,  and 
carbonic  ncid  gas  poured  over  it.  In  this  manner  the  oxide 
is  quickly  converted  into  white  lead,  which  does  not  require 
grinding. 

Pure  white  lead  is  a  heavy  powder,  white  when  first  made;  if 
exposed  in  the  air  it  soon  becomes  gray  by  the  action  of  sulphu- 
retted hydrogen. 


PAINTING. — MATERIALS    EMPLOYED   FOR   PAINT.      341 

It  is  insoluble  in  water,  effervesces  with  dilute  hydrochloric 
acid,  dissolving  when  heated,  and  is  easily  soluble  in  dilute  nitric 
acid 

When  hea:ed  on  a  sfip  of  glass  it  becomes  yellow. 

ADULTERATIONS  — White  lead  is  often  mixed  with  sulphate  of 
baryta,  sulphate  of  had,  gypsum  and  oxide  of  zinc  (il  is  claimed 
that  these  substances  render  it  less  liable  to  be  blackened  by  the 
action  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen),  whiting  or  chalk,  and  other  inert 
pigments. 

Sulphate  of  baryta,  the  most  common  adulterant,  is  a  dense, 
heavy,  white  substance,  very  like  white  lead  in  appearance.  It 
absorbs  very  little  oil,  and  may  frequently  be  detected  by  the 
gritty  feeling  it  produces  when  the  paint  is  rubbed  between  the 
finger  and  thumb.  The  presence  of  the  other  ingredients  may  be 
detected  by  the  change  in  the  specific  gravity  of  the  lead  when 
dry,  or  by  various  methods  of  analysis. 

TESTS  FOR  WHITE  LEAD. — Dry  lead  ;  digest  a  small  quantity 
with  nitric  acid,  in  which  it  dissolves  readily  on  boiling.  When 
ground  with  oil,  the  oil  should  be  burned  off,  and  the  residue 
treated  with  nitric  acid;  or  the  white  lead  ground  with  oil  may 
be  boiled  for  some  little  time  with  strong  nitric  acid,  which 
destroys  the  oil,  and  dissolves  the  lead  on  the  addition  of  water. 

If  sulphate  of  baryta  be  present,  being  insoluble  in  the  acid  it 
remains  behind,  and  can  be  collected  on  a  filter,  washed  with  ho! 
distilled  water,  and  weighed. 

SUBLIMED  LEAD  (substitute  for  white  lead)  is  obtained  as  a  by- 
product in  the  smelting  of  non-argentiferous  lead  ores.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  special  furnaces,  in  which  the  material  is  roasted,  and  is 
one  of  the  products  of  sublimation  and  partial  oxidation  of 
galena  ore  with  bituminous  coal  as  a  fuel.  The  ore  is  first  smelted 
with  raw  coal  and  slacked  lime  in  a  furnace,  using  an  air-blast  to 
obtain  the  required  heat;  the  hotter  the  fire  the  more  lead  is  vola- 
tilized and  the  more  "fume  "  is  produced.  The  products  of  this 
smelting  are  pig  lead,  pasty  slags  containing  more  or  less  lead, 
zinc,  and  other  constituents  of  the  ore,  and  the  "fume."  The 
latter  is  drawn  off  by  an  exhaust  fan  through  a  settling-chamber 
to  a  bag-house,  which  contains  a  large  number  of  woollen  bags 
for  filtering  the  fume  out  of  the  gases.  This  "  fume  "  is  a  lead- 
colored,  impalpable  powder  known  as  "blue  powder,"  and  owes 
its  color  to  the  sulphide  and  carbonaceous  matter,  in  it.  It  is 
ignited  and  allowed  to  burn  for  several  hours,  which  converts  it 
into  white,  coherent  crusts.  These  crusts,  with  oxidating  ores 


342    PAINTING.— MATERIALS   EMPLOYED   FOK   PAINT. 

aud  hearth-slags,  are  next  charged  iuto  a  special  furnace  with  a 
very  hot  coke  fire.  The  products  of  this  smelting  are  pig  lead, 
slags  poor  enough  in  lead  to  be  thrown  away,  and  the  '•  fume/' 
which  in  this  case  is  perfectly  while  and  in  a  fine  state  of  subdi- 
vision, suitable  for  a  white  pigment,  aud  is  sold  as  such  either 
dry  or  ground  in  oil.  It  is  known  to  the  trade  as  Jopliu  lead, 
from  the  place  where  it  was  first  manufactured,  Joplin,  Mo.  It  is 
also  known  as  Picher  lead,  from  the  name  of  the  manufacturing 
company. 

ZINC  WHITE  (oxide  of  zinc)  is  produced  either  by  distilling 
metallic  zinc  in  retorts  under  a  current  of  air,  or  by  a  process 
similar  in  principle  to  that  described  under  Sublimed  Lead. 
Zinc  white  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid. 

OXYSULPHIDE  OF  ZINC,  prepared  by  precipitating  chloride 
or  sulphide  of  zinc  by  means  of  a  soluble  sulphate  of  sodium, 
barium,  or  calcium,  is  used  as  the  base  of  some  patented  paints. 

RED  LEAD  (red  oxide  of  lead  or  minium)  is  produced  by  raising 
the  oxide  of  lead  (known  commercially  as  litharge  or  massicot) 
obtained  in  the  melting  of  argentiferous  lead  ores  to  a  high  tem- 
perature, short  of  fusion,  during  which  it  absorbs  oxygen  from 
the  air  and  is  converted  into  red  lead.  It  is  prepared  in  specially 
constructed  furnaces,  on  the  hearth  of  which  the  lead  is  melted 
and  kept  at  a  low  red  heat,  and  continually  stirred  to  allow  oxi- 
dation to  occur.  The  massicot  so  formed  during  24  hours  of 
exposure  to  the  heat  is  taken  out,  ground  to  a  fine  powder  and 
washed,  and  again  subjected  in  the  same  furnace  for  48  hours  to 
the  same  low  red  heat,  until  a  sample  taken  out  appears  a  dark 
red  while  hot  aud  a  bright  red  when  cooling.  The  furnace  is 
then  closed  and  left  to  cool  slowly,  a  condition  most  essential  to 
the  success  of  the  operation. 

There  are  other  methods  of  preparing  red  lead,  but  the  above 
is  the  most  important. 

The  carbonate  of  lead  is  also  used  instead  of  the  oxide  for  con- 
version into  red  lead,  but  when  the  temperature  is  properly  regu- 
lated another  pigment  is  obtained,  called  orange  lead.  Red  lead 
thus  produced  retains  a  little  carbonic  acid  and  forms  a  pigment 
known  as  Paris  red 

ADULTERATION  OF  RED  LEAD. — Commercial  red  lead  con- 
tains all  of  the  foreign  metallic  oxides — such  as  the  oxides  of 
silver,  copper,  and  iron — with  which  the  litharge  used  in  pre- 
paring it  is  contaminated.  It  is  also  adulterated  with  the  red 
oxide  of  iron,  boles,  or  brick-dust.  These  substances  remain  uu- 


PAINTING. — MATERIALS   EMPLOYED   FOR   PAINT.     343 

dissolved  when  the  red  lead  is  digested  in  warm  dilute  nitric 
acid  ;  boiling  hydrochloric  acid  extracts  the  sesquioxide  of  iron 
from  the  residue.  When  red  lead  thus  adulterated  is  ignited 
there  remains  a  mixture  of  yellow  lead  oxide  and  the  red  sub- 
stances that  have  been  added  to  it.  Brick-dust  may  be  detected 
by  heating  the  lead  in  a  crucible  and  treating  it  with  dilute  nitric 
acid.  The  lead  will  be  dissolved,  but  the  brick-dust  will  remain. 

ANTIMONY  VERMILLION  (sulphide  of  antimony),  produced  from 
antimony  ore,  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  red  lead. 

OXIDE  OF  IRON  is  produced  from  the  brown  hematite  ores. 
The  ore  is  roasted,  separated  from  impurities,  and  then  ground. 
Tints  varying  from  yellowish  brown  to  black  may  be  obtained 
by  altering  the  temperature  and  other  conditions  under  which  it 
is  roasted.  It  is  also  produced  as  a  by-product  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  aniline  dyes. 

VEHICLES. 

RAW  LINSEED-OIL  is  produced  by  compressing  flaxseed. 
The  oil  as  first  expressed  from  the  seed  is  allowed  to  settle  until 
it  can  be  drawn  off  clear. 

Raw  linseed-oil,  when  of  good  quality,  should  be  pale  in  color, 
perfectly  transparent,  almost  free  from  odor,  and  sweet  in  taste. 
Darkness  in  color  and  slowness  in  drying  indicate  inferior  quality. 
These  defects  are  diminished  and  the  quality  of  the  oil  improved 
by  age. 

The  oil  should  not  be  used  within  six  months  after  being  pro- 
duced ;  it  improves  by  keeping. 

Raw  oil  is  more  suited  for  delicate  work  than  boiled  oil,  as  it 
it  is  thinner,  and  lighter  in  color.  "When  it  is  to  be  used  for 
such  purpose  it  is  clarified  by  adding  an  acid  (usually  muriatic), 
which  is  afterwards  carefully  washed  out. 

Raw  oil  spread  in  a  thin  film  on  glass  or  other  non-absorbent 
material  will  take  from  two  to  three  days  to  dry,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  weather. 

The  drying  quality  and  the  color  of  raw  oil  may  be  improved 
by  adding  about  one  pound  of  white  lead  to  every  gallon  of  oil 
and  allowing  it  to  settle  for  about  a  week.  The  oil  is  drawn  off, 
and  the  lead  can  be  used  for  painting  rough  work. 

BOILED  LINSEED-OIL  is  prepared  by  heating  raw  oil  either 
alone  or  with  driers,  such  as  red  lead,  litharge,  etc.,  or  by  passing 
a  current  of  air  through  raw  oil. 

Boiled  oil  is  thicker  and  darker  in  color  than  raw  oil. 


344  PAINTING. — MATERIALS  EMPLOYED  FOR  PAINT. 

Good  boiled  oil  spread  in  a  thin  film  upon  glass  should  dry  in 
from  12  to  24  hours,  according  to  the  state  of  the  weather. 

Raw  oil  is  used  for  interior  work  and  for  grinding  up  colors. 
Boiled  oil  is  used  for  exterior  work  and  is  not  suited  for  grinding 
color, 

ADULTERATION  AND  SUBSTITUTES. — Linseed-oil  is  subject  to 
various  adulterations,  as  by  the  addition  of  fish,  hemp,  cotton-seed, 
resin,  and  mineral  oils.  These  adulterations  are  difficult  to  detect; 
they  change  the  odor  and  specific  gravity,  and  deteroriate  the 
drying  quality. 

Raw  oil  treated  with  liquid  japan  drier  is  frequently  sold  as 
boiled  oil.  Such  oil  is  said  to  be  boiled  through  the  "  bung- 
hole." 

As  substitutes,  fish-oil  and  cotton-seed  oil  treated  with  benzine 
are  used;  also  oils  prepared  by  patented  processes,  as  Lucal-oil, 
Sipes-oil,  Japan- oil,  etc. 

SOLVENTS. 

SPIRITS  OF  TURPENTINE  is  a  volatile  oil  obtained  by  the  dis- 
tillation of  the  turpentine  obtained  by  tapping  or  boxing  the  yel- 
low-pine trees  of  the  Southern  States.  The  residuum  left  after 
distillation  is  called  rosin  to  distinguish  it  from  the  finer  resins 
used  for  varnish,  etc 

Good  turpentine  is  colorless,  and  has  a  pleasant  pungent  odor  ; 
adulterated  or  inferior  qualities  have  a  disagreeable  odor. 

Turpentine  is  used  in  paints  to  make  them  work  more  smoothly, 
and  as  a  solvent  for  resins  and  other  substances. 

Good  turpentine  should  have  a  very  slight  residue  when  evap- 
orated. When  spread  upon  any  surface  in  a  thin  layer  it  should 
dry  in  24  hours,  leaving  a  hard  dry  varnish. 

Turpentine  u  often  adulterated  with  mineral  oil.  The  pure 
turpentine  loses  bulk  by  evaporation,  and  gains  weight  upon  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  Adulterated  with  mineral  oils,  the  spirit  evapo- 
rates, leaving  the  oil  without  any  assistance  in  hardening. 

Benzine,  naphtha,  etc.,  are  used  as  substitutes. 

STAINERS  OR  PIGMENTS. 

Blacks. — LAMPBLACK  is  the  soot  produced  by  burning  oil, 
resin,  bituminous  coal,  resinous  woods,  coal-tar,  or  tallow, 

VEGETABLE  BLACK  is  the  name  given  to  black  obtained  from 
burning  oil. 

IVORY-BLACK  is  obtained  by  calcining  waste  ivory  in  close  ves- 
sels, and  then  grinding. 


PAINTING. — MATERIALS   EMPLOYED    FOR    PAINT.    345 

BONE  BLACK  is  prepared  from  bones  in  a  similar  manner  to 
ivory-black. 

Blues.— PRUSSIAN  BLUE  is  made  by  mixing  prussiate  of  pot 
ash  with  a  salt  of  iron.  The  prussiate  of  potash  is  obtained  by 
calcining  and  digesting  old  leather,  blood,  hoofs,  or  other  animal 
matter  with  carbonate  of  potash  and  iron  filings. 

BLUE  LEAD  is  obtained  by  subliming  lead  as  described  under 
Sublimed  White  Lead. 

COBALT  BLUE  is  an  oxide  of  cobalt  made  by  roasting  cobalt 
ore. 

BLUE  OCHRE  is  a  natural-colored  clay.  Other  blues  are  made 
from  mixtures  of  soda,  silica,  alum,  sulphur,  copper,  lime,  etc. 

Browns  generally  owe  their  color  to  oxide  of  iron. 

RAW  UMBER  is  a  clay  colored  by  oxide  of  iron. 

BURNT  UMBER  is  raw  umber  burnt  to  give  it  a  darker  color. 

BURNT  SIENNA  is  produced  by  burning  raw  sienna. 

SPANISH  BROWN  is  a  clay  or  ochre  colored  by  iron. 

Greens  may  be  made  by  mixing  blue  and  yellow  pigments, 
as  Prussian  blue,  chromate  of  lead,  and  sulphate  of  baryta  ;  but 
such  mixtures  are  less  durable  than  those  produced  direct  from 
copper,  arsenic,  etc. 

Greens  known  by  various  trade  names  are  produced  by  treating 
the  acetate  or  carbonate  of  copper  with  sal-ammoniac.  Chalk, 
lead,  and  alum  are  sometimes  added. 

Greens  are  also  made  from  the  arseuites  of  copper,  and  from  co- 
balt and  ferrous  oxide  of  zinc. 

Reds. — RED  LEAD.     For  description,  see  page  342. 

VERMILLION  is  a  sulphide  of  mercury,  found  in  a  natural  state 
as  cinnabar. 

Vermillion  is  adulterated  with  red  lead  brightened  with  cosine, 
and  with  logwood  mixed  with  molasses. 

Vermillion  is  tested  by  heating  in  a  test-tube.  If  genuine  it 
should  entirely  volatilize. 

Artificial  vermilliou  is  made  from  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and 
mercury. 

German  vermiliion  is  the  tersulphide  of  antimony,  and  is  of  an 
orange-red  color.  .  • 

INDIAN  RED  is  ground  hematite  ore. 

CHINESE  RED  AND  PERSIAN  RED  are  chromates  of  lead  pro- 
duced by  boiling  white  lead  with  a  solution  of  bichromate  of 
potash. 

VENETIAN  RED  is  obtained  by  heating  sulphate  of  iron  pro- 


346  PAINTING.— SPECIAL   PAINTS. 

duced  as  a  waste  product  of  tin  and  copper  works.  It  is  often 
adulterated  by  mixing  sulphate  of  lime  with  it. 

Yellows. — CHROME  YELLOWS  are  chroinates  of  lead  produced 
by  mixing  dilute  solutions  of  acetate  or  nitrate  of  lead  and  bi- 
chromate of  potash. 

NAPLES  YELLOW  is  a  salt  of  lead  and  antimony. 

YELLOW  OCHRE  is  a  natural  clay  colored  by  oxide  of  iron. 

Other  yellows  are  made  from  arsenic  or  oxycbloride  of  lead. 

RAW  SIENNA  is  a  clay  stained  with  oxides  of  iron  and  manga- 


PROPORTTONS  OF  INGREDIENTS, 

The  proportions  of  the  materials  used  in  preparing  paints  vary 
greatly.  They  depend  upon  the  material  to  be  painted,  being 
different  for  wood  and  iron;  the  kind  of  surface,  whether  porous 
or  not,  the  porous  requiring  more  oil;  and  the  degree  of  exposure 
to  which  the  paint  is  to  be  subjected. 

If  the  surface  is  subsequently  to  be  varnished,  the  paint  must 
contain  a  minimum  of  oil.  If  the  work  is  exposed  to  the  sun, 
turpentine  is  necessary  to  prevent  blistering.  The  proportions 
also  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  materials  used.  More  oil  and 
turpentine  will  combine  with  pure  than  with  impure  white  lead. 
And  the  different  coats  of  paint  vary  in  composition:  the  first 
coat  on  new  work  requires  more  oil.  Turpentine  is  necessary  to 
cause  adherence  to  old  work, 

The  quantity  of  paint  required  for  a  given  surface  may  be  ap- 
proximately ascertained  by  the  following  rule  : 

Divide  the  square  feet  of  surface  to  be  painted  by  200.  The  quo- 
tient is  the  number  of  gallons  of  liquid  paint  required  for  two  coats. 

Divide  the  square  feet  of  surface  to  be  painted  by  18.  The  quo- 
tient is  the  number  of  pounds  of  white  lead  required  for  three 
coats. 

Special  Paints. 

BITUMINOUS  or  ASPHALT  paints  are  prepared  by  dissolving 
bitumen  in  paraffine,  petroleum,  naphtha,  and  benzine. 

P.  B.  PAINT  is  composed  of  asphaltum  dissolved  in  bisulphide 
of  carbon. 

BLACK  BRIDGE  PAINT  is  composed  of  asphaltum,  linseed-oil, 
turpentine,  and  kauri-gum. 

COAL-TAR  PAINT  is  composed  of  coal-tar  either  alone  or  mixed 
with  lime  or  other  inert  pigment,  and  mixed  with  fish  01  mineral 
oils.  Oral-tar  paint  is  frequently  substituted  for  asphaltum  paint. 


PAINTING, — SPECIAL   PAINTS.  347 

GRAPHITE  PAINT  is  prepared  by  mixing  graphite  with  boiled 
linseed-oil  to  which  a  small  percentage  of  litharge,  red  lead,  man- 
ganese, or  other  metallic  salt  has  been  added  at  the  time  of  boil- 
ing. 

PRINCE'S  METALLIC  PAINT  is  made  from  a  blue  magnetic  iron 
ore,  containing  about  50  per  cent  of  iron  peroxide,  25  per  cent 
limestone,  and  25  per  cent  sulphur;  it  is  mined  in  Carbon  Co., 
Pa.  The  ore  is  broken  into  small  pieces,  roasted,  and  then 
ground.  During  this  process  it  loses  one  third  of  its  weight  by 
the  volatilization  of  the  sulphur  and  other  constituents.  The 
prepared  pigment  is  said  to  contain  72  per  cent  of  iron  peroxide 
and  28  per  cent  of  hydraulic  cement.  It  is  mixed  with  oil,  and 
one  color  (brown)  only  is  made, 

LOWE'S  METALLIC  PAINT,  manufactured  at  Chattanooga, 
Teun.,  is  made  from  red  fossiliferous  iron  ore,  mined  at  Atalla, 
Ala.,  and  at  Ooltewah,  Teun.  An  analysis  of  the  paint  shows  its 
composition  to  be — 

Iron  peroxide 78 . 87 

Alumina 3.29 

Silica 1 1 . 96 

Water 5.07 

Phosphoric  acid,  lime,  manganese,  etc 80 

The  mineral  is  crushed,  then  spread  on  steam-pans  and  thor- 
oughly dried,  passed  through  buhr  mills,  bolted,  and  finally  re- 
ground. 

ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  VERMILLION  is  prepared  from  an  ore  found 
near  Rawlius,  Wyo.  The  mineral  is  a  hydrated  oxide  of  iron 
with  a  fine  dark  red  color,  and  has  the  following  composition  : 

Iron  peroxide 90 . 2 

Sulphur  and  lime 1.4 

Insoluble  matter 7.2 

Water 1.2 

THE  IRON-CLAD  PAINT  Co.,  of  Cleveland,  O.,  manufacture 
four  varieties  of  mineral  pigments.  No.  1,  called  "  Rossie  "  red,  is 
made  from  ore  mined  in  Wayne  Co.,  N.  Y.,  and  has  the  following 
composition  : 

Iron  peroxide 60.50 

Mumina 5.63 

•ilcium  carbonate 15 . 66 

'Mica 18  00 

bisture..  .33 


348  PAINTING. — VARNISH. 

No.  2,  or  "light  brown,"  is  prepared  from  an  ore  mined  in  the 
iron  district  of  Lake  Superior,  Mich.,  and  has  the  following  com- 
position : 

Iron  peroxide 77.25 

Alumina 7.00 

Calcium  carbonate 1  84 

Silica 13.84 

Loss 07 

No.  3,  called  "brown  purple,"  is  made  from  an  ore  coming 
from  the  Jackson  Mine,  Mich.,  and  has  the  following  composi- 
tion : 

Iron  peroxide 93.68 

Alumina 3.06 

Silica 3.20 

Sulphur  and  loss 06 

No.  4,  or  "brown,"  is  also  derived  from  ore  mined  in  the  Lake 
Superior  district. 

SLATE  PAINTS. — The  use  of  ground  slate  and  similar  materials 
mixed  with  white  lead  is  quite  common.  The  Indiana  Paint  and 
Roofing  Co.  and  the  Graftou  Paint  Co.  manufacture  a  large 
amount  of  paint  from  refuse  slate,  mixed  with  other  pigments 
and  ground  in  oil. 

SILICATE  PAINTS,  ABBESTOS  PAINTS,  etc.,  are  made  under 
patents,  and  their  composition  is  not  generally  known. 

Varnish. 

Varnish  is  made  by  dissolving  gum  or  resin  in  oil,  turpentine, 
or  alcohol.  In  the  first  case  the  oil  dries,  and  in  the  others  the 
turpentine  or  alcohol  evaporates,  leaving  in  either  case  a  film  of 
resin  over  the  surface,  smooth,  solid,  and  transparent.  The 
quality  of  the  varnish  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  gloss,  and 
its  permanence,  durability  on  exposure  to  the  weather,  toughness 
and  hardness  of  the  coating,  and  rapidity  of  drying. 

OIL  VARNISHES.— The  gums  principally  used  in  the  preparation 

of  oil  varnishes  are  amber,  anime,  and  copal.     The  first  is  hard, 

tough,   and   soluble  with   difficulty,  and   dries   slowly.     Anime 

dries  quickly,  is  nearly  as  hard  and  insoluble  as  amber,  but  is 

•  deficient  in  toughness,  is  liable  to  crack,  and  turns  dark  on  ex- 


PAINTING.— VARNISH.  349 

posure  to  light  and  air.  Copal  is  next  in  durability  to  amber, 
and  the  paler  kinds  when  made  into  varnish  become  lighter  on 
exposure  ;  it  is  more  largely  used  than  any  other  gum  in  prepar- 
ing oil  varnishes,  auime  being  frequently  added  to  impart  drying 
qualities. 

Linseed  oil  boiled  with  substances  such  as  sulphate  of  lead, 
etc.,  for  clarifying  and  imparting  drying  qualities,  is  the  usual 
vehicle  for  oil  varnishes  ;  spirits  of  turpentine  is  added  to  the 
mixture  of  oil  and  gum  while  still  hot. 

Inferior  oil  varnishes  are  made  from  mixtures  of  anime,  colo- 
phony, rosin,  litharge,  acetate  of  lead,  sulphate  of  copper,  linseed 
oil  and  turpentine. 

Common  rosin  dissolved  with  the  assistance  of  heat  in  linseed 
oil  or  turpentine  is  frequently  mixed  with  other  varnishes  to  im- 
part brilliancy,  but  unle-s  sparingly  used  renders  them  liable  to 
crack;  it  is  also  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  finer  varnishes. 

SPIRIT  VARNISHES  are  made  by  dissolving  the  softer  gums, 
such  as  mastic,  dammar,  and  common  resin,  in  the  best  turpen- 
tine. They  dry  more  rapidly,  are  lighter  in  color,  but  not  so 
tough  and  durable  as  the  oil  varnishes.  They  are  l<'ss  costly. 

The  still  softer  gums,  such  as  lac  (shellac),  sandarach,  etc., 
dissolved  in  alcohol  dry  quickly,  are  harder  and  more  glossy 
than  the  turpentine  varnishes,  but  are  apt  to  crack  and  scale  off, 
and  will  not  stand  exposure. 

WATER  VARNISHES  consist  of  lac  dissolved  in  hot  water,  mixed 
with  just  as  much  ammonia,  borax,  potash,  or  soda  as  will  dis- 
solve the  lac.  The  solution  makes  a  varnish  which  will  just  bear 
washing.  The  alkalies  darken  the  color  of  the  lac. 

ASPHALT  VARNISH  is  generally  made  from  those  varieties  of 
asphultum  which  are  free  from  any  notable  amount  of  mineral 
matter,  such  as  glance-pitch  and  giisouite.  It  is  a  combination 
of  asphaltum,  turpentine,  and  boiled  linseed-oil,  combined  in  such 
proportions  or  with  such  additional  ingredients  as  each  manufac- 
turer has  learned  to  be  desirable,  and  which  he  retains  as  a  trade 
secret.  Three  of  asphaltum  to  four  of  boiled  oil,  with  fifteen  to 
eighteen  parts  of  turpentine,  is  a  common  formula. 

Coal-tar  mixed  with  mineral  or  fish  oil  and  benzine  is  fre- 
quently substituted  for  asphalt  varnish. 


350  PAINTING. — MISCELLANEOUS. 


Miscellaneous. 

JAPANNING  consists  in  applying  successive  coats  of  japan,  i.  e., 
ordinary  lead  paint  ground  in  oil  and  mixed  with  copal  or  auime 
varnish.  Each  coat  is  dried  in  turn  at  the  highest  temperature  it 
will  bear  without  melting.  The  surface  is  treated  with  several 
coats  of  varnish. 

STAINS  are  liquid  preparations  of  different  tints  applied  to  the 
carefully  prepared,  smooth,  utipainted  surface  of  light-colored 
wool,  such  as  white  pine,  in  order  to  give  it  the  appearance  of 
more  rare  and  highly  colored  woods. 

WHITEWASH  is  pure  white  lime  mixed  with  water.  It  should  be 
made  of  hot  lime  and  applied  promptly,  as  it  then  adheres  better. 
It  will  not  stand  rain  for  any  great  length  of  time,  and  is  easily 
rubbed  off.  To  prevent  cracking  and  cause  the  wash  to  harden, 
add  to  every  half-bushel  of  lime  2  pounds  sulphate  of  zinc  and  1 
pound  of  common  salt. 

To  produce  colors,  add  to  each  bushel  of  lime  4  to  6  pounds  of 
ochre  for  cream  color;  6  to  8  pounds  amber  ,  2  pounds  Indian- 
red,  and  2  pounds  of  lampblack  for  fawn  color;  6  to  8  pounds 
raw  amber  and  3  or  4  pounds  lampblack  for  buff  or  stone  color. 

WHITING  is  pure  white  chalk  ground  to  powder  and  mixed  with 
water  and  size  (glue).  It  will  not  stand  exposure  to  the  weather. 
Proportions,  6  pounds  whiting  to  one  quart  of  strong  glue.  The 
whiting  is  first  covered  with  cold  water  for  six  hours,  then  mixed 
with  size,  and  left  in  a  cold  place  until  it  turns  to  jelly.  It  can 
then  be  diluted  with  water  and  applied. 

KAL.SOMINE  is  composed  of  glue,  Paris  white,  and  water,  col- 
ored according  to  taste  and  laid  on  the  walls  with  a  brush. 

PUTTY  is  a  composition  of  ground  whiting  and  linseed-oil 
beaten  up  into  a  tough  and  tenacious  cement. 

It  is  used  for  securing  glass  in  window-sash,  and  for  filling 
(stopping)  crevices  and  nail-holes  in  woodwork  which  is  to  be 
painted. 


PAINTING. — INSPECTION   OF    PAINTING.  351 


Inspection  of  Painting. 

WOODWORK. — In  painting  wood  the  first  operation  is  termed 
"  knotting,"  that  is,  covering  knots,  sap  and  pitch  streaks  with 
shellac  dissolved  in  naphtha  or  other  solvent.  Knots  and  pitch 
streaks  if  not  killed  will  cause  yellow  stains  in  the  finished  work. 
Bad  knots  should  be  cut  out  and  a  piece  of  sound  wood  set  in 
their  place.  lied  lead  and  glue  are  sometimes  used  for  killing 
knots.  Hot  lime  is  also  used;  it  is  left  on  the  knots  for  about  24 
hours,  then  scraped  off,  and  the  surface  coated  with  shellac. 

After  knotting,  the  priming  coat  is  applied.  This  coat  gener- 
ally contains  a  large  proportion  of  red  lead,  which  makes  it  set 
harder,  and  gives  it  the  pink  color. 

The  wood  must  be  thoroughly  dry,  clean,  and  free  from  dust 
ami  dirt  before  applying  the  priming  coat. 

The  object  of  this  coat  is  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  before 
applying  the  coloring  coats,  which  otherwise  would  be  absorbed 
by  the  wood  and  wasted. 

The  priming  coat  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  and  should  be 
very  carefully  applied.  A  poor  priming  coat  under  a  good  fin- 
ishing is  sure  to  give  unsatisfactory  results;  therefore  inferior 
materials  should  not  be  used. 

After  the  priming  coat  is  dry  the  puttying  or  stopping  of  cracks 
and  nail-holes  is  done.  For  this  purpose  the  nails  are  "  set  in  "  to 
the  depth  of  £  inch  or  more.  After  stopping  the  surface  should 
be  rubbed  down  with  sandpaper  and  well  dusted. 

The  colored  and  finishing  coats  are  then  laid  on.  Each  coat 
should  be  thoroughly  dry  before  the  next  is  applied. 

Paint  should  be  put  on  by  strokes  parallel  with  the  grain  of  the 
wood;  and  long  smooth  pieces,  such  as  window  and  door  casings, 
should  be  finished  by  drawing  Ihe  brush  carefully  along  the 
whole  length,  so  that  there  may  be  no  breaks  in  the  lines.  The 
brush  must  be  constantly  at  right  angles  to  the  surface  being 
painted,  only  the  ends  of  the  hairs  touching  it;  for  only  in  this 
manner  is  the  paint  forced  into  the  pores  of  the  wood,  and  at  the 
same  time  distributed  equally.  If  the  brush  be  held  obliquely  to 
the  work,  it  will  leave  the  paint  in  thick  masses  wherever  it  is 
first  applied  after  being  dipped  for  a  fresh  supply  into  the  pot, 
and  the  surface  will  be  daubed,  but  not  painted. 

PLASTER  to  be  painted  should  be  carefully  laid,  and  its  surface 
free  from  air-bubbles  or  flaws  caused  by  the  "blowing"  of  the 
lime. 


352  PAINTING. — INSPECTION   OF    PAINTING. 

Special  care  must  be  taken  that  both  the  plaster  and  the  wall  are 
perfectly  dry  before  they  are  painted.  The  surface  of  the  plas- 
ter should  be  thoroughly  brushed  to  remove  dust  and  loose  parti- 
cles. 

The  surface  of  plaster  is  primed  with  either  two  or  three  coats 
of  linseed-oil,  red-lead  priming,  or  patent  fillers,  when  the  priming 
is  thoroughly  dry  the  colored  or  finishing  coats  are  applied. 

TIN. — In  painting  tin  all  traces  of  oil,  grease,  and  resin  must  be 
first  removed,  and  if  necessary  to  secure  a  clean  surface  it  may 
be  washed  with  benzine. 

IRONWORK. — Before  painting  wrought  iron  or  steel  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  surface  be  absolutely  free  from  scale,  grease,  rust, 
and  moisture.  Scale  is  removed  by  brushing  with  stiff  wire 
brushes,  and  the  rust  by  scraping  with  steel  scrapers,  by  a  sand- 
blast, or  by  pickling  in  diluted  acid  which  is  washed  off  with 
water. 

Rust  has  the  peculiar  property  of  spreading,  and  extending  from 
a  centre,  if  there  is  the  slightest  chance  to  do  so.  Hence  a  small 
spot  of  rust  on  the  metal  may  grow  under  the  surface  of  the  paint, 
and  in  time  the  paint  will  be  flaked  off  and  the  metal  exposed  to 
the  destroying  action  of  oxygen  in  the  presence  of  water.  There- 
fore close  scrutiny  is  necessary  to  see  that  all  traces  of  rust  are 
removed. 

Deep-seated  rust-spots  may  be  removed  by  applying  heat  from 
a  painter's  torch,  which  converts  the  rust  into  peroxide  of  iron, 
which  is  harmless  and  can  be  easily  dusted  off. 

The  adherence  of  the  paint  will  be  increased  if  the  metal  is 
moderately  heated  before  it  is  primed. 

TEST  FOR  WATER-PROOF  PAINT. — Take  a  small  piece  of  iron 
and  paint  it  thoroughly  with  the  paint  to  be  tested.  After  dry- 
ing place  it  on  a  glass  plate  and  wet  it  with  water.  Then  place 
a  watch-crystal  or  bell  glass  over  it,  making  the  edges  tight  with 
gum  or  varnish.  If  the  paint  is  pervious  to  water,  the  water  will 
gradually  disappear,  being  decomposed  by  the  iron,  the  oxygen 
uniting  with  the  iron  to  form  rust.  If  the  paint  is  absolutely 
waterproof  the  water  will  remain  in  the  chamber  indefinitely. 

VARNISHING. — In  using  varnish  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  everything  quite  clean,  washing  it  if  necessary.  The  cans 
should  be  kept  corked,  the  brushes  free  from  oil  and  dirt,  and  the 
work  protected  from  dust  or  smoke. 

Varnish  should  be  applied  in  very  thin  coats,  laid  on  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  wood,  and  sparingly  at  the  angles. 


PAINTING. — INSPECTION   OF   PAINTING.  353 

Good  varnish  should  dry  so  quickly  as  to  be  free  from  sticki- 
ness in  one  or  two  days.  Its  drying  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by 
the  influence  of  light,  but  dampness  and  draughts  of  cold  air  must 
be  avoided. 

No  second  or  subsequent  coat  of  varnish  should  be  applied 
until  the  last  is  permanently  hard  ;  otherwise  the  drying  of  the 
under  coats  will  be  stopped. 

The  time  required  for  this  depends  not  only  upon  the  kind  of 
varnish,  but  also  upon  the  sttile  of  the  atmosphere. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  spirit  varnishes  require  from 
2  to  3  hours  between  every  coat,  turpentine  varnishes  require  6 
or  8  hours,  and  oil  varnishes  still  longer — sometimes  as  much  as 
24  hours. 

Oil  varnishes  are  easier  to  apply  than  spirit  varnishes,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  not  drying  so  quickly. 

The  surface  of  natural  wood  which  is  to  be  varnished  should 
be  "  filled  "  before  the  varnish  is  applied,  to  prevent  it  from  being 
wasted  by  sinking  into  the  pores  of  the  wood. 

Fillers  are  usually  made  under  patents,  and  their  exact  compo- 
sition is  not  known.  Any  gelatinous  substance  or  glue  may  be 
used.  Flour  and  starch  mixed  with  water,  benzine,  or  turpen- 
tine are  frequently  used  ;  but  the  use  of  these  compositions 
should  not  be  permitted,  as  they  make  the  wood  damp  producing 
mildew,  which  prevents  the  varnish  from  adhering  properly. 

Varnish  applied  to  painted  work  is  liable  to  crack  if  the  oil  in 
the  paint  is  not  good  ;  also,  if  there  is  much  oil  of  any  kind  in  the 
paint,  the  varnish  hardens  more  quickly  thaii  the  paint  and  forms 
a  rigid  skin  over  it,  which  cracks  when  the  paint  contracts. 

The  more  oil  a  varnish  contains  the  less  liable  is  it  to  crack. 
One  pint  of  varnish  will  cover  about  16  square  yards  with  a 
single  coat. 


354     WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION   rF    CAST-IRON    PIPES. 


XI.  WATER-SUPPLY. 


Materials  employed. 

The  construction  of  a  water-supply  system  may  include  any 
one  or  all  of  the  materials  and  methods  of  construction  described 
in  the  preceding  pages,  and  the  duty  of  the  inspector  will  be  the 
same  as  there  stated. 


Inspection  of  Cast-iron  Pipes. 

The  cast  iron  used  for  the  manufacture  of  pipes  is  prepared  as 
described  under  Cast  Iron,  page  94,  and  the  pipes  are  cast  ver- 
tical, for  the  reasons  stated  under  Notes  on  Founding,  page  96  et 
seq. 

The  usual  requirements  for  the  pipe-metal  are  that  it  shall  be 
of  gray  pig  iron,  tough,  and  of  such  density  and  texture  as  will 
permit  of  its  being  easily  cut  and  drilled  by  hand. 

In  the  foundry  inspection  the  inspector  should  supervise  the 
preparation  of  the  moulds,  the  pouring  of  the  metal,  the  cutting, 
cleaning,  coating,  testing,  and  weighing  of  all  the  castings. 

After  removal  from  the  flasks  the  pipes  should  be  cleansed, 
both  inside  and  outside,  without  the  use  of  acid  or  other  liquid  ; 
steel  brushes  are  the  best.  Then  each  pipe  should  be  examined 
for  cold  shorts,  lumps,  swells,  scales,  blisters,  air-  and  sand-holes, 
thickness,  diameter,  depth  of  hub,  and  slraightness.  Hubs  should 
be  closely  examined  for  honeycomb.  Spigot-ends  should  be 
square  and  of  correct  size,  so  they  will  enter  the  hubs  without 
chipping. 

Cast-iron  pipe  which  appears  to  the  eye  to  be  sound  and  of 
proper  form  may  have  one  or  more  of  the  following  imperfec- 
tions : 

1.  A  poor  quality  of  iron. 

2.  Shrinkage  in  the  metal,  due  either  to  improper  moulding, 
varying  thickness  of  the  shell,  or  too  rapid  cooling  of  the  metal. 

3.  Want  of  uniformity  in  the  thickness  of  the  shell,  which,  is 
usually  due  to  want  of  care  or  skill  in  moulding. 


WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION    OF   CAST-IRON    PIPES.    355 

Poor  iron  may  be  guarded  against  by  the  frequent  taking  and 
testing  of  sample  bars.  These  bars  should  be  taken  from  every 
melt  and  subjected  to  a  transverse  test.  The  dimensions  recom- 
mended for  the  test-bars  are  26  inches  long,  2  inches  wide,  and  1 
inch  thick,  to  be  loaded  in  the  centre  between  supports  24  inches 
apart  (narrow  sides  vertical);  such  bars  should  not  break  with  a 
less  load  than  1900  pounds,  and  should  show  a  deflection  of  not 
less  than  y2^  of  an  inch  before  breaking.  TeiTsile  tests  should 
show  from  18,000  to  20,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Shrinkage  strains  can  only  be  remedied  by  proper  treatment 
from  the  time  the  iron  enters  the  flask  until  it  is  coated  and 
tested. 

Pipe  should  not  be  stripped  and  taken  from  the  pit  while  show- 
ing color  of  heat,  for  the  reason  that  when  the  pipe  is  exposed  to 
a  sudden  chill  from  cold  air  the  shrinkage  of  the  outer  surface 
will  induce  internal  strains.  Too  great  stress  cannot  be  laid  on 
this  matter  of  cooling  down. 

To  discover  inequality  of  thickness  every  pipe  should  be  cali- 
pered.  The  ordinary  method  is  to  roll  each  pipe  slowly,  and 
those  that  do  not  roll  uniformly  are  calipered. 

To  insure  that  the  spigots  will  fit  the  hubs  wrought-iron 
templets  are  used  for  testing  the  hub  and  wrought-iron  rings  for 
testing  the  spigot-ends. 

TESTING  QUALITY  OF  THE  METAL. — The  toughness  and  elas- 
ticity of  the  pipe-metal  may  be  tested  by  taking  sample  rings  of, 
say,  1  inch  in  width  and  hanging  them  upon  a  blunt  knife-edge, 
and  then  suspending  weights  from  the  lower  edge  at  a  point 
opposite  to  their  support,  noting  their  deflections  down  to  the 
breaking-point  ;  also  by  letting  similar  rings  fall  from  known 
heights  upon  solid  anvils.  For  testing  transverse  strength  the 
beam  test  is  usually  employed. 

BEAM  TEST. — Test-bars  26  inches  long,  2  inches  thick,  and  1 
inch  wide  are  placed  narrow  edge  vertical  on  supports  24  inches 
apart  and  loaded  in  the  middle  until  broken.  The  breaking  loi.d 
for  this  size  specimen  is  about  1900  pounds,  and  it  should  show  a 
deflec'ion  before  breaking  of  not  less  than  -£j%  of  an  inch. 

The  tenacity  of  the  iron  may  be  tested  by  submitting  it  to 
direct  tensile  strain  in  a  testing-machine. 

COATING  THE  PIPES  —After  being  inspected  the  pipes  are 
coated  with  some  preservative  material.  The  coating  known  as 
Dr.  Angus  Smith's  is  extensively  employed.  This  coating  is  a 
varnish  obtained  by  distilling  coal-tar  until  the  naphtha  is  entirely 


356    WATEK-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION    OF    CAST-IRON    PIPES. 

removed  and  the  material  deodorized.  The  varnish  is  used 
either  as  it  conies  from  the  still  or  with  the  addition  of  5  or  6  per 
cent  of  linseed-oil. 

To  coat  the  pipes  the  varnish  is  carefully  heated  in  a  tank  that 
is  suitable  to  receive  the  pipes  to  be  coated  to  a  temperature  of 
about  300°  F.,  when  the  pipes  are  immersed  in  it  and  allowed  to 
remain  until  they  attain  a  temperature  equal  to  that  of  the  bath. 

Another  method  is  to  heat  the  pipes  in  a  retort  or  oven  to  a 
temperature  of  about  300°  F.,  and  then  immerse  them  in  the  bath 
of  varnish,  which  is  maintained  at  a  temperature  of  not  less 
than  210°  F. 

When  linseed-oil  is  mixed  with  the  pitch  it  has  a  tendency  at 
high  temperature  to  separate  and  float  upon  the  pitch.  An  oil 
derived  from  coal-tar  by  distillation  is  more  frequently  substi- 
stituted  for  the  linseed-oil  in  practice.  When  the  pipe  is  removed 
from  the  bath  the  coating  should  fume  freely  and  be  set  perfectly 
hard  within  one  hour  from  the  time  of  its  removal,  and  should  be 
free  from  blisters. 

The  Barf  process  for  preserving  iron  consists  in  converting 
its  surfaces  into  the  magnetic  or  black  oxide  of  iron,  which 
undergoes  no  change  whatever  in  the  presence  of  moisture  and 
atmospheric  oxygen.  The  pipes  are  placed  in  a  suitable  cham- 
ber or  oven,  and  the  temperature  raised  to  about  500°  F. ;  steam 
is  then  admitted  and  continued  from  5  to  7  hours,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  the  oxidation  is  complete. 

Asphaltum  is  also  used  for  coating  cast-iron,  wi  ought-iron, 
and  steel  pipes.  The  asphaltuui  used  should  be  neither  too  brit- 
tle nor  too  oily.  It  is  melted  at  the  necessary  temperature,  about 
250°  F.,  and  the  pipes  dipped.  As  a  test  for  the  quality  of  the 
coating,  when  cold  tap  it  lightly  with  a  hammer;  if  it  adheres  like 
the  coating  of  tin  or  galvanized  iron  it  is  good,  but  if  it  comes  off 
in  chips  the  asphaltum  employed  is  too  brittle. 

HYDRAULIC  PROOF  OF  PIPES.— When  the  cast  pipes  have  re- 
ceived their  preservative  coating  they  are  placed  in  a  hydraulic 
proving-press  and  tested  by  water-pressure  to  the  required 
amount,  usually  300  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.;  and  while  under  such  press- 
ure they  are  smartly  tapped  all  over  the  surface  with  a  three- 
pound  steel  hammer,  having  a  point  similar  to  a  pick,  attached  to 
a  handle  16  inches  long.  Any  failure  shown  under  this  test  is  a 
cause  for  rejection. 

The  pipes  which  have  passed  Ihe  hydraulic  test  are  weighed, 
and  the  weight  pain-ted] with  white  paint  on  the  inside  of  the  hub 


WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION  OF  CAST-IRON  PIPES.  357 

LAYING  THE  PIPE. — The  pipes  are  laid  iu  trenches  excavated  to 
the  required  depth.  At  the  joints  the  bottom  of  the  trench  is  exca- 
vated to  a  sufficient  depth  to  permit  the  calker  to  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  joint  ;  the  trench  at  this  point  is  also  made  a  little  wider  lo 
give  room  for  making  the  joint.  Small  pipes  should  be  solidly 
bedded  on  the  bottom  of  the  trench  ;  large  pipes  are  generally 
laid  in  wooden  cradles,  two  or  three  cradles  to  a  length  of  pipe. 

CALKING  JOINTS. — To  form  the  joints  a  gasket  made  from  hemp 
yarn,  oakum,  or  jute  is  used,  twisted  in  the  form  of  a  rope  This 
rope  should  be  cut  into  pieces  long  enough  to  go  round  the  pipe 
and  lap  a  little;  it  must  be  well  rammed  into  the  hub  with  ayaru- 
ing-irou. 

Before  ramming  the  yarn  in  the  joint  it  should  be  seen  that  the 
joint-room  is  even  all  round  the  spigot;  if  not  so  the  yarner  drives 
one  or  more  cold-chisels  into  the  narrow  places  so  as  to  crowd  the 
pipe  into  line. 

To  guide  the  molten  lead  into  a  joint  a  "  roll  "  made  of  ground 
fire-clay  with  a  yarn-rope  centre  is  used,  or  a  "  jointer"  made  of 
canvas  or  rubber  faced  with  steel  may  he  used  instead.  The  roll 
or  jointer  is  placed  around  the  pipe  close  to  the  bell,  bringing  the 
two  ends  on  top,  and  turning  them  out  along  the  pipe,  forming  a 
space  called  the  "  pouring-hole."  If  the  joint  be  wet  or  very  cold 
it  is  advisable  to  pour  in  a  little  oil ;  this  prevents  the  lead  from 
chilling  too  soon,  and  prevents  the  spattering  of  the  lead  into  the 
face  of  the  man  pouring  it. 

The  lead  should  be  the  best  quality  of  soft  lead,  free  from 
scrap,  heated  sufficiently  to  run  freely,  care  being  taken  not  to 
overheat  or  burn  it  during  the  melting ;  the  furnace  should  be 
frequently  moved,  so  that  the  hot  lead  need  not  be  carried  far 
enough  to  give  it  time  to  cool. 

After  the  joint  is  poured  and  seems  full  the  roll  is  removed  ; 
the  joint  is  examined  all  around  and  especially  on  the  bottom  to 
make  sure  that  it  is  well  tilled,  if  not  the  lead  should  be  cut  out 
and  the  joint  re-poured.  Small  cavities  are  sometimes  permitted 
to  be  filled  with  cold  lead  plugs.  To  put  iu  a  plug  of  cold  lead 
a  chisel  should  be  driven  into  the  lead  in  the  joint  to  form  a 
cavity  into  which  the  plug  should  be  driven  in  the  form  of  a 
wedge.  A  plug  or  band  of  cold  lead  should  never  be  placed  against 
a  flat  surface  of  lead. 

The  calking  is  performed  by  first  cutting  off  the  lump  of  lead 
at  the  pouring-hole,  ;md  then  driving  the  chisel  lightly  between 
the  lead  and  the  surface  of  the  pipe  all  around.  Then,  commenc- 


358  WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION  OP  OAST-IRON  PIPES. 

ing  at  the  bottom  of  the  joint,  the  lead  is  "  set  up  "  a  little  at  a 
time,  using  first  the  narrowest  calking-irou  next  to  the  spigot, 
then  one  a  size  wider,  and  so  on  until  one  is  reached  which  about 
fills  the  joint  and  leaves  a  smooth  surface  on  the  lead.  In  this 
way  the  lead  is  forced  into  the  recess  in  the  bell  and  is  also 
thoroughly  consolidated  near  to  the  spigot. 

If  the  joint  was  not  run  full,  so  that  the  lead  drives  away  from 
the  reach  of  the  tools,  the  joint  "must  be  run  over  again,  and 
under  no  circumstances  in  a  case  like  this  should  a  cold  lead  plug 
be  driven  in. 

TOOLS  USED  IN  CALKING.— The  tools  used  in  calking  are  the 
"yarniug-iron,"  having  an  edge  about  ^  by  f  inch  ;  a  "  cold- 
chisel  "  to  cut  off  the  superfluous  lead  and  to  start  up  a  tight 
joint;  and  from  4  to  10  "sets"  or  cal king-irons,  varying  from 
^  to  £  inch  by  about  f  of  an  inch  broad  at  the  face.  Some 
calkers  prefer  those  with  an  offset,  others  those  with  a  single 
bend.  The  hammer  should  weigh  from  \\  to  2$  or  3  Ibs.,  and 
should  not  be  over  10  inches  in  length  over  all. 

TESTING  THE  PIPE.— After  the  pipes  are  laid  and  the  joints 
calked,  and  before  the  back-filling  is  commenced,  they  are 
tested  under  an  hydraulic  pressure  from  25  to  50  per  cent  greater 
than  that  under  which  they  are  to  be  used.  The  purpose  of 
t'lis  test  is  (1)  to  detect  defective  pipes,  because  in  handling  the 
pipe  it  is  liable  to  receive  blows  which  cause  invisible  fractures, 
which  may  become  the  source  of  extensive  leaks  in  use,  also  in 
calking  the  hubs  of  the  pipe  may  be  fractured;  and  (2)  to  detect 
defective  workmanship  in  calking  the  joints. 

The  length  of  pipe  tested  at  one  time  is  usually  the  distance 
between  stop- valves,  The  stop-valve  acts  as  the  closure  for  one 
end,  the  open  end  being  closed  with  a  blank  flange  tapped  to  re- 
ceive the  nozzle  of  the  hose  and  held  in  place  by  wrought-iron 
screw-clamps  which  grip  the  under  side  of  the  bell  or  hub.  To 
provide  against  drawing  of  the  joints  a  log  of  timber  fitted  with 
a  jack-screw  is  placed  with  one  end  bearing  against  the  centre 
of  the  flange,  and  the  other  end  firmly  wedged  in  the  solid  earth 
at  the  end  of  the  trench. 

After  the  pipes  are  filled  or  charged  with  water  an  ordinary 
hand  force-pump  such  as  is  used  to  test  boilers  is  connected  by  a 
hose  to  the  pipes  and  worked  until  the  desired  pressure  is  in- 
dicated on  the  gauge.  The  inspector  then  examines  each  pipe, 
carefully  tapping  with  a  light  hammer  :it  several  points  on  the 
surface,  and  especially  at  the  hubs.  A  fractured  pipe  will  be 


WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION   OF   CAST-IRON    PIPES.    359 

readily  detected  by  the  sound  emitted.  Such  defective  pipes 
should  be  marked  to  be  cut  out  and  replaced  by  sound  oues,  after 
which  the  test  is  repeated.  The  pipes  having  beeu  found  sound, 
the  joints  next  receive  attention;  all  sweating  and  otherwise  de- 
fective joints  are  to  be  immediately  recalked. 

Care  must  be  taken  before  applying  the  pressure  that  all  the 
air  has  been  exhausted  from  the  pipe. 

BACK-FILLING. — After  the  pipes  are  tested  the  back-filling  is 
commenced.  It  must  be  carefully  done,  all  stones  being  excluded 
from  the  layer  next  the  pipe.  The  earth  should  be  replaced  in 
layers  of  about  12  inches  in  depth,  and  each  layer  tamped  with  a 
rammer  weighing  about  20  pounds.  Surplus  earth  should  be  re- 
moved and  the  surface  left  neatly  rounded  with  sufficient  material 
to  allow  for  settlement. 

THICKNESS  OP  CAST-IRON  WATER-PIPES. — There  is  no  stand- 
ard thickness  of  cast-iron  water-pipe,  and  the  product  from  dif- 
ferent foundries  show  wide  variation.  The  following  table  con- 
tains the  dimensions  and  weights  adopted  by  a  representative 
foundry. 


360    WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION    OF   CAST-IRON    PIPES. 


WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION   OP   CAST-IRON    PIPES.    361 

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362    WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION    OF   CAST-IRON    PIPES. 


TABLE  75. 
SIZE  AND  WEIGHT  OF  STANDARD  SPECIALS  (APPROXIMATE). 


Crosses. 

Tees. 

Tees. 

90°  E  bows. 

Keducers. 

Plugs. 

in. 
2 
3 
3x2 
4 
4x3 
4x2 
6 
6x4 
6x3 
8 
8x6 
8x4 
8x3 
10 
10x8 
10x6 
10x4 
10x3 
12 
12x10 
12x8 
12x6 
12x4 
12x3 
14x10 
14x8 
14x6 
16 
16x14 
16x12 
16x10 
16x8 
16x6 
16x4 
20 
20x12 
20x10 

*:0x8 

20x6 
20x4 
21 
24x20 
24x6 
30x20 
30x12 
30x8 

Ibs. 
40 
104 
90 
150 
114 
110 
200 
150 
150 
325 
265 
265 
225 
510 
415 
388 
338 
350 
700 
650 
615 
540 
525 
495 
750 
635 
570 
1025 
1070 
1025 
1010 
825 
700 
650 
1790 

i3ro 

1225 

1000 
1000 
1000 
2190 
2'  )20 
1340 
2635 
225D 
1995 

in. 
2 

3 
3x2 
4 
4x3 
4x2 
6 
6x4 
6x3 
6x2 
8 
8x6 
8x4 
8x3 
10 
10x8 
10x6 
10x4 
10x3 
12 
12x10 
12x8 
12x6 
12x4 
14x12 
14x10 
14x8 
14x6 
14x4 
14x3 
16 
16x14 
16x12 
16x10 
16x8 
16x6 
16x4 
20 
20x16 
20x12 
20x10 
20x8 
20x0 
20x4 
21x10 
24 

Ibs. 

28 
76 
76 
100 
90 
87 
150 
130 
125 
120 
266 
252 
222 
220 
390 
330 
312 
292 
290 
565 
510 
492 
484 
460 
650 
650 
575 
545 
525 
490 
790 
850 
825 
890 
755 
630 
655 
1375 
1115 
1025 
1090 
900 
875 
845 
1405 
1875 

in. 
24x12 
24x8 
24x6 
30 
30x24 
30x20 
30x12 
30x10 
30x6 
36 
36x30 
36x12 

Ibs. 

1425 
1375 
1375 
3025 
2640 
2200 
2035 
2050 
1825 
5140 
4200 
4050 

in. 
2 
3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
20 
24 

Ibs. 
14 
34 
48 
110 
145 
225 
370 
450 
525 
900 
1400 

in. 
3x2 
4x3 
4x2 

6x4 
6x3 
8x6 
8x4 
8x3 
10x8 
10x6 
10x4 
12x10 
12x8 
12x6 
12x4 
14x12 
14x10 
14x8 
14x6 
16x12 
16x10 
20x16 
20x14 
20x12 
20x8 
24x20 
30x24 
80x18 
36x30 

Ibs. 

35 
42 
40 
95 
80 
126 
116 
116 
212 
150 
128 
278 
234 
250 
250 
475 
430 
340 
285 
475 
435 
690 
575 
540 
300 
745 
1305 
1385 
1730 

in. 
2 
3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
14 
16 
20 
24 
30 

Ibs. 
2 
5 
8 
12 
26 
46 
06 
70 
100 
150 
185 
370 

45°  Branc'i 
Pipes. 

%  or  45° 
Bends. 

CLp  . 

3 

6x6x4 
8 
8x6 
24 
24x24x20 
30 
36 

90 

145 
300 
290 
2765 
2145 
4170 
10300 

3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 
16 
20 
24 
30 

30 
65 
85 
160 
190 
290 
510 
740 
1425 
2000 

3 
4 
6 
8 
10 
12 

15 
25 
60 
75 
100 
120 

Drip- 
Loxes. 

Sleeves. 

1/16  or  22^° 
Bends. 

4 
8 
10 
20 

235 
355 
760 
1420 

2               10 
3               20 
4               44 
6               65 
8              86 
10             140 
12             176 
14             208 
16             340 
20             500 
24             710 
30             965 
36           1500 

6 
8 
10 
12 
16 
24 
30 

150 
155 
165 
260 
500 
1280 
1735 

WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION   OF   CAST-IRON    PIPES.    363 


TABLE  76. 

WEIGHT  OF  LEAD   AND  GASKET  REQUIRED  FOR  EACH  JOINT 
OF  CAST-IRON   PIPE  (WATER). 


Diameter. 

Gasket. 

Lead. 

Diameter. 

Gasket. 

Lead. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Inches. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

2 

0.050 

31 

18 

.75 

33 

3 

.075 

4* 

20 

1.00 

37 

4 

.115 

8 

24 

1.25 

45 

6 

.175 

13 

30 

1.75 

60 

8 

.25 

16 

36 

2.50 

80 

10 

.30 

18 

40 

3,00 

95 

12 

.35 

22 

42 

4.00 

105 

14 

.42 

25 

48 

5.00 

145 

16 

.45 

29 

60 

7.00 

191 

As  the  diameter  and  depth  of  the  hubs  vary,  the  above  weights 
are  only  approximate. 


Inspection  of  Steel  Pipe. 

The  plates  used  for  pipe-making  are  usually  of  "shell"  steel, 
such  as  is  used  in  boiler-work.  They  are  subjected  to  the  same 
scrutiny  for  surface  imperfections  and  tests  for  strength  as  steel 
employed  for  boiler-making. 

The  thickness  should  be  ascertained  by  carefully  culipering 
the  edges  and  centre  of  each  plate,  and  those  falling  below  the 
tolerance  allowed  by  the  specifications  rejected. 

The  drifting  test  applied  is  that  the  plates  must  stand  the 
punching  and  enlarging  to  one-third  their  original  diameter  of  a 
row  of  holes  £  inch  in  diameter,  pitched  1^  inches  between 
centres,  and  two  diameters  from  the  edge  of  the  plate,  without 
cracking. 

The  plates  must  be  sufficiently  tough  and  pliable  to  allow  cold- 
scarfing  to  a  fine  edge  at  the  laps  without  cracking,  and  to  be 
rolled  to  the  circle  of  the  pipe  without  cracking  between  rivet- 
holes  and  the  edge  of  the  plate. 

The  shop-driven  rivets  are  usually  of  steel,  the  field  rivets  of 
double-refined  iron. 

The  joints  are  made  telescopic. 

The  seams  are  bevelled  and  hammer-calked  until  water-tight, 
without  packing  or  plugs. 


364     WATER-SUPPLY. — INSPECTION   0£   STEEL   PIPE. 

The  finished  pipe  is  scraped  and  thoroughly  cleaned  from 
scale,  etc.;  and  inspected. 

The  outlets  are  formed  with  flanged  iron  castings  riveted  to 
the  pipe,  lead  gaskets  being  used  to  secure  a  water-tight  joint 
when  bolts  are  used  to  fasten  them. 

The  examination  of  the  riveting  should  be  performed  as 
directed  under  Inspection  of  Rivets,  page  194. 

COATING  THE  PIPES. — The  pipes  a;e  coated  with  coal-tar, 
asphaltum,  or  one  of  the  many  patented  coatings,  by  immersing 
them  in  a  bath  of  suitable  size  and  allowing  them  to  remain  long 
enough  to  attain  the  temperature  of  the  coating  mixture  (usually 
25,)°  F.).  They  are  then  withdrawn,  the  coating  allowed  to 
stiffen  for  about  15  minutes,  and  then  again  immersed  for  a  short 
time  to  thicken  the  coat. 

After  ihe  coating  is  satisfactorily  finished  the  pipes  are  sub- 
jected to  a  hydraulic  test  of  the  required  pressure.  If  any  leaks 
show  they  are  recalked,  recoated,  and  retested  until  each  section 
is  water-tight  at  the  prescribed  pressure, 

ASPHALT  AND  COAL-TAB  COATING. — This  coating  is  composed 
of  natural  asphaltum  and  coal-tar  in  the  proportion  of  about  four  of 
asphaltum  to  one  of  coal-tar.  The  asphaltum  should  be  free  from 
petroleum  residuum,  and  the  coal-tar  should  be  deodorized  and 
free  from  oily  or  greasy  substances.  The  ingredients  are  placed 
in  a  tank  of  suitable  size  and  boiled  and  stirred  until  fluid  by 
the  application  of  either  direct  or  indirect  heat ;  the  latter  is 
preferable. 

TESTING  THE  COATING.— The  fitness  of  the  asphalt,  asphalt 
a;id  coal-tar,  or  patented  coating  is  tested  by  immersing  in  the 
boiling  mass  a  piece  of  f-inch  steel  not  less  than  6  inches  square, 
and  allowing  it  to  remain  for  10  minutes  ;  it  is  then  removed  and 
immediately  cooled  in  ice-water;  it  is  then  struck  smartly  with  a 
light  hammer:  if  the  coating  cracks  it  indicates  that  it  is  too 
brittle  ;  if  it  does  not  crack  the  specimen  is  subjected  to  a  tem- 
perature of  100°  F;  if  it  softens  it  is  too  soft.  If  the  coating 
withstands  all  of  these  tests  and  adheres  firmly  to  the  steel 
surface  it  may  be  considered  satisfactory;  if  not  it  must  be  suit- 
ably altered. 

The  quality  of  the  coating- varnish  must  be  frequently  tested, 
and  fresh  materials  added  from  time  to  time  to  keep  it  of  the 
proper  consistency. 

LAYING  THE  PIPE. — The  sections  as  they  come  from  the  shop 
are  riveted  in  pairs  on  the  banks  of  the  trench,  then  rolled  on  to 


WATER-SUPPLY. — VALVES    AND    HYDRANTS.        3G5 

skids  placed  across  the  trench,  and  raised  in  slings  by  tripod  der- 
ricks sufficiently  to  allow  the  removal  of  the  skids  They  are 
then  lowered  into  the  trench,  pinched  up,  and  bolted  to  the  last 
section  laid  The  rivets  in  the  upper  side  of  the  joints  are  then 
driven  from  the  outside,  a  man  inside  the  pipe  "holding  on." 
The  rivets  in  the  lower  sides  and  bottom  of  the  joints  are  then 
driven  by  men  inside  the  pipe  working  on  their  knees  with  short- 
handled  hammers. 

At  every  other  joint  a  14-inch  tapped  hole  is  left  in  the  lop  of 
the  pipe,  or  hand-hole  castings  are  placed  near  the  rivet  line, 
through  which  the  outside  driven  rivets  are  passed  to  the  holder 
on  the  inside,  when  the  joint  is  finished  the  hole  is  closed  with  a 
cast  iron  plug  or  plate. 

Pieces  of  heavy  burlap  are  spread  on  and  in  the  pipe  for  the 
men  to  walk  and  stand  upon,  and  after  everything  else  is  com- 
pleted every  bruised  or  scratched  part  of  the  iiinei  and  outer 
pipe-surface  is  carefully  coated  with  asphalt  paint. 

The  back  filling,  etc.,  is  carried  out  in  the  same  manner  as 
previously  described  under  Cast  iron  Pipe,  page  359. 


Valves  and  Hydrants. 

VALVES  are  examined  for  quality  of  material  and  workman 
ship,  They  are  subjected  to  the  required  hydraulic  pressure 
test,  and  while  under  pressure  the  bodies  are  tested  with  the 
hammer  in  the  same  manner  as  cast  iron  pipe.  The  spindles, 
stuffing  boxes,  disks,  and  valves  are  examined  for  quality  of 
metal  and  workmanship. 

HYDRANTS  are  examined  for  quality  of  material  and  work- 
manship. 

SETTING  VALVES  AND  HYDRANTS  —Care  must  be  taken  to 
set  valves  and  hydrants  vertical  ;  before  setting  they  should  be 
carefully  examined  and  all  sand  or  dirt  should  be  cleaned  out. 
especially  from  around  the  valve-seats  Hydrants  should  have 
gravel  or  broken  stone  placed  around  them  for  1  foot  below 
their  base  to  1  foot  above  the  drip.  Valve-boxes  should  be 
placed  at  each  valve  and  the  earth  well  tamped  around  them. 


3GG    SEWERAGE. — MATERIALS    EMPLOYED    FOR   SEWERS. 


XII.    SEWERAGE. 
Materials  employed  for  Sewers. 

The  materials  used  in  the  construction  of  sewers  are  vitrified- 
clay  pipe,  cement- concrete  pipe,  brick,  stone,  concrete,  timber, 
etc,  The  quality  of  the  several  materials  should  be  the  same 
as  described  in  the  preceding  pages  under  Structural  Materials. 

VITRIFIED  PIPE  is  made  from  clay  and  salt  glazed.  The 
pipes  are  moulded  byjnachinery,  dried,  and  placed  in  a  close  kiln 
and  gradually  subjected  to  an  intense  heat. 

SALT  GLAZE. — When  the  temperature  is  sufficient  coarse  salt 
is  thrown  upon  the  fire  in  small  quantities;  a  portion  of  the  salt 
vaporizes,  which  vapor,  combining  with  the  silica  in  the  clay, 
produces  a  soda-salt  or  glass,  which  is  a  glaze  and  forms  part  of 
the  body  of  the  pipe. 

SLIP-GLAZE  is  considered  to  be  inferior  to  salt-glaze.  It  is 
applied  as  follows  :  After  the  pipes  are  made  and  dried  they  are 
dipped  into  a  solution  of  argillaceous  earth  or  aluminous  clay 
mixed  to  about  the  consistency  of  cream.  After  dipping,  the 
pipes  are  placed  in  the  kiln  and  burned;  the  heat  fuses  the  clay, 
thus  producing  a  smooth  glazed  surface.  The  slip-glaze  is  apt 
to  peel  off  when  the  pipe  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  acids  or 
frost. 

If  the  glaze  can  be  picked  off  with  a  knife  it  is  an  indication 
that  the  pipes  are  made  from  a  clay  that  would  not  stand  the 
high  temperature  required  for  salt-glazing,  and  are  therefore 
probably  slip-glazed. 

The  vitrued  pipes  should  be  examined  (1)  to  see  that  they 
are  straight  and  not  warped  out  of  line;  (2)  that  the  bore  is 
uniform  from  end  to  end;  (3)  that  they  are  sound;  (4)  that 
they  are  well  burned  and  that  theglnze  is  uniform  on  both  the 
interior  and  exterior  surfaces;  (5)  that  the  interior  is  frej  from 
lumps  and  blisters;  (6)  that  the  hub  au^d  body  of  the  pipe  are 
free  from  fire-checks,  cracks,  and  flaws. 

Each  pipe  as  it  is  passed  to  the  pipe-layer  should  be  closely 
examined  to  make  sure  that  none  which  may  have  been  injured 
since  the  formal  examination  are  laid  in  the  trench. 


SEVVURAGE. — MATERIALS    EMPLOYED    FOR   8EWERS.    367 

In  laying  the  pipes  the  spigot-end  of  the  pipe  should  be  laid 
downhill. 

PIPES  OF  CONCRETE  should  meet  the  same  requirements  as 
vitrified  clay  pipes,  and  in  addition  they  should  be  thoroughly 
seasoned,  as  green  pipes  are  liable  to  collapse  when  the  weight  of 
the  earth  conies  upon  them.  A  well-seasoned,  sound  cement  pipe 
when  struck  a  smart  blow  with  a  light  hammer  emits  a  clear 
metallic  sound, 

TESTS  FOR  PIPE. — The  tests  applied  to  ascertain  the  fitness  of 
pipes  for  sewers  are  (1)  a  lest  for  permeability,  (2)  resistance  to 
crushing:  (3)  ability  to  withstand  the  action  of  chemicals. 

The  test  for  permeability  is  made  by  first  drying  the  pipe  till 
it  ceases  to  lose  weight,  and  then  submerging  it  in  water,  allow- 
ing  it  to  remain  at  least  24  hours  under  water,  then  removing  it 
from  the  water,  wiping  dry,  and  reweighing.  The  amount  of 
moisture  absorbed  ranges  from  0  to  7  per  cent. 

The  impermeability  of  a  pipe  may  also  be  tested  by  closing  one 
end  of  the  pipe  with  some  suitable  substance,  then  reversing  it 
and  filling  it  with  water.  If  the  material  is  not  perfectly  imper- 
vious it  will  soon  be  detected  by  the  sweating  of  the  pipe,  as  it  is 
termed,  or  the  appearance  of  water  oozing  on  the  outside,  to- 
gether with  the  loss  of  water  from  the  interior  of  the  pipe. 

The  power  to  resist  chemical  action  may  be  tested  by  pulveriz 
ing  a  piece  of  the  pipe  and  boiling  it  in  hydrochloric  acid,  wash 
ing  on  a  filter,  and  noting  loss  of  weight. 

To  ascertain  the  resistance  of  the  pipes  to  crushing  they  may 
be  placed  in  a  hydraulic  press  and  pressure  applied  in  the  usual 
way. 

The  capability  to  resist  shocks  may  be  ascertained  by  dropping 
a  known  weight  from  a  given  height,  the  percussive  action  be- 
ing equal  to  the  velocity  multiplied  by  the  weight.  If  a  weight 
of  14  Ibs.  be  used  and  dropped  from  the  following  heights  the 
percussive  force  will  be  as  stated  : 

4  inch  fall  =  64.65  Ibs. 

5  "       "    =  72.47  " 

6  "      "    =  79.38  " 

7  "  "    =  85.74  " 

The  record  of  this  test  would  appear  as  follows  : 

Kind  of  pipe Diameter "Weight 

Number  of  pieces  when  broken 


3G8  INSPECTION    OF   SEWER    CONSTRUCTION. 

Remarks  :  After blows  with  4-iuch  fall  pipe  (perfect) 

(cracked)  (broken). 

MAN-HOLES  are  shafts  of  brick  masonry  built  up  from  the  >.ewer 
to  the  surface  of  the  street,  of  sufficient  size  for  the  entrance  of  a 
man,  for  the  purpose  of  inspection  and  cleansing.  The  usual  form 
of  man-hole  is  circular  or  elliptical  at  the  base,  and  tapering  up- 
wards to  near  the  surface  of  the  street,  where  it  receives  the  cast- 
iron  frame  and  cover. 

LAMP  HOLES  are  small  shafts,  usually  formed  of  lengths  of  6- 
iuch  pipe,  built  up  vertically  from  the  sewer  to  the  surface  of  the 
street,  and  there  covered  with  a  cast  iron  frame  and  cover.  The 
purpose  of  lamp-holes  is  for  the  introduction  of  a  lamp  to  illu- 
minate the  interior  of  the  sewer  for  examination. 

FLUSH  TANKS  are  chambers  of  brick  masonry,  furnished  with 
siphons  which  automatically  and  periodically  empty  the  chamber, 
and  thus  cause  a  sudden  and  copious  dash  of  water  to  flow 
through  the  sewer  and  cleanse  it.  They  are  usually  supplied 
with  water  from  the  street-mains  through  an  ordinary  service- 
pipe  of  small  size,  and  the  admission  of  the  water  is  controlled  by 
an  ordinary  lever-handle  stop-cock. 

Inspection  of  Sewer  Construction. 

The  inspector  should  be  constantly  present  and  watchful.  His 
first  duty  will  be  to  inspect  the  quality  and  dimensions  of  the 
material  furnished  ;  second,  to  see  that  the  trenches  are  properly 
excavated,  sheathed,  and  braced  ;  and  third,  to  see  that  the  sewer 
is  properly  built  and  to  the  grades  and  lines  given  by  the  en 
gineer. 

PIPE  SEWERS. —Examine  each  pipe  for  size,  thickness,  depth 
of  socket,  shape,  fire-cracks,  and  blisters  ;  for  soundness,  by 
testing  each  pipe  by  its  ring  immediately  before  lowering  into  the 
trench.  A  pipe  that  does  not  give  a  perfectly  ringing  sound 
when  struck  with  a  light  hammer  should  be  rejected. 

See  that  the  pipe  is  laid  true  to  grade  and  line,  that  each  length 
is  properly  bedded.  For  this  purpose  a  recess  should  be  cut  in 
the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  receive  the  socket  of  the  pipe  ;  other- 
wise the  pipes  will  be  supported  by  the  sockets  only. 

That  the  spigot-end  of  each  pipe  is  properly  entered  and  sent 
home  in  the  socket  of  the  adjoining  pipe, 

That  the  gasket  of  hemp  or  oakum  is  properly  used.  The 
socket  should  not  be  tilled  with  it  to  the  exclusion  of  the  mortar. 


INSPECTION   OF   SEWER   CONSTRUCTION.  369 

That  the  Y  branches  are  laid  according  to  plan,  and  their 
ends,  if  not  immediately  connected,  closed  with  a  suitable  stop- 
per. 

That  the  cement  is  properly  mixed  and  the  joints  carefully 
filled  with  it  all  round  the  pipe.  Examine  the  bottom  of  the 
joints  to  see  that  this  is  done ;  also  see  that  mud  is  not  used  in 
place  of  cement. 

See  that  no  mortar  passes  into  the  interior  of  the  pipe.  If  it 
does  the  gaskets  have  not  been  properly  packed. 

That  man-hole  foundations  are  firm  and  substantial ;  that  the 
junctions  of  lateral  sewers  in  the  man-holes  are  built  in  i\  smooth 
and  workmanlike  manner;  the  bottoms  of  the  man-holes  formed 
to  the  shape  required  by  the  plans  ;  the  head  of  the  pipes  entering 
the  walls  are  cut  in  good  shape  ;  that  the  walls  are  carried  up  to 
the  surface  in  a  symmetrical  and  smooth  manner  ;  that  the  iron 
steps  are  built  in  as  required  ;  that  the  walls  are  plastered  as 
called  for  in  the  specifications. 

That  the  joints  after  being  cemented  are  not  disturbed  until 
filled  around  and  over  and  tamped.  The  back-filling  should  be 
carefully  done.  No  stones  should  be  used  for  filling  within  a 
foot  of  the  pipe.  That  the  filling  is  carefully  placed  in  the 
trench — not  thrown  in  violently — and  tamped  with  suitable  tamp- 
ers until  the  material  fills  the  trench  solidly. 

That  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  left  in  good  condition  for 
travel. 

BRICK  SEWERS.—  Examine  the  bricks  for  quality;  select  the 
hardest  and  smoothest  for  invert  and  sides. 

Examine  foundation  and  see  that  timber  or  other  material  is 
properly  placed  and  secured. 

See  that  profiles  and  centres  are  properly  set  and  of  sufficient 
strength. 

Examine  quality  of  cement  and  sand;  see  that  the  mortar  is 
properly  mixed  and  of  the  required  proportions. 

Have  the  bricks  well  wet  in  dry  weather  and  not  too  wet  in 
damp  weather. 

Watch  the  masons  to  see  that  they  lay  each  brick  to  line  with 
a  full  mortar  bed  and  joint,  and  without  unnecessary  pounding 
or  pushing  after  it  is  in  place. 

See  that  the  joints  are  of  such  thickness  that  a  full  number  of 
courses  of  brick  can  be  used  without  splitting  a  course. 

If  plastering  the  exterior  is  required  see  Unit  it  is  properly 
executed  and  not  injured  during  the  back-filling. 


370 


INSPECTION    OF   SEWER   CONSTRUCTION. 


That  man-boles  are  formed  and  built  symmetrically  of  the 
dimensions  required,  steps  built  in,  and  exterior  plastered. 

That  slants  and  junctions  are  properly  located  and  well  built 
in  and  exterior  ends  closed  with  stoppers. 

Interior  of  sewer  cleaned  of  loose  cement,  brick-chips,  and 
other  rubbish. 

If  water  is  met  in  the  trench  care  must  be  used  to  keep  it  away 
from  the  brickwork  until  the  cement  is  set. 

If  the  lower  course  of  sheathiug  is  to  be  withdrawn  it  should 
be  drawn  above  the  crown  of  the  arch  before  filling  in;  if  it  is 
left  to  be  drawn  afterwards  there  is  danger  that  a  crack  will  be 
caused  in  the  brickwork. 

Back-filling  to  be  carefully  done  and  thoroughly  rammed,  and 
surface  left  in  good  condition. 

TABLE  77. 
LENGTH  OF  SEWER-PIPE  ONE  BARREL  OF  CEMENT  WILL  LAY. 


Diameter  of  Pipe. 
Inches. 

Length. 

Feet. 

Diameter  of  Pipe. 
Inches. 

Length. 
Feet. 

6 

1200 

15 

190 

8 

666 

18 

130 

10 

426 

20 

106 

12 

300 

24 

74 

TABLE  78. 

WEIGHT  OF  SALT-GLAZED  SEWER-PIPE. 


Diameter. 
Inches. 

Weight  per  Foot. 
Pounds. 

Diameter. 
Inches. 

Weight  per  Foot. 
Pounds. 

2 

5 

15 

62 

3 

7 

16 

72 

4 

10 

18 

84 

5 

13 

20 

109 

6 

16 

21 

118 

8 

24 

22 

122 

9 

28 

24 

136 

10 

31 

27 

230 

12 

42 

30 

270 

14 

60 

36 

360 

PAVING. — GRANITE-BLOCK    PAVING.  371 


XIII.    PAVING. 
Materials  employed. 

The  materials  used  for  pavements  are  stone  in  the  form  of 
blocks  aud  broken  fragments,  wood  in  the  form  of  blocks  and 
plunk,  asphalt  in  two  forms — sheet  and  block,  and  clay  in  the 
form  of  brick. 

The  stones  employed  are  granite,  trap,  sandstone,  and  lime- 
stone. 

Granite-block  Paving. 

MANUFACTURE  OP  GRANITE  PAVING  BLOCKS. — The  manu- 
facture of  paving  blocks  varies  in  many  details  from  the  ordi- 
nary methods  of  granite-cutting.  The  high  skill  and  fine 
workmanship  of  the  stone-cutter  are  not  needed,  but  a  quickness 
in  seeing  and  taking  advantage  of  the  directions  of  cleavage,  as 
well  as  a  deftness  in  handling  the  necessary  tools,  is  requisite. 

The  tools  used  for  making  the  blocks  are  kuappiug-hammers, 
opening-hammers,  reels,  chisels,  and,  for  the  initial  splits,  drills, 
wedges,  and  half-rounds.  When  the  block-maker  quarries  his  own 
stock  it  is  called  "  motion-work,"  and  the  same  process  is  used 
as  in  quarrying  stone  for  other  purposes,  except  that,  as  large 
blocks  are  not  required,  most  of  it  can  be  done  with  plug  and 
feather.  Slabs,  having  been  split  out  ill  the  usual  manner  to  sizes 
that  may  be  easily  turned  over  and  handled  by  one  man,  are  sub- 
divided into  pieces  corresponding  approximately  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  required  blocks.  This  is  done  by  striking  repented 
blows  upon  the  rock  along  the  line  of  the  desired  break  with  knap- 
ping and  opening-hammers.  When  a  break  is  to  be  made  crosswise 
the  grain  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  chisel  a  light  groove  across 
the  face,  and  commonly  across  the  adjacent  sides,  to  guide  the 
fracture  produced  by  striking  on  the  opposite  surface  with  the 
opening- hammer.  Good  splits  can,  however,  be  made  along 
either  the  rift  or  grain  by  the  skilful  use  of  the  opening-hammer 
alone.  Blocks  broken  out  in  the  manner  described  are  trimmed 


372    PAVING.— INSPECTION   OF   GRANITE-BLOCK    PAVING. 

and  finished  with  the  reel,  which  is  a  hand-ham incr  having  a 
long,  flat  steel  head  attached  to  a  short  handle. 


Inspection  of  Granite-block  Paving. 

As  soon  as  the  blocks  are  brought  upon  the  work  they  must 
be  inspected  (1)  as  to  their  quality,  (2)  character  of  the  dress- 
ing, aud  (3)  as  to  their  dimensions. 

The  requirements  of  tbe  specifications  under  which  the  work  is 
being  executed  must  be  the  guide  for  the  acceptance  or  rejection 
of  the  blocks.  In  general  it  may  be  said,  Reject  all  stones  which 
are  easily  chipped  by  a  smart  blow  with  a  light  hammer.  Hough 
aud  ill- shaped  blocks  should  not  be  permitted  in  first-class  work. 

When  stone  is  brought  from  more  than  one  quarry,  that  from 
each  quarry  should  be  piled  aud  laid  in  separate  sections  of  the 
work. 

In  laying  the  blocks  see  that  those  for  each  course  are  selected 
with  regard  to  uniformity  of  depth  and  width,  and  that  tho 
longitudinal  joints  are  broken  by  a  lap  of  at  least  two  inches. 

The  ramming  of  the  blocks  requires  close  watching  to  see  that 
it  is  properly  done,  and  that  every  block  is  brought  to  a  solid 
bearing. 

The  practice  of  the  workmen  is  invariably  to  use  the  rammer  so 
as  to  secure  a  fair  surface  without  any  regard  to  the  bearing  of 
the  blocks.  The  result  of  such  surfacing  process  is  to  produce 
an  unsightly  aud  uneven  roadway  when  the  pressure  of  traffic  is 
brought  upon  it.  The  rammer  should  weigh  not  less  than  f:0 
pounds  and  have  a  diameter  of  not  less  than  3  inches. 

When  the  joints  are  to  be  filled  with  paving-pitch  the  opera- 
tion must  be  closely  scrutinized  to  see  that  the  required  quantity 
is  poured  into  the  joints,  and  neither  spilled  over  the  surface  of 
the  pavement  nor  removed  unused. 


PAVING. — PAVING-PITCH.  373 


Paving-pitch. 

The  bituminous  material  employed  for  filling  the  joints  in 
paving  is  the  tar  produced  in  the  manufacture  of  gas,  which, 
when  redistilled,  is  called  distillate,  and  is  numbered  1,  2,  3,  4, 
etc.,  according  to  its  density;  it  is  used  alone  and  in  combination 
with  asphaltum,  creosote,  etc. 

The  formula  for  the  bituminous  joint-tilling  used  iu  New  York 
City  is  : 

Refined  Trinidad  asphaltum 20  parts 

No.  4  coal-tar  distillate 100     " 

Residuum  of  petroleum 3     " 

The  mode  of  applying  the  paving-pitch  is  as  follows  : 

After  the  blocks  are  rammed  the  joints  are  rilled  to  a  depth  of 
about  two  inches  with  clean  gravel  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
about  250°  Fahr.  Then  the  hot  pitch  is  poured  in  until  it  forms 
a  layer  of  about  an  inch  on  top  of  the  gravel,  then  more  gravel  is 
filled  in  to  a  depth  of  about  two  inches  and  more  pitch  poured  in 
until  it  appears  on  top  of  the  gravel,  then  gravel  is  filled  in  until 
it  reaches  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  top  of  the  blocks;  this 
remaining  half  inch  is  filled  with  pitch,  and  then  fine  gravel  or 
sand  is  sprinkled  over  the  joint. 

In  some  cases  the  joints  are  first  filled  with  the  heated  gravel, 
then  the  cement  poured  in  until  the  joints  are  filled  flush  with  the 
top  of  the  pavement.  This  method  is  open  to  objection,  for  if 
the  gravel  is  not  sufficiently  hot  the  pitch  will  be  chilled  and  will 
not  now  to  the  bottom  of  the  joint,  but  instead  will  form  a  thin 
crust  near  the  surface,  which,  under  the  action  of  frost  and  the 
vibration  of  traffic,  will  be  quickly  cracked  and  broken  up;  the 
gravel  will  settle  and  the  blocks  will  be  jarred  loose,  and  the 
surface  of  the  pavement  will  become  a  series  of  ridges  and  hol- 
lows. 

In  heating  the  pitch  care  must  be  exercised  that  it  is  not  coked, 
in  which  condition  it  is  brittle  and  useless. 

The  gravel  is  heated  either  in  revolving  cylinders  or  in  rect- 
angular iron  pans  supported  on  piles  of  stones  with  a  fire  under- 
neath. The  same  apparatus  is  employed  for  drying  sand  when 
it  becomes  necessary  to  remove  moisture. 

Trap,  sandstone,  and  limestone  blocks  are  laid  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  described  above  for  granite  blocks. 


374  PAYING. — ASPHALT   PAVEMENTS. 

All  the  stone-block  pavements  are  laid  either  on  a  bed  of  clean 
sand  or  on  a  layer  of  concrete. 

Wood  Pavements. 

Wood  pavements  arc  formed  of  either  rectangular  or  cylindri- 
cal blocks  of  wood.  The  rectangular  blocks  are  generally  3 
inches  wide,  9  inches  long,  and  6  inches  deep;  the  round  blocks 
are  commonly  6  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  long 

The  kinds  of  wood  used  are  cedar,  cypress,  juniper,  yellow 
pine,  mesquite,  and  recently  jarrak  from  Australia  and  pyingado 
from  India  have  been  used. 

The  wood  is  used  in  its  natural  condition  or  impregnated  with 
creosote  or  other  chemical  preservative. 

The  blocks  of  wood  are  laid  either  on  the  natural  soil,  on  beds 
of  sand  and  gravel,  on  a  layer  of  broken  stone,  on  a  layer  of  con- 
crete, or  sometimes  on  a  double  layer  of  plank,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  described  under  Granite  Paving.  The  joints  are  filled  either 
with  sand  or  paving-pitch  or  Portland  cement  grout. 


Asphalt  Pavements. 

ASPHALTTC  PAVING  MATERIALS. — All  asphaltic  or  bituminous 
pavements  are  composed  of  two  essential  parts,  namely,  the 
cementing  material  (matrix)  and  the  resisting  material  (aggre- 
gate). Each  has  a  distinct  function  to  perform:  the  first  furnishes 
and  preserves  the  coherency  of  the  mass;  the  second  resists  the 
wear  of  the  traffic. 

Two  classes  of  asphaltic  paving  compounds  are  in  use,  namely, 
natural  and  artificial.  The  natural  variety  is  composed  of  either 
limestone  or  sandstone  naturally  cemented  by  bitumen.  To  this 
class  belong  the  bituminous  limestones  of  Europe,  Texas,  Utah, 
etc.,  and  the  bituminous  sandstones  of  California,  Kentucky, 
Texas,  Indian  Territory,  etc.  The  artificial  consists  of  mixtures  of 
asphultic  cement  manufactured,  as  described  on  page  49  etseq., 
with  sand  and  stone-dust.  To  this  class  belong  the  pavements 
made  from  Trinidad,  Bermudez,  Cuban,  and  similar  asphaltums. 
For  the  artificial  variety  most  of  the  hard  bitumens  are,  when 
properly  prepared,  equally  suitable.  For  the  aggregate  the  most 
suitable  materials  are  stone-dust  from  the  harder  rocks,  such  as 
granite,  trap,  etc.,  and  sharp  angular  sand.  These  materials 


PAVING. — ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS.  375 

should  be  entirely  free  from  loam  and  vegi  table  impurities.  The 
strength  and  enduring  qualities  of  the  mixture  will  depend  upon 
the  quality,  strength,  and  proportion  of  each  ingredient,  as  well 
as  upon  the  cohesion  of  the  matrix  and  its  adhesion  to  the  aggre- 
gate. 

BITUMINOUS  LIMESTONE  consists  of  carbonate  of  lime  natu- 
rally cemented  with  bitumen  in  proportions  varying  from  80  to  93 
per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  from  7  to  20  per  cent  of  bitu- 
men. Its  color  when  freshly  broken  is  a  dark  (almost  black) 
chocolate-brown,  the  darker  color  being  due  to  a  larger  percent- 
age of  bitumen.  At  a  temperature  of  from  55°  to  70°  F.  the 
material  is  hard  and  sonorous  and  breaks  easily  with  an  irregular 
fracture  ;  at  temperatures  between  70°  and  140°  F.  it  softens, 
passing  with  the  rise  in  temperature  through  various  degrees  of 
plasticity,  until,  at  between  140°  and  160°  F.,  it  begins  to  crum- 
ble, at  212°  F.  it  commences  to  melt,  and  at  280°  F.  it  is  com- 
pletely disintegrated.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  2.235. 

Bituminous  limestone  is  the  material  employed  for  paving  pur- 
poses throughout  Europe.  It  is  obtained  principally  from  deposits 
at  Val-de-Travers,  canton  of  Neufchatel,  Switzerland;  at  Seyssel, 
in  the  department  of  Ain,  France;  at  Ragusa,  Sicily;  at  Limmer, 
near  Hanover;  and  at  Vorwohle,  Germany. 

Bituminous  limestone  is  found  in  several  parts  of  the  United 
States.  Two  of  these  deposits  are  at  present  being  worked,  one 
in  Texas,  the  material  from  which  is  called  "lithocarbon,"  and 
one  on  the  Wasatch  Indian  Reservation.  These  deposits  contain 
from  10  to  30  per  cent  of  bitumen. 

The  bituminous  limestones  which  contain  about  10  per  cent  of 
bitumen  are  used  for  paving  in  their  natural  condition,  being 
simply  reduced  to  powder,  heated  until  thoroughly  softened, 
then  spread  while  hot  upon  the  foundation,  and  tamped  and 
rammed  until  compacted. 

BITUMINOUS  SANDSTONES  are  composed  of  sandstone  rock  im- 
pregnated with  bitumen  in  amounts  varying  from  a  trace  to  70 
per  cent.  They  are  found  both  in  Europe  and  America.  In 
Europe  they  are  chiefly  used  for  the  production  of  pure  bitumen, 
which  is  extracted  by  boiling  or  macerating  them  with  water.  In 
the  United  States  extensive  deposits  are  found  in  the  Western 
States,  and  since  1880  they  have  been  gradually  coming  into  use 
as  a  paving  material,  and  now  upwards  of  a  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  of  streets  in  Western  cities  are  paved  with  them.  They  are 
prepared  for  use  asp  paving  material  by  crushing  to  powder,  which 


376  PAVING. — ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 

is  heated  to  about  250°  F.  or  until  it  becomes  plastic,  then  spread 
upon  the  street  and  compressed  by  rolling  ;  sometimes  sand  or 
gravel  is  added,  and  it  is  stated  that  a  mixture  of  about  80  per 
cent  of  gravel  makes  a  durable  pavement. 

TRINIDAD  ASPHALTUM.— The  deposits  of  asphaltuin  in  the  isl- 
and of  Trinidad,  W.  I.,  have  been  the  main  source  of  supply  for 
the  asphaltum  used  in  street-paving  in  the  United  States.  Three 
kinds  are  found  there,  which  have  been  named,  according  to  the 
source,  lake-pitch,  land-  or  overflow-pitch,  and  iron-pitch.  The  first 
and  most  valuable  kind  is  obtained  from  the  so-called  Pitch  Lake. 

The  term  land-  or  overflow-pilch  is  applied  to  the  deposits  of 
asphaltum  found  outside  of  the  lake.  These  deposits  form  exten- 
sive beds  of  variable  thickness,  and  are  covered  with  from  a  few 
to  several  feet  of  earth  ;  they  are  considered  by  some  authorities 
to  be  formed  from  pitch  which  has  overflowed  from  the  lake,  by 
others  to  be  of  entirely  different  origin.  The  name  cheese-pitch 
is  given  to  such  portions  of  the  laud-pitch  as  more  nearly  resem- 
ble that  obtained  from  the  lake. 

The  term  iron-pitch  is  used  to  designate  large  and  isolated 
masses  of  extremely  hard  asphaltum  found  both  within  and  with- 
out the  borders  of  the  lake.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
by  the  action  of  heat  caused  by  forest  fires  which,  sweeping  over 
the  softer  pitch,  removed  its  more  volatile  constituents. 

The  name  epuree  is  given  to  nsphaltum  refined  on  the  island  of 
Trinidad.  The  process  is  conducted  in  a  very  crude  manner  in 
large,  open,  cast-iron  sugar- boilers, 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  CRUDE  TRINIDAD  ASPHALTUM,  both 
lake  and  land,  are  as  follows  :  It  is  composed  of  bitumen  mixed 
with  fine  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  matter.  Its  specific  gravity 
varies  according  to  the  impurities  present,  but  is  usually  about 
1.28.  Its  color  when  freshly  excavated  is  a  brown,  which  changes 
to  black  on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  When  freshly  broken 
it  emits  the  usual  bituminous  odor.  It  is  porous,  containing  gas- 
cavities,  and  in  consistency  it  resembles  cheese.  If  left  long 
enough  in  the  sun  the  surface  will  soften  and  melt  and  will 
finally  flow  into  a  more  or  less  compact  mass.  The  average  com- 
position of  both  the  laud  and  lake  varieties  is  shown  by  the  fol- 
lowing analyses : 


PAVING.— ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 


377 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION   OF  TRINIDAD   ASPI1ALTUM. 


Constituents. 

Lake. 

Land. 

Hard. 

Soft, 

"Water                                     

Per  Cent. 

27.85 
26.38 
7.63 
38  14 

Per  Cent. 
3J.10 
25.05 
G.35 
34.50 

Per  Cent. 
26.62 
27.57 
8.05 
37.76 

Inorganic  matter  
Organic  non-bituminous  matter.  .  . 

When  the  analyses  are  calculated 
to  a  basis  of  dry  substances  the 
composition  is:  Inorganic  matter 
Organic  matter  not  bitumen  
Bitumen.  ...   ... 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

36.56 
10.57 

52.87 

38.00 
9.64 
52.36 

37.74 
10.68 
51.58 

The   substances   volatilized  in  10 
hours  at  400°  F 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

3.66 
190°  F 
200°  F. 

12.24 
170°  F. 
185°  F. 

0.86  to  1.37 
200°  to  250°  F. 
210°  to  328°  F. 

The  substances  soften  at  
flow  at  

REFINED  TRINIDAD  ASPIIALTUM. — The  crude  aspbaltum  is 
refined  or  purified  by  melting  it  in  iron  kettles  or  stills  by  the 
application  of  indirect  beat. 

The  operation  of  refining  proceeds  as  follows :  During  the 
healing  the  water  and  lighter  oils  are  evaporated,  the  asphaltum 
is  liquefied,  the  vegetable  matter  rises  to  the  surface  and  is 
skimmed  off,  tbe  earthy  and  silicious  matters  settle  to  the  bot- 
tom, and  the  liquid  asphaltum  is  drawn  off  into  old  cement-  or 
flour-barrels. 

When  the  asphaltum  is  refined  without  agitation  the  residue 
remaining  in  the  still  forms  a  considerable  percentage  of  the 
crude  material,  frequently  amounting  to  12  per  cent,  and  it  was 
at  one  time  considered  that  the  greater  the  amount  of  this  residue 
the  better  the  quality  of  the  refined  asphaltum  ;  but  since  agita- 
tion has  been  adopted  the  greater  part  of  the  earthy  and  silicious 
matters  is  retained  in  suspension  and  it  has  come  to  be  con- 
sidered just  as  desirable  for  a  part  of  the  surface  mixture  as  the 
sand  which  is  subsequently  added.  The  refined  asphaltum,  if 
for  local  use,  is  generally  converted  into  cement  in  the  same  still 
in  which  it  was  refined. 

THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  REFINED  TRINIDAD  ASPHALTUM 
are  as  follows ; 

The  color  is  bla-ck  with  a  homogeneous  appearance.     At  a  tern- 


378 


PAVING. — ASPHALT   PAVEMENTS. 


perature  of  about  70°  F.  it  is  very  brittle  and  breaks  witli  a  con- 
choidal  fracture  ;  it  burns  with  a  yellowish-white  flame,  and  in 
burning  emits  an  empyreumatic  odor,  and  possesses  little  cenienti- 
tious  quality  ;  to  give  it  the  required  plasticity  and  tenacity  it  is 
mixed  while  liquid  with  from  16  to  21  pounds  of  residuum  oil  to 
100  pounds  of  asphaltum  in  the  manner  described  on  page  49  etseq. 
The  product  resulting  from  the  combination  is  called  asphalt 
paving -cement ;  its  consistency  should  be  such  that,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  from  70°  to  80°  F.,  it  can  be  easily  indented  with 
the  fingers  and  on  slight  warming  be  drawn  out  in  strings  or 
threads. 
AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  REFINED  TRINIDAD  ASPHALTUM. 


Lake. 

Land. 

Specific  gravity  at  77°  F  

1  38 

1  42 

Per  Cent. 
56.29 

Per  Cent. 
53.75 

Organic  matter  not  bituminous  .    . 

8  05 

8  01 

Inorganic  matter     

3566 

38  24 

Bitumen  soluble  in  petroleum  naphtha  
Per  cent  of  total  bitumen  soluble  

100.00 

41.43 
73.60 

100.00 

35.22 
65  32 

Softens  at  

190°  F 

210°  F. 

Flows  at  .           .                                 ... 

205°  F 

230°  F. 

BEKMUDEZ  ASPHALT. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  asphaltum 
obtained  from  a  lake  or  deposit  situated  in  the  State  of  Bermudez, 
Venezuela.  The  crude  asphaltum  is  of  the  same  variety  as  the 
Trinidad,  namely,  bitumen  mixed  with  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable 
matter  ;  its  average  specific  gravity  is  1,09,  and  its  average  com- 
position is  as  follows : 

Per  Cent. 

Bitumen 93.54 

Mineral  matter 2.16 

Organic  matter  not  bituminous 1.15 

Water 3.15 

100.00 

Petrolene 77.90 

Asphaltene. 21.08 

Retiue..  1.02 


100.00 


PAVING. — ASPHALT   PAVEMENTS.  379 

The  refining  process  is  practically  similar  to  that  described 
under  Trinidad  Asphaltum,  but  is  much  more  rapid,  owing  to  the 
small  amount  of  water  and  mineral  matter  present.  In  manu- 
facturing the  cement  it  requires  much  less  petroleum  residuum 
than  the  Trinidad  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  oil  that 
it  contains  ;  it  melts  at  a  lower  temperature  than  the  Trinidad, 
and  the  following  are  some  of  its  characteristics  :  at  60°  F.  com- 
pressible ;  at  70°  F.  viscous  and  malleable  ;  at  100°  F.  flowing, 
and  can  be  stretched  in  hair-like  threads  ;  at  189°  F.  melts  ,  at 
400°  F.  gives  no  flash. 

CALIFORNIA  ASPHALTUM. — Asphaltum  is  produced  in  Cali- 
fornia by  refining  the  bitumen  from  the  extensive  sandstone  and 
other  deposits  which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  State. 
The  characteristics  of  both  the  crude  and  refined  asphaltum  from 
some  of  the  more  important  deposits  are  shown  by  the  following 
analysis ; 


ANALYSIS  OF  ASPHALTUM  PROM  BAKERSFIELD,  CAL. 

Crude.  Refined. 

Specific  gravity 1.132  1.240 

Softens  at 180°  F.  150°  F. 

Flowsat 220°  F.  180°  F. 

Inorganic  matter 9.57  p.  c.  9.77  p.  c. 

Bitumen  soluble  in  CS2 85.49  p.  c.  90.16  p.  c. 

Bitumen  soluble  in  ether 69.98  p.  c.  86.45  p.  c. 

Percentage  of  total  bitumen  soluble  in 

81. 85  p.  c.  95.88  p.  c. 


VNALYSIS  OF  ASPHALTUM  FROM  ASPHALTO,  CAL. 

Crude.  Refined 

Moisture 6.51  p.  c.  0.42  p.  c. 

Bitumen  soluble  in  chloroform 84.79  p,  c.  93.27  p.  c. 

Organic  matter  (not  bitumen)  trace  0.54  p.  c. 

Inorganic  matter  consisting  of  infuso- 
rial earth  with  traces  of  iron 8.70  p.  c.  5.77  p.  c. 

Petrolene  soluble  in  acetone 67.50  p.  c.  71.27  p.  c. 

Asphaltene  insoluble  in  acetone 32.50  p.  c.  28.73  p.  c. 

Combined  sulphur  (chemically  held  in 

*be  bitumen) 0.73  p.  c. 


380  PAVING.— ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS. 


ANALYSIS  OP  ASPHALTUM  FROM  SANTA  BARBARA  Co.,  CAL. 

Crude.  Refined. 

Specific  gravity 1.250 

Orgauic  non-bituminous  matter 1.10  p.  c. 

Inorganic  matter  consisting  of  finely 
divided  quartz  with  oxide  of  iron 
and  alumina 39.75  p.  c. 

Bitumen  soluble  in  CS2 59.15  p.  c. 

Bitumen  soluble  in  petroleum  naphtha 

(petrolene) 42.50  p.  c. 

Asphaltene 7.35  p.  c. 


ANALYSIS  OF  ASPHALTUM  FROM  KERN  Co.,  CAL. 

Bitumen  soluble  in  CS2 78.90  p.  c. 

Mineral  substances— sand,  clay,  and  silica 9.40  p.  c. 

Coky  and  volatile  matter 4. 53  p.  c. 

Water  and  loss 7.17  p.  c. 


ANALYSIS  OF  BITUMINOUS  SANDSTONE  FROM  VENTURA  Co., 
CAL. 

Bitumen 24.00  p.  c. 

Silica 64.00  p.  c. 

Oxide  of  iron  > 

Calcium  carbonate  \ lw-00  p'  c' 

Cements  for  paving  and  other  purposes  are  manufactured  from 
the  refined  asphaltum  described  above  by  the  admixture  of 
maltJia  ;  the  two  substances  are  combined  at  a  very  low  temper- 
ature, the  heat  beiug  applied  indirectly,  and  the  mixing  is  per- 
formed mechanically  ;  the  degree  of  softness  can  be  made  to  suit 
any  requirement. 

ASPHALT  MASTIC. — In  Europe  mastic  is  made  from  a  mixture 
of  bituminous  limestone  and  refined  asphaltum  (usually  Trini- 
dad). The  bituminous  limestone  is  reduced  to  powder  and  mixed 
with  about  8  per  cent  of  refined  asphallum,  then  melted  and  thor- 
oughly mixed.  The  hot  composition  is  run  into  moulds  of  vari- 
ous shapes,  usually  round  or  hexagonal,  and  of  such  dimensions 


PAVING.— ASPHALT   PAVEMENTS.  381 

as  will  give  a  cake  or  block  weighing  about  56  pounds;  these 
blocks  usually  have  the  name  of  the  source  or  factory  moulded 
on  them. 

The  mastic  is  prepared  for  use  by  breaking  the  cakes  into  small 
pieces,  and  heating  it  with  the  addition  of  about  5  per  cent  of  re- 
fined asphaltum.  The  mass  is  constantly  stirred,  and,  when  soft, 
sand  and  fine  gravel  are  added  and  thoroughly  incorporated  by 
stirring  for  about  two  hours  at  a  temperature  of  about  300°  F., 
when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Asphalt  mastic  is  also  prepared  from  bituminous  sandstones 
and  maltha  or  refined  asphaltum,  and  from  asphalt  paving- 
cement.  The  principal  use  of  mastic  is  for  sidewalks  and  floors. 
In  Europe  it  is  called  asphalte  coale  in  distinction  from  the  com- 
pressed bituminous  limestone,  which  is  called  asphalte  comprime, 

ARTIFICIAL  ASPHALT  PAVEMENTS.  —  The  pavements  made 
from  Trinidad,  Bermudez,  California,  and  similar  asphaltums  are 
composed  of  mechanical  mixtures  of  asphaltic  cement,  sand,  and 
stone-dust. 

The  asphaltic  cement  is  prepared  in  the  manner  desc'ribed  on 
page  49.  Its  consistency  should  be  such  that  at  a  temperature  of 
from  70°  to  80°  F.  it  can  be  easily  indented  with  the  finger-nail, 
and  on  being  heated  to  about  90°  F.  can  be  drawn  out  in  strings 
and  threads. 

The  sand  should  be  equal  in  quality  to  that  used  for  hydraulic 
cement  mortar;  it  must  be  entirely  free  from  clay,  loam,  and  veg- 
etable impurities;  its  grains  should  be  angular  and  range  from 
coarse  to  fine. 

The  stone-dust  is  used  to  aid  in  filling  the  voids  in  the  sand  and 
thus  reduce  the  amount  of  cement.  The  amount  used  varies 
with  the  coarseness  of  the  sand  and  the  quality  of  the  cement, 
and  ranges  from  5  to  15  per  cent.  (The  voids  in  sand  vary  from 
.3  to  .5  per  cent.) 

As  to  the  quality  of  the  stone-dust,  that  from  any  durable  stone 
is  equally  suitable.  Limestone-dust  was  originally  used,  and  has 
never  been  entirely  discarded. 

The  paving  composition  is  prepared  by  heating  the  mixed  sand 
and  stone-dust  and  the  asphalt  cement  separately  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  300°  F.  The  heated  ingredients  are  measured  into 
a  pug-mill  and  thoroughly  incorporated.  When  this  is  accom- 
plished the  mixture  is  ready  for  use.  It  is  hauled  to  the  street 
and  spread  with  iron  rakes  to  such  depth  as  will  give  the  re- 
quired thickness  when  compacted  (the  finish,  d  thickness  varies 


382  PAVING. — ASPHALT    PAVEMENTS. 

between  1 J  and  2i  inches).  The  reduction  of  thickness  by  com- 
pression is  generally  about  .40  per  cent. 

The  mixture  is  sometimes  laid  in  two  layers.  The  first  is  called 
the  "  binder  "-  or ' '  cushion  "-  coat,  it  contains  from  2  to  5  per  cent 
more  cement  than  the  surface-coat;  its  thickness  is  usually  ^  inch. 
The  object  of  the  binder-course  is  to  unite  the  surface  mixture 
with  the  foundation,  which  it  does  through  the  larger  percentage 
of  cement  that  it  contains,  and  which  if  put  in  the  surface  mix- 
ture would  render  it  too  soft. 

The  paving  composition  is  compressed  by  means  of  rollers  and 
tampiug-irous,  the  latter  being  heated  in  a  fire  contained  in  an 
iron  basket  mounted  on  wheels.  These  irons  are  used  for  tamp- 
ing such  portions  as  are  inaccessible  to  the  roller,  viz.,  gutters, 
and  around  man-hole  heads,  etc. 

Two  rollers  are  sometimes  employed  :  one,  weighing  5  to  6  tons 
and  of  narrow  tread,  is  used  to  give  the  first  compression;  and 
the  other,  weighing  about  10  tons  and  of  broad  tread,  is  used  for 
finishing.  The  amount  of  rolling  varies;  the  average  is  about 
one  hour  per  thousand  square  yards  of  surface.  After  the  pri- 
mary compression  natural  hydraulic  or  any  impalpable  mineral 
matter  is  sprinkled  over  the  surface  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of 
the  material  to  the  roller  and  to  give  the  surface  a  more  pleasing 
appearance.  When  the  asphalt  is  laid  up  to  the  curb  the  surface 
of  the  portion  forming  the  gutter  is  painted  with  a  coat  of  hot 
cement. 

The  concrete  for  the  foundation  is  prepared  in  the  manner 
described  on  page  224  et  seq.  The  concrete  must  be  thoroughly 
set  and  its  surface  dry  before  the  asphalt  is  laid  upon  it;  if  not  the 
water  will  be  sucked  up  and  converted  into  steam,  with  the  result 
tbnt  coherence  of  the  asphaltic  mixture  is  prevented,  and,  al- 
though its  surface  may  be  smooth,  the  mass  is  really  honeycombed, 
aud  as  soon  as  the  pavement  is  subjected  to  the  action  of  traffic 
the  voids  or  fissures  formed  by  the  steam  appear  on  the  surface, 
and  the  whole  pavement  is  quickly  broken  up. 

Although  asphaltum  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  and  the 
cement  retains  its  plasticity  for  several  hours,  occasions  may  and 
do  arise  through  which  the  composition  before  it  is  spread  has 
cooled  ;  its  condition  when  this  happens  is  analogous  to  hydraulic 
cement  which  has  taken  a  "set,"  aud  the  same  rules  which 
apply  to  hydraulic  cement  in  this  condition  should  be  respected 
in  regard  to  asphaltic  cement. 

The  proportions  of  the  ingredients  in  the  paving  mixture  are 


PAVING. — BROKEN -STONE    PAVEMENTS.  383 

not  constant,  but  vary  with  the  climate  of  the  place  where  the 
pavement  is  to  be  used,  the  character  of  the  sand,  and  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  traffic  that  will  use  the  pavemeiu.  The 
range  in  the  proportions  is  as  follows  : 

Asphalt  cement 12  to  15  per  cent 

Sand 70to83    "      " 

Stone-dust 5  to  15    "      " 

A  cubic  yard  of  the  prepared  material  weighs  about  4500 
pounds  and  will  lay  the  following  amount  of  wearing-surface  : 

2i  inches  thick 12  square  yards 

2        "         "    18      " 

H      "         "    27      " 

One  ton  of  refined  asphaltum  makes  about  2300  pounds  of 
asphalt  cement,  equal  to  about  3.4  cubic  yards  of  surface 
material. 

Broken-stone  Pavements. 

TELFORD  PAVEMENT  is  constructed  about  as  follows  :  The 
surface  of  the  roadbed  is  graded  uniformly  and  compressed  by 
rolling.  On  this  is  laid  a  course  of  large  irregular  shaped  stones 
about  8  inches  thick  The  broadest  surface  is  placed  on  the 
earth-bed,  and  the  wedge-shaped  spaces  between  the  stones  are 
then  filled  with  smaller  pieces  and  chips  of  stone.  The  project- 
ing corners  of  the  large  stones  are  then  broken  off  with  hammers, 
and  the  course  rolled  or  not  with  a  steam-roller.  On  the  surface 
of  the  large  stones  a  layer  of  broken  stone  is  spread,  the  binding 
added,  sprinkled,  and  rolled  ;  in  some  cases  a  second  and  third 
course  of  broken  stone  is  added,  sprinkled,  and  rolled  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  firs:.  A  surface-coat  of  screenings  com- 
pletes the  work. 

MACADAM  PAVEMENT  is  constructed  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  Tel  ford,  omitting  the  lower  course  of  large  stone,  the  total 
depth  of  the  broken  stone  varying  from  4  to  12  inches  in  thickness. 

INSPECTION  OF  TELFORD  AND  MACADAM. — In  the  construc- 
tion of  either  Tel  ford  or  Macadam  pavement  the  points  to  be 
observed  are  :  1.  The  perfect  consolidation  of  the  earth-bed. 

2.  In  Telford  base  the  proper  binding  of  the  foundation-course. 

3.  Cleanliness  of  the  stone;  it  must  be  free  from  clay  and  loarn. 


384  PAVING. — BROKEN-STONE    PAVEMENTS. 

4  Size  of  the  stoue.  A  ring  gauge  of  the  diameter  of  the  largest 
stone  should  be  provided,  through  which  a  stone  should  be 
frequently  passed  to  test  the  size.  Tiiis  gauge  is  rarely  furnished, 
the  rule  being  used  instead.  Long  flaky  pieces,  or  "tailings," 
must  be  excluded;  they  will  never  compact,  no  matter  how-  much 
they  are  rolled.  5.  An  excessive  quantity  of  binding  must  not 
be  used.  The  proportion  should  be  about  equal  to  the  voids  in 
the  broken  stone.  By  using  a  larger  quantity  than  this  the 
amount  of  rolling  is  lessened,  but  at  the  expense  of  durability. 
6.  The  use  of  a  large  quantity  of  water  must  be  avoided.  A 
large  quauiity  expedites  the  rolling,  but  softens  the  foundation. 
The  water  should  be  applied  by  a  sprinkler,  and  not  be  thrown 
on  in  quantity  from  the  plain  nozzle  of  a  hose.  7.  The  amount 
of  rolling  varies  extremely  with  circumstances — the  class  of 
material,  the  amount  of  binding  and  Avater  used,  the  gradient, 
and  the  pressure  of  steam  maintained.  The  only  guide  for  its 
proper  amount  is  that  it  must  be  continued  until  the  stones  cease 
to  creep  in  front  or  sink  under  the  rolls,  and  the  surface  has 
become  smooth  and  firm.  The  surface  of  a  well-constructed 
broken-stone  road  should,  after  being  rolled,  look  almost  like  an 
encaustic  pavement. 

The  rolling  should  be  done  slowly,  commencing  at  the  sides 
aud  advancing  to  the  centre. 

VOIDS  IN  BROKEN  STONE. — The  proportion  of  voids  in  broken 
stone,  gravel,  and  sand  may  be  determined  in  either  of  the  follow- 
ing ways:  (1)  Determine  the  specific  gravity  of  the  material  and 
from  that  the  weight  of  a  unit  of  volume  of  the  solid.  Weigh  a 
unit  of  volume  of  the  loose  material.  The  difference  between 
the  weights  divided  by  the  first  gives  the  proportion  of  the  voids. 
(2)  Wet  the  loose  material  thoroughly,  fill  a  vessel  of  known 
capacity  with  it,  and  then  pour  in  all  the  water  the  vessel  will 
contain.  Measure  the  volume  of  water  required  and  divide  this 
by  the  volume  of  the  vessel;  the  quotient  represents  the  propor- 
tion of  voids. 

To  ascertain  the  WEIGHT  of  a  cubic  yard  of  broken  stone,  mul- 
tiply the  weight  of  a  cubic  yard  of  the  given  stoue  by  the  propor- 
tion of  voids  (usually  one-half);  the  result  will  be  the  weight  of  a 
cubic  yard  of  the  stone  when  broken. 

The  AREA  covered  by  a  cubic  yard  of  ordinary  broken  stone  is 
about  32  square  yards  of  surface. 

When  the  stone  is  rolled  the  primitive  volume  is  reduced  by 
about  one- fourth. 


PAVING. — BRICK    PAVEMENTS.  385 

To  find  the  area  covered  by  one  cubic  yard,  divide  36  by  the 
thickness  of  the  layer  in  inches  for  unrolled  stone;  the  quotient 
is  the  number  of  square  yards  that  caii  be  covered.  When  the 
stone  is  rolled  divide  27  by  the  final  thickness  in  inches;  the 
quotient  is  the  number  of  square  yards. 


Brick  Pavements. 

The  qualities  essential  to  a  good  paving-brick  are  the  same  as 
for  any  other  paving  material,  viz.,  hardness,  toughness,  and 
ability  to  resist  the  disintegrating  effects  of  water  and  frost.  The 
required  qualities  are  imparted  to  the  brick  by  a  process  of  an- 
nealing. The  bricks  are  burned  just  to  the  point  of  fusion,  then 
the  heat  gradually  reduced  until  the  kiln  is  cold.  The  clay  em- 
ployed iii  the  manufacture  of  paving-brick  must  be  rich  in  silica, 
free  from  lime,  and  able  to  withstand  without  fusing  a  red  heat 
for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  render  the  bricks  hard,  homoge- 
neous, and  impervious  to  water. 

The  characteristics  of  brick  suitable  for  paving  are  : 

1.  Not  to  be  acted  upon  by  acids. 

2.  Not  to  absorb  more  than  ^¥  of  its  weight  of  water  in  48 
hours'  immersion. 

3.  Not  susceptible  to  polish. 

4.  Rough  to  the  touch,  resembling  fine  sandpaper. 

5.  To  give  a  clear  ringing  sound  when  struck  together. 

6.  When  broken  to  show  a  compact,  uniform,  close-grained 
structure,  free  from  air-holes  and  pebbles.     Marked  laminations 
are  fatal  defects. 

7.  Not  to  spall,   chip,  or   scale  when  quickly  struck  on  the 
edges. 

8.  Hard,  but  not  brittle. 

TESTS  FOR  PAVING  -  BRICK.  —  Paving  -  bricks  are  tested  to 
ascertain 

1.  Resistance  to  crushing. 

2.  Resistance  to  cross-breaking. 

3.  Resistance  to  abrasion  or  impact. 

4.  Porosity  or  absorptive  power. 

The  first  test  is  conducted  in  a  suitable  testing-machine.  The 
second  is  made  by  setting  the  brick  edgewise  on  rounded  knife- 
edges  7  inches  apart,  and  loading  it  at  the  centre  on  a  rounded 
knife-edge  with  weights  until  it  breaks. 


38G  PAVING.  —  BRICK    PAVEMENTS. 

The  brciikiug  weight  per  square  iiich  or  the  resistance  to  cross- 
breaking  is  deduced  by  the  formula 


in  which  R  =  modulus  of  rupture; 
W  =  breaking  load; 
I  =  distance  between  supports; 
b  —  breudth; 
d  =  depth  or  width. 

The  resistance  to  abrasion  is  usually  made  in  a  "rattler,"  such 
as  is  employed  in  foundries  to  clean  small  castings.  In  it  are 
placed  several  bricks  (usually  5),  with  a  quantity  (about  100 
pounds)  of  cast-iron  scrap  in  pieces  weighing  about  half  a  pound 
each.  The  rattler  is  revolved  at  from  15  to  25  revolutions  per 
minute  for  30  minutes.  The  bricks  are  then  weighed,  replaced, 
and  the  operation  repeated  for  another  30  minutes,  when  they  are 
again  weighed  and  the  loss  calculated. 

THE  ABSORPTION  TEST  is  made  by  drying  the  brick  and 
weighing  it,  then  soaking  it  in  water  for  a  given  number  of  hours 
(from  5  to  24)  and  weighing  again.  The  difference  in  the  dry  and 
wet  weights  should  be  small.  Any  brick  absorbing  more  than 
one  per  cent  of  its  weight  in  24  hours  is  open  to  suspicion  as  be- 
ing liable  to  disintegration  from  frost. 

A  rough  test  for  a  well-burnt  paving-brick  is  to  let  it  drop  flat- 
wise from  a  height  of  4  feet  onto  a  second  brick  set  edgewise.  It 
should  stand  this  test  without  breaking. 

LAYING  PAVING-BRICKS.—  The  foundations  employed  for 
bricks  are  sand,  sand  and  gravel,  broken  stone,  and  cement  con- 
crete. The  bricks  are  laid  in  a  bed  of  sand  spread  upon  the 
foundation,  and  screeded  to  a  uniform  depth,  ranging  from  1£  to 
3  inches. 

The  bricks  are  usually  laid  on  edge  in  straight  courses  across 
the  street,  with  the  length  of  the  bricks  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  slreet.  Joints  should  be  broken  by  a  lap  of  at  least  3 
inches.  None  but  whole  bricks  should  be  used,  except  in  start- 
ing a  course  or  making  a  closure.  Before  the  closure  is  made 
each  single  course  must  be  pressed  as  compactly  together  as  pos- 
sible with  an  iron  bar  applied  to  the  curb-end  of  the  row,  and 
then  keyed  in  place  with  it  close-lilting  brick.  After  25  or  30 
feet  of  the  pavement  is  laid  every  pail  of  it  must  be  rammed 


PAYING.  — ARTIFICIAL-STONE   PAVEMENTS.  387 

with  a  rammer  weighing  not  less  thau  50  pounds,  and  the  bricks 
which  sink  below  the  general  level  must  be  removed  and  re- 
placed by  a  brick  of  greater  depth.  After  the  ramming  and 
rectification  the  joint  filling  is  applied.  It  is  either  sand,  cement 
grout,  or  paving- pitch. 

PROPERTIES  OF  PAVING-BRICKS. — Paving-bricks  range  in 
weight  from  5£  to  7$  pounds  ;  in  specific  gravity,  from  1.91  to 
2.70  ,  in  resistance  to  crushing,  from  7000  to  18,000  pounds  per 
square  inch  ;  in  resistance  to  cross-breaking,  R  =  1400  to  2000 
pounds  ;  in  absorption,  from  0.15  to  3  per  cent  in  24  hours. 
The  dimensions  vary  according  to  locality  and  the  requirements 
of  the  specifications.  The  "standard  "  bricks  are  2^x4x8  inches, 
requiring  58  bricks  to  the  square  yard,  and  weigh  7  pounds  each  ; 
"repressed,"  2£ x4x8|,  requiring  61  to  the  square  yard,  and 
weigh  G£  pounds  each;  "Metropolitan,"  3x4x9,  requiring  45 
to  the  square  yard,  and  weigh  9£  pounds  each. 

Artilicial-stoiie  Pavements. 

Pavements  formed  of  artificial  stone  or  concretes  composed  of 
hydraulic  cement,  crushed  stone,  sand,  and  gravel,  with  some- 
times the  addition  of  some  indurating  mineral  substance,  as 
baryta,  litharge,  etc.,  are  extensively  used  for  sidewalk  and  alley 
pavements,  they  are  usually  manufactured  under  a  patent,  either 
in  place  or  in  the  form  of  blocks  at  a  factory.  Several  varieties 
are  in  use,  known  by  special  names,  as  V  kosmocrete,"  "grano- 
lithic," "monolithic,"  "  ferrolithic,"  "  metalithic,"  etc.  The 
process  of  manufacture  is  practically  Ihe  same  for  all  kinds,  the 
difference  being  in  the  indurating  material  employed. 

The  manner  of  laying  is  practically  the  same  for  all  kinds. 
The  area  to  be  paved  is  excavated  to  a  minimum  depth  of  8 
inches  and  to  such  greater  depths  as  the  nature  of  the  ground 
may  require  to  secure  a  solid  foundation.  The  surface  of  the 
ground  so  exposed  is  well  compacted  by  ramming,  and  a  layer  of 
gravel,  ashes,  clinkers,  or  broken  stone  is  spread  and  thoroughly 
consolidated  by  ramming;  on  this  foundation  the  concrete  wear- 
ing-surface is  placed,  rammed,  and  floated. 

The  principal  precaution  to  be  observed  with  good  materials  is 
that  proper  provision  is  m'ade  against  the  action  of  frost.  This 
action  is  provided  against  by  laying  the  concrete  in  blocks,  form- 
ing rectangles,  squares,  or  other  forms  having  areas  ranging  from 
6  to  30 square  feet,  strips  of  wood  being  employed  to  form  moulds 


388  PAVING.— CURBSTONES. 

iu  which  the  concrete  is  placed.  After  the  concrete  is  set  these 
strips  are  removed,  leaving  joints  about  half  an  inch  in  width 
between  the  blocks.  Under  some  patents  these  joints  are  filled 
with  cement,  under  others  with  tarred  paper,  etc. 


Flagging. 

The  stones  used  for  flagging  are  granite,  limestone,  and  sand- 
stone (Hudson  River  bluestone  is  a  sandstone).  The  inspection 
will  comprise  the  quality  of  the  stone,  the  dimensions,  especially 
the  thickness  and  the  dressing  of  the  joints;  the  edges  should  be 
dressed  I  rue  to  the  square  for  the  whole  thickness  of  the  stone, 
and  not  left  feather-edge,  as  is  very  common.  The  laying  should 
be  carefully  done  on  a  bed  of  sand,  gravel,  or  cinders,  and  the 
joints  filled  with  cement  rnortar. 


Curbstones. 

Curbstones  are  employed  for  the  outer  side  of  footways  to  sus- 
tain the  pavement  and  form  the  gutter.  The  upper  inside  edge 
is  set  flusU  with  the  footwalk  pavement,  and  the  upper  surface  is 
cut  to  a  bevel  so  that  the  water  can  flow  over  them  into  the 
gutter.  The  materials  employed  are  granite,  sandstone,  blue- 
stone,  artificial  stones,  etc. 

The  inspection  includes  an  examination  of  the  quality,  dimen- 
sions, cutting,  jiud  setting. 

The  setting  requires  to  be  carefully  done,  so  that  the  stones 
shall  stand  to  the  true  line  and  grade;  the  ramming. and  bedding 
must  be  faithfully  performed  or  the  stones  will  sink  and  turn 
slightly  over.  Curbstones  carelessly  set  never  present  a  pleasing 
appearance. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

Weights  and  Measures. 

The  origin  of  English  measures  is  the  grain  of  corn.  Thirty- 
two  grains  of  wheat,  dried  and  gathered  from  the  middle  of  the 
ear,  weighed  what  was  called  1  pennyweight  ;  20  pennyweights 
were  called  1  ounce,  and  20  ounces  1  pound.  Subsequently  the 
pennyweight  was  divided  into  24  grains. 

Troy  weight  was  afterwards  introduced  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, from  Troyes,  in  France;  but  it  gave  dissatisfaction,  as  the 
troy  pound  did  not  weigh  as  much  as  the  pound  then  in  use; 
consequently  a  mean  weight  was  established,  making  16  ounces 
equal  to  1  pound,  and  called  avoirdupois. 

Three  grains  of  barleycorn  well  dried,  placed  end  to  end,  made 
an  inch -the  basis  of  length.  The  length  of  the  arm  of  King 
Henry  I.  was  made  the  length  of  the  ulna,  or  ell,  which  answers 
to  the  modern  yard. 

The  standard  measure  of  length  of  both  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  is,  in  theory,  that  of  a  pendulum  vibrating  seconds 
at  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  the  latitude  of  London,  in  a  vacuum, 
with  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  at  62°.  The  length  of  such  a 
pendulum  is  supposed  to  be  divided  into  39.1393  equal  parts 
called  inches,  and  36  of  these  inches  were  adopted  as  the  standard 
yard  of  both  countries. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

24  grains  =  1  pennyweight :  dwt. 

20  pennyweights  —  1  ounce  =  480  grains. 
12  ounces  =  1  pound  =  240  dwt.  —  5760  grains  =  22.7944 

cubic  inches  of  distilled  water,  barometer 

30  inches. 


390  WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 

AVOIRDUPOIS  OR  COMMERCIAL  WEIGHT. 

27.34375  grains  =  1  drachm. 

16  drachms         =  1  ounce  =  437.5  grains. 

16  ounces  =  1  pound  —  256  drachms  =  7000  grains  —27.7015 

cubic  inches  of   distilled  water,  barometer 

30  inches. 

28  pounds  =  1  quarter  =  448  ounces. 

4  quarters          =  1  cwt.  =112  pounds. 
20  cwt.  =  1  ton  =  80  quarters  =  2240  pounds. 

The  ton  of  2240  pounds,  known  as  the  long  ton,  is  the  standard 
used  by  the  United  Stales  Government  at  the  customhouses,  but 
in  commercial  transactions  the  short  ton  of  2000  pounds  is  used 
unless  otherwise  specified. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHT. 

20  grains      =  1  scruple.       I          8  drachms  =  1  ounce. 
3  scruples  =  1  drachm.       I        12  ounces     =  1  pound. 
The  grain  in  each  of  the  foregoing  tables  is  the  same. 
An  avoirdupois    pound    of    pure   water    has    the    following 
volumes  : 

At      32°  F.  =  .016021  cubic  feet  or  27.684  cubic  inches. 
39.1°"    =.016019      "       "     "27.680     "*V    ..H*' 

62°  "    =  .016037      "       "     "  27.712      '^  '^y  j 
212°"    =.016770      "       "     "28.978   '^  ..^.'.V* 

LINEAL  MEASURE. 
12    inches      =  1  foot. 
3    feet          =  1  yard. 
5J  yards       =  1  rod  or  perch  =  16|  feet. 
40    rods         =  1  furlong  =  220  yards  =  660  feet. 

8    furlongs  =  1  mile  =  320  rods  =  1760  yards  =  5280  feet. 
The  British  measure  of  length  is  about  fa  of  an  inch  in  100 
feet,  or  3|  inches  in  a  mile,  shorter  than  that  of  the  United  States. 
To  convert  British  linear  dimensions  into  American  multiply 
by  1.000058,  and  American  into  British  multiply  by  .999942. 

SQUARE   MEASURE. 
144    square  inches  =  1  square  foot. 
9    square  feet       =  1  square  yard. 
30J  square  yards   =  1  square  rod. 
40    square  rods      =  1  rood. 
4    roods  =  1  acre  =  43560  square  feet. 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES.  391 

A  square  acre  is  208.71  feet  on  each  side. 
A  circular  acre  is  235.504  feet  in  diameter. 
A  half  .-i ere  is  =  to  147.581  feet  on  each  side. 
A  quarter  acre  is  =  to  104.355  feet  oil  each  side. 
100  square  feet  =  1  square. 

CUBIC  OR  SOLID  MEASURE. 

1728  cubic  inches  =  1  cubic  foot. 

27  cubic  feet  =  1  cubic  yard. 

A  perch  of  stone  =  24.75  cubic  feet  =  16'  6"  X  1'6"  X  1' 

A  cord  of  stone  =  99  cubic  feet       =  4  perches. 

A  cord  of  wood  =  128  cubic  feet     =  4'  X  4'  X  8'. 

A  ton  of  bituminous  coal  =  44  to  48  cubic  feet. 
A  ton  of  anthracite     "      =  41  to  43      "       " 

1  gallon  water  =  231  cubic  inches. 

1  cubic  foot       =  7.48  gallons. 


LIQUID  MEASURE. 

4  gills      =  1  pint      =    28.875  cubic  inches. 
2  pints    —  1  quart   —    57.750 
4  quarts  =  1  gallon  =  231.0 

A  cylinder  3^  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches  high  will  hold 
almost  exactly  1  quart,  and  one  7  inches  in  diameter  and  6  inches 
high  will  hold  very  nearly  one  gallon. 
A  gallon  of  water  weighs  8.338  pounds  avoirdupois. 

DRY  MEASURE. 

2  pints      =  1  quart  =        1  16365  liquid  quarts. 

4  quarts  =  1  gallon  =    268.8025    cubic  inches. 

2  gallons  =  1  peck  =    537.6050      " 

4  pecks     =  1  struck  bushel  =  2150.4.2 
A  struck  bushel  =  1.24445  cubic  feet. 
A  cubic  foot  =  .80356  of  a  struck  bushel. 
A  flour  barrel  contains  3  struck  bushels. 

A  heaped  bushel  =  1^  "struck"  bushels  =  1.555  cubic  feet. 
When  heaped  the  cone  must  be  at  least  6  inches  high.  The 
bushel  measure  is  a  cylindrical  vessel  18^  inches  in  diameter  and 
8  inches  deep. 


392  WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 

MISCELLANEOUS  MEASURES. 

12  units  —  1  dozen. 

12  dozen  =  1  gross. 

12  gross  =  1  great  gross. 

20  units  =  1  score. 

24  sheets  of  paper  =  1  quire. 
20  quires  =  1  ream. 

2  reams  =  1  bundle. 

5  bundles  =  1  bale. 

25  Ibs.  powder  =  1  keg. 
14  Ibs.  =  1  stone. 

100  Ibs.  =  1  quintal. 

1  chaldron  =  8G  bushels  or  57.244  cubic  feet. 

1  ton  displacement  in  salt  water  =  35  cubic  feet. 
1  fathom  =  6  feet. 

1  cable  length       =  120  fathoms. 

THE  METRIC  STANDARDS  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

The  metric  unit  of  length  is  the  metre  =  39.37  inches. 

The  metric  unit  of  weight  is  the  gram  =  15.432  grains. 

The  following  prefixes  are  used  for  subdivisions  and  multiples  : 
Milli  =  TJ0-tf,  Ceuti  =  T^,  Deci  =  TV  Deca  =  10,  Hecto  =  100, 
Kilo  =  1000,  Myria  =  10,000. 

MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

1       metre  =  39.37  in.,  or  3.28083  ft.,  or  1.09361  yd. 

.3048  "  =1  foot. 

1        centimetre   =  .3937  inch. 
2.54  centimetres  =  1  inch. 

1        millimetre    =  .03937  inch,  or  -fa  inch  nearly. 
25.4    millimetres  =  1  inch. 
1        kilometre     =  3280.83  ft. ,  or  1093.61  yds.,  or  0.62137  mill. 

MEASURES  OF  SURFACE. 

1      square  metre  =  10.764  square  feet  or  1.196  sq.  yd. 

.836    "  =1  sq.  vd. 


sq.  yd 

.0929  "  =1  sq.  ft. 

1          "      centimetre    =  .155  sq.  in. 
6.452    "      centimetres  =  1  sq.  in. 
1  square  millimetre       —  .00155  sq.  in. 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES.  393 

645.2  square  millimetres  =  1  sq.  in. 

1     ceutiare  =  1  sq.  metre  10.764  sq.  ft. 

1     are  =1  sq.  decametre  =      1076  4       "     " 

1     hectare  =  100  ares  =107641          "     " 

2.4711  acres. 

1     square  kilometre      -  .386109  sq.  mile  =        247.11 
1     square  myriametre  =  38.6109  " 

MEASURES  OF  VOLUME. 

1  cubic  metre  =  35.314  cu.  ft.  =  1.308  cu.  yd. 

.7645        "  F=I,.  1  cu.  yd. 

.02832      "  =1  cu.  ft. 

1  "     decimetre    =  61.023  cu.  in.  =    .0353  cu.  ft. 

28.32  "  "  =    1  cu.  ft. 

1  "     centimetre  =      .061  cu.  in. 

16.387          "  "  =1  cu.  in. 

"  "  =1  millimetre  =    .061  cu.  in. 

centilitre  =      .610  cu.  in. 

decilitre  =    6.102     "     " 

litre =1  cubic  decimetre-  61.023     "     "    =  1.05671  quarts, 
hectolitre  or  decistere     =    3.314  cu.  ft.    =  2.8375  bushels. 
1  stere,  kilolitre,  or  cubic  metre  =  1.308  cu.  yd.  =  28.37  bush. 

MEASURES  OF  CAPACITY. 

1         litre    =  1  cubic  decimetre  =  61.023  cu.  in. 

=      .03531  cu.  ft. 

=      .2642  gall. 

=    2.202  Ibs.  of  water  at  62°  R 
28.317  litres  =  1  cu.  ft. 
4.543     "      =1  gallon  (British). 
3.785     "      =  1       "      (American). 

MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT. 

1  gramme  =  15.432  grains. 

.0648       "  =    1  grain. 

28.35  "  =    1  ounce  avoirdupois. 

1  kilogramme         =    2.2046  Ibs. 

.4536  "  =1  Ib. 

1  tonne  or  metric  ton  ) 

1000  kilogrammes  }  =  «°*-6  lbs'  »  '9843  ton  of  224°  lbs- 
1016            "  =1  Ion  of  2240  Ibs. 


394 


WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 


TABLE   79. 

INCHES  AND  THEIR  EQUIVALENT   DECIMAL    VALUES    IN    PARTS 
OF  A  FOOT. 


In. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

0 

Foot  .0833 

.1667 

.2500 

.3333 

.4167 

.5000 

.5833  6067 

75r(l  >333 

.9167 

3\S 

.0020  .0859 

.165)3 

.2526J.3359 

.4193 

.5026 

.5859 

.6093 

.7526  .8359 

.9193 

£ 

.0052  .0885 

.1719 

.25521.8885 

.  1219 

.5052 

.5885 

.0719 

.7552  .8385 

.9219 

A 

.0078  .0911 

.1745 

.25781.3411 

.4245 

.5078 

.5911J.6745 

7578  .8411 

.9245 

.0104  .0938 

.1771 

.2604 

.3438 

.4271 

.5104 

.5938 

.6771 

.  7004  i.  8438 

9271 

6 

.0130  .0964 

.1797 

.2630 

.3464 

.4297 

.5130 

.5004 

.6797 

.7630  .8464 

.9297 

3 

.0156  .0990 

.1823 

.2656  .3490 

.4323 

.515'; 

.5990 

.6823 

7056  .8490 

.9323 

?5 

.0182  .1010 

.1849 

.2682 

.3516 

.4349 

.5182 

.6016 

6849 

.7682 

.8516 

.9349 

1 

.0208 

.1042 

.1875 

.2708 

.3542 

.4375 

.5208 

.6042 

.6875 

.7708 

.8542 

9375 

T$J 

.0234  .1068 

.1901 

.2734 

.3568 

.4401 

.5234 

.6088 

.6901 

.7734 

.8568 

9401 

0260  .1094 

.1927 

.2760 

.3594 

.4427 

.f  2601.6094 

.6927 

.7760 

.8594 

.9427 

II 

.0286  .1120 

.1953 

.2786 

.3620 

.4453 

.r>28li  .6120 

.6953 

.7786 

.8620 

9453 

3 

.0313>1146 

.  1979 

.2813 

.3646 

.4479 

.58131.  614C 

.6979 

.7813 

.8646 

.9479 

i? 

.0339  .1172 

.2005 

.2839 

.3672 

.4505 

.  5339 

.6172 

.7005 

.7839 

.8672 

.9505 

A 

.0365 

.1198 

.2031 

.2865 

.3698 

.4531 

.5365 

.6108 

.7031 

.7865 

.8698 

.0531 

11 

.0391 

.1224 

.2057 

.2891 

.3724 

.4557 

.5391 

.6224 

.7057 

.7891 

.8724 

.9557 

i 

.0417 

.1250 

.2083 

.2917 

.3750 

.4583 

.5417 

.6250 

.7083 

.7917 

.8750 

.9583 

32 

.0443 

.1276 

.2109 

.2943 

.3776 

4609 

.54431.6276 

.7109 

.7943 

.8776 

.9009 

.0469 

.1302 

.2135 

.2969 

.3802 

4635 

.5469  .6302 

.7135 

.7969 

.8802 

.9035 

ill 

.0495 

.1328 

.2161 

.2995 

.3828 

.4661 

.  5495  j.  6328 

.7161 

.7995 

.8828 

.!«61 

.0521 

.1354 

.2188 

.3021 

.3854 

.4688 

.5521  6354 

7188 

.8021 

.8854 

.9688 

21 

.0547 

.1380 

.2214 

.3047 

.3880 

.4714 

.55471.6380 

7214 

.8047 

.8880 

.9714 

II 

.0573 

.1406 

.2240 

.3073 

.3906 

4740 

.55731.6406 

.  7240 

.8073 

.8906 

9740 

Si 

.0599 

.1432 

.2266 

.3099 

.3932 

.4766 

.5599  .6432 

.7266 

8099 

.8932 

.9766 

j 

.0625 

.1458 

.2292 

.3125 

.3958 

.4792 

.5625  .6458 

.7292  .8125 

.8958 

.9792 

25 

.0651  .1484 

.2318 

.3151 

.3984 

.4818 

.5651  :  .6484'  .73181  /ftjJtfjgKf 

.9818 

ii 

.06771.1510 

.2344 

.3177 

.4010 

.4844 

.5677  6510  73441  M77  9010 

9844 

27 

.0703  .1536 

.2370 

.3203 

.4036 

.4870 

.5703  .6530 

.  737H 

.8203  .9036 

.9870 

7 

0729  .1563 

.2396 

.3229 

.4003 

.4896 

.5729  .6563 

.7396 

.8229  .9063 

.9896 

§1 

07551.1589 

.2422 

.3255 

.4089 

.4922 

.5755 

058!) 

.7422 

.8255  .9089 

.9922 

15 

.0781  .1615 

.2448 

.3281 

.4115 

.4948 

.5781 

.6615 

.7448 

.8281  .9115 

.9948 

Is 

.0807J.1641 

.2474 

.3307 

.4141 

.4974L5807 

.6641 

.7474 

.8307  .9141 

.9974 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

g 

10 

11 

I 

1 

I 

DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  FOR  FRACTIONS  OF  AN  INCH. 


1/64  .. 
1/32... 
1/16.  .. 

..  .015625 
03125 
0625 

V4  
9/32.  . 
5/16.  . 

.  .2500 
.28125 
.  .3125 

y* 

17/32. 
9/16.. 

...  .5000 
...  .53125 
...  .5625 

M  

25/32.  . 
13/16  

.7500 

.78125 
.8125 

3/32... 

^  .. 

09375 
1250 

11/32.. 
%  . 

...  .34375 
3750 

19/32.. 
5£ 

...  .59375 
.6250 

27,32  
% 

.84375 
8750 

5/32... 

.  .  .1563 

13/32 

40625 

21/32 

65625 

09/30 

90625 

3/16 

1875 

7/16 

4375 

11/16 

6875 

15/16 

9375 

7/32... 

...  .2187 

15/32.. 

...  .46875 

23/32.  . 

...  .71875 

31/32!  '.'.'.'. 

.96875 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY.  395 


Specific  Gravity. 

By  specific  gravity  is  meant  the  weight  of  a  substance  com- 
pared with  the  weight  of  water,  takiug  equal  volumes  of  each. 
Water  is  adopted  as  the  standard  of  gravity  ;  as  a  cubic  foot  of  it 
at  62°  F.  weighs  997.68  ounces  avoirdupois,  its  weight  is  taken  as 
the  uuit  or  approximately  1000.  A  cubic  foot  of  cast  iron 
weighs  about  7£  times  as  much  as  a  cubic  foot  of  water,  but  a 
cubic  foot  of  cork  weighs  less  than  one-fourth  as  much  as  a 
cubic  foot  of  water,  and  so  the  specific  gravity  of  cast  iron  is  set 
down  as  7.5,  and  that  of  cork  as  0.24. 

To  ascertain  the  specific  gravity  of  a  solid  body  heavier  than 
water,  weigh  it  both  in  and  out  of  water,  and  note  the  differ- 
ence ;  then  as  weight  lost  in  water  is  to  whole  weight  so  is  1000 
to  specific  gravity  of  the  body,  or 

WX  1000  _ 
W-w    : 

TFand  w  representing  weights  out  of  and  in  water  and  G  specific 
gravity. 

If  the  substance  be  lighter  than  water  sink  it  by  means  of  a 
heavier  substance  and  deduct  weight  of  the  heavier  substance. 

Weight  of  a  cubic  foot  in  pounds  =  specific  gravity  X  62.425, 
or  specific  gravity  X  1000  and  divided  by  16  =  weight  in  pounds. 


396 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 


TABLE  80. 
SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS. 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

.750 
.792 
.068 
.079 
.391 
.782 
.607 
.479 
.803 
.00197 
.208 
.034 
.696 
.116 
.060 
.200 
.451 
.347 
3.460 
.451 
.220 
.420 
.898 
1.558 
2.800 
2.653 
2.615 
2.250 
1.841 
2.210 

46.5 
49.4 
66.37 
67.3 
212  0 
233.0 
41.7 
92.44 
112.7 
.123 
75.5 
64.67 
43.5 
70.0 
66.25 
75.0 
9.7 
84.2 
216.25 
90.7 
76.25 
88.75 
56.125 
97.37 
175.0 
165.6 
168.1 
140.6 
115.0 
138.1 

Acetone                              .           

44           fcfc       greatest  density  

4i      arsetiious              •  

"      boracic  crystallized.  

4      chlorobydric,  concentrated  liquid  

'      cyanohydric  ....                

'      fluoric                                            .   .  . 

*      hyponitric.  ...               ....               ....        

4      hyposulphuric,  most  concentrated  
'      molvbdic.  .  .  .                ....                             

4      nitric  fuming 

'         "       of  commerce  .... 

4         "       tetrahydrated      .                            .... 

'      oleic  

'      phosphoric  liquid                ....              .... 

'      silicic,  qua  rtz  

'         "       agate 

4         "        opal,  hydrated  silica  ....               .... 

'      sulphuric  most  concentrated 

'      sulphurous        

4      taimic....         . 

'      telluric  

'      tellurous 

'"m'A" 

.075 
168.75 
49.5 
58.0 
52  1 
57.25 
49.4 
50.0 
107.1 

260.0 

243.75 
231.25 
293.75 
162.5 
67.37 
54.1 
172.0 
212.0 
41.1 
53.6 
419.37 

Agate  ....        ....     *   .... 

2.615 
.001205 
2  700 

Air  at  60°  F    barometer  30" 

Alcohol,  absolute   60°. 

.792 
.927 
.834 
.916 
.790 
.800 
1.714 

4.1GO 

3.900 
3.700 
4.700 
2.600 
1.078 
.866 
2.750 
3  391 

"         greatest  densit3r.  ...         ...                      ... 

44         of  commerce              .... 

44         proof  spirit. 

Aldehyde  

Alder-  wood                .... 

Alum  

(  corundum  I 
Alumina  •<  sapphire     >  

1  ruby            j 
emery.  ...        ....        . 

Aluminate  of  magnesia  (spinel)    

*•          *4  zinc  ...        

Amber  

"           oriental        

Amanthus    313  to  1  000 

.657 
.857 
6.710 

Ammonia,  aqueous....            

Antimony  cast  6  67  to  6  75                             .... 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 


397 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND   WEIGHT  OF   MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

6.670 
.793 
1.300 
1.200 
2.900 
5.673 
3.073 
.752 
.610 
1.277 
2.850 

.400 
4.279 
4.350 
.470 
2.710 
2.100 
.822 
.771 
.624 
1.034 
.965 
3.594 
2.723 
5.420 
9.822 
8.124 
4.415 
.567 
.848 
1.053 
1.245 
2.500 
.924 
8  100 
7.820 
8.832 
8  =  380 
8.214 
2.400 
1.633 
2.201 
1.800 
1.800 
1.600 
3.000 
8.500 
.928 
.942 
.376 

8.690 
2.620 
1  580 

417.9 
49.0 
81.25 
75.00 
181.25 
354,6 
192.1 
47.0 
38.15 
80.0 
178.15 

25.0 
267.3 
272.0 
29.4 
169.4 
131.25 
51.4 
48.2 
39.0 
64.62 
60.31 
223.4 
170.2 
338.75 
614.0 
507.75 
276.0 
354.4 
53.00 
65.875 
77.8 
156.25 
57.75 
506.0 
488.75 
552.0 
524.0 
513.4 
150.0 
102.1 
137.6 
112.5 
112.5 
100.0 
187.5 
531.25 
58.0 
58.875 
23.5 

543.7 
163.75 
92.5 
57.0 
62.4 
56.4 

Apple-wood  .. 

Aqua  fortis,  double    

"         "       single        .     .                     . 

Arsenic                                                                          .  .  . 

Asbestos,  starry  

Ash  perfectly  dry  average        .... 

Asphaltum,  .905  to  1.65  

Bamboo                                                  .... 

Barytes  sulphate  of  4  to  4  558 

"        carbonate  of  ,  4.1  to  4  6        

Barium 

Basalt    2.421  to  3  000  

Bathstone  (oolite)                                     . 

Bay  tree-  wood    

Beech-wood,  .852  to  .690  
"           "      perfectly  dry  

Beer  .                       .... 

Beryl,  oriental        

Bichloride  of  mercury  

Bisulphide  of  mercury  

"  tin               ... 

Birch 

Bitumen  liquid          ....               .     . 

"        crassamentum  of  

Borate  of  magnesia  (boracite)         .... 

Brandy  

Brass  (copper  and  zinc),  cast,  average  
copper  67  zinc  33  parts 

44     84  tin  16                     .... 

Br  ck  pressed     *  •                            ...               

fire                       

soft                             .         .             ........ 

Butter 

Calcite   transparent  2  52  to  2  73.   .  . 

.913 
.998 
,903 

398 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.     (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

3.530 
3.500 
4.300 
3.850 
6.730 
2.946 
2.723 
2.880 
3.550 
3.650 
2.613 
.596 
.613 
1.315 

220.6 

218.75 
268.7 
240.6 
420.6 
184.1 
170.2 
180.0 
222.0 
228.1 
163.3 
37.25 
38.3 
82.157 
60.0 
70.0 
80.0 

44  lead  (white  lead) 

4  4  strontia          

Cedar  wild  

"      Indian  

"       a  struck  bushel  loose  75  Ibs. 
"               "           "       well  shaken  88  Ibs. 
packed  for  sale  100  Ibs. 
"       1  barrel  contains  3  struck  bushels,  or  3% 
cu.  ft.  packed. 
Portland,  about  110  Ibs.  bushel,  average.  .  . 

1  300 
1.560 
2.62) 
2.454 
.441 
.380 
1.573 
.280 
1.380 
.715 
.672 
.660 
5.900 
1.520 
3.900 
3.200 
5.548 
2.100 
1.836 
6.600 
2.700 
3.091 
1.080 
8.098 
6.920 
.726 
1.900 

81.25 
97.25 
164.1 
153.4 
27.562 
23.75 
98.312 
17  50 
86.25 
44.7 
42.0 
41.25 
368.75 
95.0 
231.5 
200.0 
346.75 
J31.25 
114.75 
412.5 
168.7 
193.2 
67.5 
506.1 
432  5 
45.4 
119.0 
63.0 
155.0 
96.1 

Chalk   2  252  to  2  657        .   .  .                

44         of  softwood..          

Chromium        .     .                      

4i           **  potash....                ....          

Chrysolite,  2.782  to  3.400  
Cider        .  -   

Clay  dry  potter's  1  8  to  2  1                             .        

with  gravel  ...         ...          »...         

2.480 
1.538 

Coal   anthracite   1  436  to  1  64                                

asolid  yard  makes  l^yds  when  brokenforuse 
cannel  1  238  to  1  318..  ..                   

1.278 
1.277 
1.350 

80.0 

79.8 
84.4 
47-52 

a  heaped  bushel  70  to  78  Ibs. 
a  ton  occupies  from  43  to  48  cu.  ft. 
Cobalt                                                

8.600 

537.5 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 


399 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND   WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.     (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Cobalt,  cast  

7.812 
1.040 
1.000 

488.25 
65.0 
62.5 
23-32 
46.62 

Cocoa-  wood     ..                       

Coke  

"     loose  of  good  coal        ..        

"      National  of  Va 

.746 

"     a  heaped  bushel  35  to  42  Ibs  

"     a  ton  80  to  97  cu.  ft  

Columbium            

6.000 
2.000 
8.788 
8.950 
8.880 
1.045 
2.700 
2.550 
.240 
2.613 
3.710 
.765 
.644 
.441 

.689 
6.320 
11.000 
6.130 
6  700 

375.0 
125.0 
549.25 
560.0 
555.0 
65.3 
168.75 
160  0 
15.0 
163.3 
23-.».0 
47.81 
40.25 
27.6 

43.0 
395.0 
687.5 
383.12 
418.75 
220.1 
221.0 
215.25 
222.0 
47.25 
168.0 
75.25 

72-80 

93.75 
70-76 
75-00 
104-112 

128^ 

100.  0 
120.0 

86$ 

68^ 
43.4 
35.6 
42.0 
167.5 
250.0 
54.1 
54.6 
45.6 
56.75 
44.7 

"     '  rolled  

Copal                        .... 

"      white..                      

Cork                               .  .   . 

Cypress-tree...          ....        .... 

"          "    well  seasoned  

Deal-  wood    Christiania        

Deutoxide  of  mercury  

Diamond   oriental  colorless        ....          .... 

3.521 
3.536 
3.444 
3.550 
.756 
2.685 
1.204 

1.280 
2.194 
1.500 

"              "          colored,  average  
"           Brazilian  

"                  "       colored         .... 

Dolomite  2  54  to  2  83  .... 

Earth  dry  common  loam  loose 

'           "      slightly  moist  

4        shaken    more      "      

'        fluid  mud  

2.050 
2.050 
1.000 
1.900 
2.0-,'0 
1.331 
1.209 
1.090 
.695 
570 

1       mould   fresh              .... 

'        rough  sand        .              .       ..          

"      '  Indian                               

Elrn   perfectly  dry  ....                 .              .... 

.671 
2.680 
4.000 

0.868 
.874 
.729 
.908 
.715 

Emerald        

"       chlorohydric  

"       nitric 

sulphuric                ....         

400 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Fatofbeef 923 

14    "hogs .936 

"    "mutton  .. .923 

Feldspar,  2.438  to  2.700 2.509 

Filbert- wood .690 

Fir,  Norway .512 

Firestone  1.800 

Flint,  black 2.582 

"•       white 2.504 

Fluoride  of  calcium  (fluor  spar) 3.200 

Fluorine 1.330 

Fuseloil .808 

Gamboge 1.222 

Garnet,  precious,  4.  to  4.23 4.115 

"       common,  3.576  to  4 3.288 

Glass,  2.50  to  3.45 ..   ..  2.975 

"      bottle     2.732 

44     common  window,  crown 2.520 

"      thick  flooring 2.530 

"      green 2.612 

"      flint,  2.76  to  3.00 2.880 

"      optical 3.450 

"      white 2.892 

Gneiss,  common,  2.62  to  2.76 2.690 

44        in  loose  piles 

44       hornblendic 2.80 

Granite,  Egyptian  red 2.654 

Patapsco 2.640 

Old  Dominion,  Va 2.630 

Quincy 2.652 

Scotch 2.625 

Susquehanna,  Pt.  Deposit 2.704 

Gravel,  about  equal  to  sand 1.749 

Greenstone  (trap),  2.8  to  3.2 3.000 

"          in  loose  piles 

Grindstone 2.143 

Gold,  cast  pure,  24  carat 19.258 

native  pure 19320 

44      hammered  pure,  19.4  to  19.6 19.500 

"      22carat 17.486 

44      20     "     15.709 

Gum  A  rabic 1 .452 

Gum-tree,  blue .843 

"        "     water 1.000 

Gunpowder,  loose .900 

shaken 1.000 

•""I  IS?} '•« 

Gutta-percha .980 

Gypsum  (plaster  of  Paris),  average 2.305 

"       in  lumps  

"       ground,  loose  (struck  bushel  70  Ibs.) 

well  shaken  80  Ibs 

11        thoroughly  shaken  90  Ibs 

Hackmatack-wood .592 

Hazel-wood -860 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


401 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Hawthorn-wood  

910 

56  87 

Heliotrope  (bloodstone)  |  g'SpJ  [•  

2.664 

166  5 

Hemlock  ....        ... 

368 

23  0 

.792 

49  5 

"         shell-bark        ....                  .... 

690 

43  12 

red  

838 

52  375 

Holly        

.760 

47  5 

Hone,  white  

2  876 

179  75 

Honey      

1  450 

90  62 

Honeystone  or  mellite 

1  620 

101  25 

1.689 

105  56 

Horn  beam-  wood.  ...           ....                .... 

760 

47  0 

3  540 

221  25 

black  3  1  to  3  4  

3  250 

203  0 

Hornstone,  8.533  to  2.810  

2.671 

167  0 

Hyacinth  4  to|4  78      

4  390 

273  1 

Hydrogen  gas  

.000089 

.0056 

Ice  at  32°  F  

.920 

57  5 

India-rubber                     .... 

903 

56  437 

1.009 

63  06 

Iodide  of  potassium                            . 

3  000 

187  5 

5  614 

350  9 

u       «'  lead      

6  100 

381  25 

Iodine  

4.948 

309  25 

Indium,  cast  by  electric  battery.  ...               .... 

18  680 

1167  5 

"        hammered 

23  000 

1437  5 

Iron,  cast,  6.9  to  7.4    

7  150 

446  0 

"     at  450  Ibs.  to  the  foot,  8601.6  cu.  in.  will  make 
a  ton. 

wrought,  7.6  to  7.9     

7  770 

485 

magnetic  oxide  

5.400 

337.5 

cast,  gun-metal  

7  308 

456  7 

hot-blast        .               .... 

7  065 

441  6 

cold-blast 

7  °18 

451  1 

7  774 

486  0 

rolled  plates  

7.704 

481.15     ' 

large  rolled  bars  

7  690 

480  0 

3  475 

217  2 

Ironwood 

1  150 

71  0 

Isinglass  .     .   . 

1  111 

69  437 

Ivory                                              . 

1  825 

114  062 

.670 

42  0 

Jasmine                            

770 

48  125 

Jasper  2  358  to  2  816.  .   . 

2  587 

161  7 

Jet     

1.300 

81  25 

Juniper        

566 

35  37 

Lancewood 

720 

45  o 

Larch-wood,  5.44  to  5.60        

552 

34  5 

Lard 

947 

59  2 

Lead   cast 

11  352 

709  5 

"       rolled         .          .                   .... 

11  388 

712  0 

Lemon-tree  

.703 

43.94 

1  333 

83  31 

402  SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Lime-wood 

Lime,  ordinary  quick 

"      hydraulic 

"      ground,  loose,  struck  bushel  71  Ibs 

well  shaken  80  Ibs. 

"        thoroughly  shaken  93%  Ibs 

Limestones  and  marbles,  2.85  to  2.65 

Limestones  and  marbles,  one  cu.  yd.   solid  makes 

about  1.9  yds.  loose,  or  1%  yds.  piled  when  .571  is 

solid  and  .429  voids. 

Linden-wood 

Lithium 

Locust-  w  ood 

Logwood 


Magnesia,  carbonate  of 

native  hydrate  of 

Magnetic  oxide  of  iron 

Mahogany,  .72  to  1.063 

Honduras 

Spanish . 

Malachite,  compact  

Manganese 

Maple-wood 

"      bird's-eye 

Marble,  Adelaide 

African 

Biscayan,  black 

Carrara 

common 

Egyptian 

French 

Italian,  white 

Parian ". 

Vermont,  white 

Marl,  mean 

Masonry,  of  granite  or  limestone 

"  well-scabbled  rubble,  1/5  mortar 

"  "  granite,  dry  rubble 

roughly  scabbled  rubble,  J4  to  J^  mortar 

111         dry... 

Masonry,  at  155  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  a  cu.  yd.  weighs 

1.868  tons,  and  14.45  cu.  ft.  =  1  ton. 
Masonry  of  sandstone  about  %  less  than  the  above. 

"  brickwork,  pressed,  fine  joints 

medium 

coarse,  soft  bricks 

Masonry,  at  125  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  a  cu.  yd.  weighs 
1507  tons,  and  17.92  cu.  ft.  =  1  ton. 

Mastic  . .  

"       wood . 

Melanite  or  black  garnet 

Mercaptan . . 

Mercury  at  0°  C.  or  32°  F 

"    -  40°  F 

•«   +60°  F 

"         u   112°  F 

Mica,  2.75  to  3.1 

Millstone... 


Specific 
Gravity. 


.843 
2.745 


2.75 


.604 
.590 

.728 


2.400 
2.330 
5.400 


.852 

3.790 

8.000 

.750 

.576 

2.715 

2.708 

2.695 

2.716 


2.668 
2.649 

2.708 
2.  £38 
2.651) 
1.750 


1.074 
.849 

3.750 
.804 
13.598 
15.632 
13.580 
13.370 

2.930 

2.484 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


403 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Milk                                      

1.030 

64  4 

Mineral  pitch  or  asphaltuui    905  to  1  650 

1  277 

80  0 

v'       tallow         ..               

.770 

48.1 

8.600 

537  5 

Moly  bdate  of  lead  .  .                

6  700 

41S  75 

Mortar  hardened   1  4  to  1  9                  .       ... 

1  650 

103  0 

Mud  dry  close      .            

80-110 

"      wet  moderately  pressed 

110  130 

"       "     fluid               

104-120 

561 

35  06 

897 

56  06 

Myrrh                            

1  3GO 

85  0 

Naphtha                                          .... 

848 

52  9 

Nickel                        

8  666 

541  6 

8  279 

517  3 

Nitrate  of  baryta 

3  185 

199  1 

"        "  lead                      

4.400 

277  5 

1  930 

120  6 

2.890 

180  6 

Nitre             

1.900 

118.75 

Nitrogen  (about  1/35  lighter  than  air)  

823 

51  437 

.872 

54  5 

4       Dantzic                                  .            •  . 

759 

47  43 

'       English               ....              

.932 

58  25 

1  146 

71  625 

*       heart  (60  years  old) 

1  170 

78  125 

1  260 

78  75 

1  068 

66  75 

.860 

53  75 

40  75 

Obsidian                           ... 

2  359 

128  7 

868 

54  25 

986 

61  625 

932 

58  25 

1  043 

65  2 

904 

56  5 

1  010 

63  1 

"    "  citron.               

847 

53  0 

1  036 

64  7 

4    *4  codfish 

923 

57  6 

'    "  cotton-seed  

969 

60  6 

*     '  hemp-seed      ..     .  ....    ...         

926 

57  9 

894 

56  0 

4     k  linseed 

940 

58  75 

848 

53  0 

915 

57  18 

14    *'  palm               ...         .  ...         

969 

60  56 

878 

54  875 

939 

58  7 

4*    '*  rape  seed                               .* 

914 

57  12 

926 

V7  875 

44    44  spirea        ....         

1  173 

73  3 

870 

54  37 

923 

57  68 

404 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Oil  of  wormwood        .   . 

907 

56  7 

Olefiant  gas         ...                         .  . 

00127 

079 

Olive-wood  .... 

923 

87  6 

Oolites  or  roestones  1  9  to  2  5 

2  200 

137  0 

2  114 

132  1 

"      common..                     .... 

2  040 

127  5 

1  336 

83.5 

Orange-  wood  ..           

705 

44  06 

Orpiment,  3.048  to  3.5  

3  274 

204  6 

Osmium      ....                                 .  . 

10  000 

625  0 

Oyster-shell  

2.092 

130  75 

Oxide  of  bismuth 

8  968 

560  5 

7  250 

453  i 

"        "  zinc     .  . 

5  600 

350  0 

Oxygen  gas  (1/10  heavier  than  air) 

00143 

089 

Palladium  ...     . 

11  300 

706.2 

rolled  

11  800 

737  5 

Paving-stones  . 

2  416 

151  0 

Pearl-wood  

661 

41  31 

Pearl  oriental  2  51  to  2  75 

2  630 

164  4 

Pearlstone  

2  340 

146  2 

Peat,  dry  unpressed               

20-30 

Peroxide  of  iron  .   ..         

5  225 

326  6 

"         "  lead 

9  200 

575  0 

''         "  manganese....          

4  480 

280.0 

"         "  titanium  (rutile)        .... 

4  250 

265  6 

Persimmon-  wood 

710 

44  375 

Peruvian  bark  

784 

49  0 

Petroleum 

878 

54  875 

Phosphorus  

1  770 

110  60 

Pine,  Dantzic 

649 

40  0 

Memel...,  

550 

34.3 

Riga  . 

466 

29  0 

white,  perfectly  dry    

400 

25  0 

"       1000  ft  b  m  weighs  930  ton 

yellow  Northern,  .48  to  .62  
1000  ft.  b.  m  weighs  1  276  ton 

.550 

34.3 

yellow  Southern,  .64  to  .80  

720 

45.0 

"              "           heart,  unseasoned..  . 
pitch 

1.040 
1  150 

65.0 
71  7 

Pitch  

1  150 

71.9 

Pitchstone,  1.92  to  2.72 

2  345 

146  6 

Plaster  of  Paris  

1  176 

73.5 

Platinum   

21  530 

1342.0 

"        wire 

21  042 

1315  1 

rolled  

22  060 

1379  0 

"        in  grains,  native 

17  500 

1094  0 

"         forged                     .  . 

20  336 

1271  0 

Plum-wood  

785 

49.06 

Plumbago  or  graphite 

2  200 

137  5 

Pomegranate.  .  .  . 

1  351 

84  62 

Poon-wood  s 

580 

36  25 

Poplar  .... 

883 

23  9 

white    

.529 

33  06 

Porcelain,  China  

2  300 

143  75 

"          Sevres  

2.145 

134.1 

Porphyry,  red      

2  765 

172.8 

"         Seltzer    . 

1  003 

62  7 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY.  405 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight 
of  a  Cubic 
Foot  in 
Pounds. 

Potassium  at  59°  F 

.865 

54.1 

1.000 

62.5 

.916 

56.0 

Protoxide  of  antimony  

5.778 

361.0 

"          "  copper                                          . 

5.300 

331.2 

9  500 

593  7 

Protochloride  of  mercury     ...      .             ...          .. 

7.140 

446.0 

7.750 

484.4 

Protosulphide  of  tin      

5.267 

329.2 

3  950 

247.0 

"              "  copper  

5.690 

355.6 

Pumice-stone    792  to  914 

.883 

55.2 

Quartz  common  pure      .             

2.650 

165.0 

"        finely  pulverized  loose                            

90  0 

105  0 

"          "              "          packed  .   . 

112.0 

Quince-wood                          

.705 

44.06 

Realgar    3  °25  to  3  38 

3  278 

204  7 

Red  lead  

8.940 

558.7 

Red  oxide  of  manganese        ...                            .... 

4.722 

295.1 

1.089 

68.1 

Rhodium                                                 .... 

10  650 

665.6 

2  735 

171  0 

Rosewood               

.728 

45.5 

1  981 

123.8 

Ruby  

4.040 

252.5 

Ruthenium                                             .... 

8  600 

537.5 

Salt  ...     

2.070 

129.4 

Saltpetre                             ,                    ....        .     . 

2  090 

130.62 

Sand,  pure  quartz,  dry  and  loose         

1.650 

90-106 

"      struck  bushel  112  to  133  Ibs 

Sand,  a  struck  bush.  =  122^  Ibs.,  and  18.29  bush.=  1 
ton.     A  cu  yd   —  1  181  tons  and  22  86  ft  —  1  ton 

Sand,  well  shaken,  struck  bushel  123-147  Ibs 

99-117 

"         "    packed 

101-119 

"      perfectly  wet   drained  off 

120-140 

Sandstones,  for  building,  dry,  2  10-2.73 

2.410 

150.0 

"            piled   1  measure  solid  —  1% 

86  0 

Sapphire 

3  994 

237  1 

"        oriental  

4.100 

256.2 

Sardonyx 

2  615 

163  4 

Sassafras-  wood  

.482 

30.122 

Satiuwood  

.885 

55  315 

Scammony  of  Smyrna 

1  274 

79  6 

Schorl    

3  170 

198  1 

Sea-water  

1.026 

64  1 

Selenium  

4.400 

275.0 

Selenite  of  lead  

7  690 

480  6 

Serpentine,  2,264  to  3  00     

2  634 

164  6 

Sesquioxide  of  manganese 

4  gio 

306  2 

Shale,  red  or  black  

2  600 

162  5 

Shingle  (pebbles  and  sand)  .           .... 

1  420 

88  7 

406 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Silicate  of  zirconia 

Silver,  pure  cast . 10.474 

"        hammered 10.511 

glance,  5.2  to  7.2 6250 

Slate,  2.672  to  2.90 2.791 

purple 2.784 

"      drawing  .,.   2.110 

Smalt 2.440 

Snow,  freshly  fallen — 

"       compacted  by  rain  

Soapstone  or  steatite,  2.65  to  2.80 2.730 

Soap 1.071 

Sodium  at  59°  F .972 

Spar,fluor,  3.094  to  3.791 3.442 

"     feld 2.700 

"     calc,  2.62  to  2.837 2.729 

Spelter  or  zinc,  6.8  to  7.2 7.000 

Spermaceti .943 

Spruce  .500 

Stalactite,  2.323  to  2.546 2.434 

Starch .950 

Steam .008? 

Steel,  7.8  to  7.9 7.850 

44      plates ...... .806 

"      soft .833 

"      tempered  and  hardened  . .818 

"      wire „ .847 

Stone,  Bath,  Eng .961 

BlueHill ......... .640 

44        Bluestone  (basalt) 2.625 

Breakneck,  N.Y.... 2.704 

Bristol,  Eng , 2.510 

Caen,  Normandy 2.076 

44        common 2.520 

44       Craigleth,  Eng 2.316 

grind 2.142 

Kentish  rag 2.651 

KipsBay,N.Y 2.759 

Norfolk,  Parliament  House ....  2 . 304 

44        Portland,  Eng 2.368 

rotten 1.981 

44       sandstone  (mean) 2.400 

*•       Sydney 2.237 

44       Staten  Island,  N.  Y 2.976 

Sullivan  Co 2.688 

Strontium 2.540 

Sugar 1.606 

Sulphate  of  baryta  (heavy  spar) 4.700 

44  strontia  (celestine) 3.950 

"lead 6.300 

44  silver 5 . 340 

44  lime  (anhydrite) 2.900 

"     "     (gypsum) 2.305 

44  potash  2.400 

44  soda,  anhydrous  2.630 

Sulphide  of  antimony 4.334 

44  bismuth     G.540 

44  carbon 1 .263 

44  lead  (galena) 7.580 

41  molybdenum 4.600 

41  silver  7.200 


SPECIFIC   GRAVITY. 


407 


SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AND  WEIGHT  OF  MATERIALS.    (Continued.) 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Sulphide  of  zinc  (blende)  4.160 

Sulphur,  native 2.086 

fused 1.990 

Sycamore-wood .623 

Talc,  mean...  2.800 

"     black  ..                                 2.900 

Tallow 940 

Tamarack-tree .383 

Tar 1.000 

Teak  (African  oak)  6.57  to  7.45 .701 

Tellurium 6.110 

Thalium  11.850 

Tile 1.815 

Tin,  Cornish  hammered 7.390 

pure 7.291 

Topaz,  oriental 4.011 

Tourmaline 3.210 

Trap 2.720 

Tungsten 17.600 

Turf  or  peat,  dry  and  unpressed 

Turquoise,  2.50  to  3.00 2.750 

Ultramarine 2.360 

Uranium 18.230 

Vine-wood 1.327 

Vinegar,  1.013  to  1.080 1.047 

Walnut-wood , .671 

"     black .500 

Water,  pure  rain  or  distilled,  at  32°  F 

"      "        "           "  60°  F 1.000 

sea 1.026 

"       DeadSea 1.248 

"      Mediterranean 1.029 

Wax,  bees' .965 

"      shoemaker's .897 

Whey,  cow's 1 .019 

White  oak,  upland .687 

"     James  River .759 

'Willow,  .585  to  .486 .535 

Wine,  Bordeaux .993 

"       Burgundy .991 

"        Champagne  (white) .997 

Constance 1.081 

Madeira 1.038 

Malaga 1.022 

Port     .997 

Wolfram 7.119 

Woodstone,  2.045  to  2.675 2.360 

Yew,  Dutch    .788 

"     Spanish  .807 

Zeolite 2.400 

Zircon.. 4.542 

Zinc,  cast 6.861 

41      rolled...  7.191 


408 


MENSURATION. 


Mensuration* 

MENSURATION  OP  SURFACES. 


Area  of  any  parallelogram 
Area  of  any  triangle 
Area  of  any  circle 
Area  of  sector  of  circle 
Area  of  segment  of  circle 

Area  of  parabola 
Area  of  ellipse 

Area  of  cycloid 

Area  of  any  regular  polygon 


Surface  of  cylinder  = 

Surface  of  cone  = 

Surface  of  sphere  = 

Surface  of  frustum  = 

Surface  of  cylindrical  ring  = 

Surface  of  segment  = 


base  X  perpendicular  height. 

base  X  i  perpendicular  height. 

diameter2  X  .7854. 

arc  X  i  radius. 

area  of  sector  of  equal  radius 
less  area  of  triangle. 

base  X  I  height. 

longest  diameter  X  shortest  di- 
ameter x  .7854. 

area  of  generating  circle  X  3. 

sum  of  its  sides  X  perpendicular 
from  its  centre  to  one  of  its 
sides  '*£  2. 

area  of  both  ends  -j-  length  X 
circumference. 

area  of  base  -f  circumference  of 
base  X  i  slant  height. 

diameter3  X  3.1415. 

sum  of  girth  at  both  ends  X  I 
slant  height  -f-  area  of  both 
ends. 

thickness  of  ring  added  to  the 
inner  diameter  X  by  the  thick- 
ness X  9.8698. 

height  of  segment  X  whole  cir- 
cumference of  sphere  of  which 
it  is  a  part. 


POLYGONS. 

1.  To  find  the  area  of  any  regular  polygon.     Square  one  of  its 
sides,  and  multiply  said  square  by  the  number  in  column  1  of  the 
following  table. 

2.  Having  a  side  of  a  regular  polygon,  to  find  the  radius  of  a 
circumscribing  circle.     Multiply  the  side  by  the  corresponding 
number  in  column  2. 


409 


3.  Having  the  radius  of  a  circumscribing  circle,  to  find  the 
side  of  the  inscribed  regular  polygon.  Multiply  the  radius  by 
the  corresponding  number  in  column  3. 


1 

2 

3 

Angle  con- 

Num- 
berof 
Sides. 

Name  of  Polygon. 

Area=S2X. 

Radius 
=  SX. 

Side  =  RX. 

tained  be- 
tween Two 
Sides. 

3 

j  Equilateral  [ 
\     triangle    } 

.433 

.5774 

1.732 

60° 

4 

Square 

1.0 

.7071 

1.4142 

90° 

5 

Pentagon 

1.7205 

.8507 

1.1756 

108° 

6 

Hexagon 

2.5891 

1.0 

1.0 

120° 

7 

Heptagon 

3.6339 

1.1524 

.8678 

128.57° 

8 

Octagon 

4.8284 

1.3066 

.7654 

135° 

9 

Nonagou 

6.1818 

1.4619 

.684 

140° 

10 

Decagon 

7.6942 

1.618 

.618 

144° 

11 

Undecagon 

9.3656 

1.7747 

.5635 

147.27° 

12 

Dodecagon 

11.1962 

1.9319 

.5176 

150° 

In  the  heads  of   the  columns  in  above  table  8  =  side,  and 
=  radius. 


MENSURATION  OF  SOLIDS. 

Cylinder  =  area  of  one  end  X  length. 

Sphere  —  cube  of  diameter  X  .5236. 

Segment  of  sphere         =  square  root  of  the  height  added  to  three 

times  the  square  of  the  radius    of 

base  X  by  height  and  X  .5236. 
Cone  or  pyramid  =  area  of  base  X  i  height. 

Frustum  of  a  cone        =  product  of  diameter  of  both  ends  -+• 

sum  of  their  squares  X  perpendicular 

height  X  .2618. 
Frustum  of  a  pyramid  =  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  two  ends  -f- 

square  root  of  their  product  X  i  of 

the  perpendicular  height. 

Solidity  of  a  wedge       =  area  of  base  X  |  height. 
Frustum  of  a  wedge     =  %  height  X  sum  of  the  areas  of  the  two 

ends. 
Solidity  of  a  ring  =  thickness  +  inner    diameter  X  square 

of  the  thickness  X  2.4674. 


410 


MENSUKATTOtf. 
POLYHE  DRON  S. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

No.  of 

Names. 

Radius  of 
Circum- 

Radius of 
Inscribed 

Area  of 
Surface. 

Cubic 
Contents. 

Sides. 

scribed 

Circle. 

Circle. 

4 

Tetrahedron  .... 

.6124 

.2041 

1.7320 

.1178 

6 

Hexahedron  

.866 

.5 

6. 

1. 

8 

Octahedron  

.7071 

.4082 

3.4641 

.4714 

12 

Dodecahedron  .  . 

1.4012 

1.1135 

20.6458 

7.6631 

20 

Icosahedrou  

.951 

.7558 

86.602 

2.1817 

Side  is  length  of  linear  edge  of  any  side  of  the  figure. 

Radius  of  circumscribed  circle  =  side  X  the  number  in  col- 
umn 1  corresponding  to  the  figure. 

Radius  of  inscribed  circle  —  side  X  the  number  in  column  2 
corresponding  to  the  figure. 

Area  of  surface  =  square  of  side  X  the  number  in  column  3 
corresponding  to  the  figure. 

Cubic  contents  =  cube  of  side  X  the  number  in  column  4  cor- 
responding to  the  figure. 

PROPEKTIES  OF  THE  CIRCLE. 

Diameter  X  3.14159  =  circumference. 

"  X    .8862    =  side  of  an  equal  square. 

X    .7071    =    "     "  "   inscribed  square. 
Diameter2          X    .7854    =  area  of  circle. 
Radius  x  6.28318  =  circumference. 

Circumferences-  3.14159  =  diameter. 

The  circle  contains  a  greater  area  than  any  plane  figure 
bounded  by  an  equal  perimeter  or  outline. 

The  areas  of  circles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 
diameters. 

Any  circle  whose  diameter  is  double  that  of  another  contains 
four  times  the  area  of  the  other. 

The  area  of  a  circle  is  equal  to  the  area  of  a  triangle  "Whose 
base  equals  the  circumference,  and  perpendicular  equals  the 
radius. 


MENSURATION. 

TABLE  81. 
AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES. 


411 


Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

1/64 

.0490871  .00019 

2  % 

8.24668 

5.4119 

6  % 

20.8131 

34.472 

1/32 

.098175   .00077 

11/16 

8.44303 

5.6727 

21.2058 

35.785 

3/64 

.147262!  .00173 

8.63938 

5.93% 

7X 

21.5984 

37.122 

1/16 

.190350   .00307 

is/te 

8.83573 

6.2126 

7 

21.9911 

38.485 

3/32 

.294524   .00690 

9.03208 

6.4918 

rx 

22.3838 

39.871 

^ 

.892699   .01227 

15/16 

9  22843 

6.7771 

y. 

22.7765 

41.282 

5/32 

.4908741  .01917 

3 

9.42478 

7.0686 

ax 

23.1692 

42.718 

3/16 

.589049   .02761 

1/16 

9.62113 

7.3(562 

YO 

23.5619 

44.179 

.687223 

.03758 

H 

9.81748 

7.6699 

7» 

23.9546 

45.664 

ix~ 

.785398 

.04909 

3/16 

10.0138 

7.979S 

HX 

24.3473 

47.173 

9/32 

.883573 

.06213 

•4 

10.2102 

8.  -2958 

% 

24.7400 

48.707 

5/16 

.981748 

.07670 

5/16 

10.4065 

8.6179 

8 

25.1327 

50.265 

11/32 

1.07992 

.09281 

10.I5029 

8.9462 

255254 

51.849 

k 

1.17810 

.11045 

7/16 

10.7992 

9.2806 

1A 

25.9181 

53456 

13/32 

1.27627 

.12962  i 

10.9956 

9.6211 

% 

26.3108 

55.088 

7/16 

1.37445 

.15033 

9/16 

11.1919 

9.9678 

Yz 

26.7035 

56.745 

15/32 

1  .47262 

.17257 

% 

11.3883 

10.321 

% 

27.0962 

5S.426 

H 

1.57080 

.i9ar> 

11/16 

11.5846 

10.680 

% 

27.4889 

60.132 

17/32 

1.66897 

.22166  ! 

H 

11.7810 

11.045 

% 

27.8816 

61.862 

9/16 

1.76715 

.24850 

13/16 

11.9773 

11.416 

9 

28.2743 

63.617 

19/33 

1.86532 

.27688 

12.1737 

11.793 

28.6670 

65.397 

% 

196350 

.30680 

15/16 

12.3700 

12.177 

IX 

29.0597 

67.201 

21/32 

2.06167 

.33824 

4 

12.5664 

12.566 

% 

29.4524 

69.029 

11/16 

2.15984 

.37122 

1/16 

12.7627 

12  962 

IX 

29.8451 

70.882 

23/32 

2.25802 

.40571 

K 

12.9591 

13364 

% 

30.2378 

72.760 

% 

2.35619 

.14179 

3/16 

13.1554 

13.772 

ax 

30.6305 

74.662 

25/32 

2.45437 

.47937 

k 

13.3518 

14.186 

% 

31.0232 

76.589 

13/16 

2.55254 

.51849 

5/16 

13.5481 

14.607 

10 

31.4159 

78.540 

27/32 

2.G5072 

.55914 

% 

13.7445 

15.033 

31.8086 

80.516 

% 

2.74889 

.60132 

7/16 

13.9408 

15.466 

y\ 

32.2013 

82.516 

29/32 

2.84707 

.64504 

£ 

14.1372 

15904 

3X 

32.5940 

84.541 

15/16 

2.94524 

.69029  ! 

9/16 

14.3335 

16.349 

IX 

32.9867  \  86.590 

31/32 

3.04342 

.73708 

% 

14.5299 

10800 

% 

33.3794   88.664 

1 

3.14159 

.78540  ' 

11/16 

14.7262 

17.257 

ax 

33.7721 

90.763 

1/16 

3.33794 

.88664 

1  4.  9226 

17.721 

% 

34.1648 

92.886 

& 

3.53429 

.99402 

13/16 

15.1189 

18.190 

11 

34.5575 

95.033 

3/16 

3.73064 

1.1075 

% 

15.3153 

18.665 

ix 

34.9502 

97.205 

M 

3.92699 

1.2272 

15/16 

15.5116 

19.147 

H 

35.3429 

99.402 

5/16 

4.12334 

1.3530 

5 

15.7080 

19.635 

% 

35.7356 

101.62 

4.31969 

1.4849 

1/16 

15.9J43 

20.129 

\£ 

36.1283 

103.87 

7/16 

4.51604 

1.6230 

16.1007 

20.629 

% 

36.5210 

106.14 

4.71239 

1.7671 

3/16 

16.2970 

21.135 

3X 

36.9137 

108.43 

9/16 

4.90874 

1.9175 

w 

16.4934 

21.648 

Tfl 

37.3064 

110.75 

5.10509 

2.0739 

5/16 

16.6897 

22.166 

12 

37.6991 

113.10 

11/16 

5.30144 

2.23(55 

:>>s 

16.8861 

22  691 

rx 

380918 

115.47 

H 

5.49779 

2.4053 

7/16 

17.0824 

23.221 

/4 

38.4845 

117.86 

13/16 

5.69414 

2.5802 

t^j 

17.2788 

23  758 

% 

38.8772 

120.28 

Vs 

5.89049 

2.7612 

9/16 

17.4751 

24.301 

y* 

39.2699 

122.72 

15/16 

6.08684 

2.9483 

% 

17.6715 

24.850 

% 

39.6626 

125.19 

2 

6.28319 

3.1416 

11/16 

17.8678 

25.406 

ax 

40.0553  127.68 

1/16 

6.47953 

3.3410 

H 

18.0(542 

25.967 

% 

40.4480  130.19 

ix 

6.67588   3  5466 

13/16 

18.2605 

26.535 

13 

40.8407  132.73 

3/16 

6.87223  3.7583 

7/8 

18.4569 

27.109 

41.  '2334  135.30 

14 

7.06858   3.9761 

15/16 

18.6532 

27.688 

54 

41.6261  137.89 

5/16 

7.26493   4.  2000 

6 

18.8496 

28.274 

% 

42.0188  140.50 

% 

7.46128 

4.4301 

IX 

19.2423 

29.465 

42.4115  143.14 

7/16 

7.65763 

4.6(564  i 

\A 

19.6350 

30.080 

% 

428042 

145.80 

9/16 

7.85398 
8.05033 

4.9087  ' 
5.1572  : 

i 

20.0277 
20.4204 

31.919 
33.183 

1 

43.1969 
43.5896 

148.49 
151.20 

MEHSURATlOtf. 


AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES.     (Continued.') 


Diana. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area  . 
Sq.  in. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

14 

43.98-23 

153.94 

21% 

67.9369 

367.28 

29H 

91.8916 

671.96 

44.3750 

156.70 

68.3296 

371.54 

HZ 

92  2843 

677.71 

24 

44.7677 

159.48 

% 

68.7223 

375.83 

/^ 

92.6770 

683.49 

% 

45.1604 

162.30 

22 

69.1150 

380.13 

RX 

93.0697 

689.30 

ix 

45.5531 

165.13 

69.5077 

384.46 

ax 

93.4624 

695.13 

% 

45.9458 

167.99 

J4 

69  9004 

388.82 

% 

93.8551 

700.98 

ax 

46.3385 

170.87 

% 

70.2931 

393.20 

30 

94.2478 

706.86 

% 

467312 

173.78 

y* 

70.6858 

397.61 

^ 

94.6405 

712.76 

15 

47.1239 

176.71 

oZ 

71.0785 

402.04 

95.0332 

718.69 

47.5166 

179.67 

% 

71.4712 

406.49 

% 

95.4259 

724.64 

IX 

47.9093 

182.65 

% 

71.8639 

410.97 

]X 

95.8186 

730.62 

M 

48.3020 

185.66 

23 

72.2566 

415.48 

% 

96.2113 

736.62 

1^5 

48.6947 

18869 

ix 

72.6493 

420.00 

3d 

96.6040 

742.64 

KX 

49.0874 

191.75 

IX 

73.0420 

424.56 

% 

96.9967 

748.69 

% 

49.4801 

194.83 

% 

73.4347 

429.13 

31 

97.3894 

754.77 

7X 

49.8728 

197.93 

ix 

73.8*74 

433.74 

Ya 

97.7821 

760.87 

16 

50.2655 

201.06 

% 

74.2201 

438.36 

98.1748 

766.99 

ix 

50.6582 

204.22 

% 

74.6128 

443.01 

% 

98  5675 

773.14 

H 

51.0509 

207.39 

xo 

75.0055 

447.69 

^2 

98.9602 

779.31 

sx 

51.4436 

210.60 

24 

75.S982 

452.39 

% 

99.3529 

785.51 

m 

51.8363 

213.82 

H 

75.7909 

457.11 

% 

99.7456 

791.73 

5X 

52.2290 

217.08 

76.1836 

461.86 

% 

100.138 

797.98 

% 

52.6217 

220.35 

% 

76.5763 

466.64 

32 

100.531 

804.25 

% 

53.0144 

223.65 

ix 

76.9690 

471.44 

Ys 

100.924 

810.54 

17 

53.4071 

226.98 

% 

77.3617 

476.26 

101.316 

816.86 

X 

53.7998 

230.33 

% 

77.7544 

481.11 

% 

101.709 

823.21 

54.1925 

233.71 

% 

78.1471 

485.98 

^ 

102.102 

829.58 

% 

54.5852 

237.10 

25 

78.5398 

490.87 

102.494 

835.97 

IX, 

54.9779 

240.53 

ix 

78.9325 

495.79 

ax 

102.887 

842.39 

% 

55.3706 

24398 

\A 

79.3252 

500.74 

% 

103,280 

848.83 

a/ 

55.7633 

247.45 

% 

79.7179 

505.71 

33 

103.673 

855.30 

7X. 

56.1560 

250.95 

IX 

80.1106 

510.71 

Y» 

104.065 

881.79 

18 

56.5487 

254.47 

% 

80.5033 

515.72 

104.458 

868.31 

^ 

56.9414 

258.02 

3X 

80.8960 

520.77 

sx 

104.851 

874.85 

57.3341 

261.59 

7% 

81.2887 

525.84 

Yz 

105.243 

881.41 

sx 

57.7268 

265.18 

26 

81.6814 

530.93 

KX 

105.636 

888.00 

l^ 

58.1195 

268.80 

/^ 

82.0741 

536.05 

H 

106.029 

894.62 

% 

58.5122 

272.45 

\A 

82.4668     541.19 

% 

106.421 

901.26 

ax 

58.9049 

276.12 

% 

82.8595     546.35 

34 

106.814 

907.92 

% 

59.2976 

279.81 

% 

83.2522 

551.55 

107.207 

91461 

19 

59.6903 

283.53 

% 

83.6449 

556.76 

ix 

107.600 

921.32 

60.0830 

287.27 

% 

84.0376 

562.00 

% 

107.992 

928.06 

IX, 

60.4757 

291.04 

yfi 

84.4303 

567.27 

1Z 

108.385 

934.82 

% 

60.8684 

294.83 

27 

84.8230 

572.56 

% 

108.778 

941.61 

/^ 

61.2611 

298.65 

jx 

85.2157 

577.87 

sx 

109.170 

948.42 

% 

61.6538 

302.49 

14 

85.6084 

583.21 

% 

109.563 

955.25 

% 

62.0465 

306.35 

% 

86.001  1 

588.57 

35 

109.956 

962.11 

% 

62.4392 

310.24 

L£ 

86.3933 

593.96 

110.348 

969.00 

20 

62.8319 

314.16 

% 

86.7865 

599.37 

Y4 

110.741 

975.91 

^ 

63.2246 

318.10 

jJX 

87.1792 

604.81 

RX 

111.134 

982.84 

63.6173 

322.06 

% 

87.5719 

610.27 

IX 

111.537 

98980 

% 

64.0100 

326.05 

28 

87.9646 

615.65 

% 

111.919 

996.78 

i£ 

64.4026 

330.06 

ix 

88.3573 

621  .26 

MX 

112.312 

1003.8 

% 

64.7953 

3:34.10 

Ixj 

88.7500 

626.80 

/o 

112.705 

1010.8 

% 

66.1880 

338.16 

% 

89.1427 

632.36 

36 

113.097 

1017.9 

xo 

65.5807 

342.25 

1£ 

89.5354 

637.94 

113.490 

1025.0 

21 

65.9734 

346.36 

% 

89.9-J81 

643.55 

/4 

113.883 

1032.1 

£x 

66.3661 

350.50 

% 

90.3  JOS 

649.18 

sx 

114.275 

1039.2 

/4 

66.7588 

354.66 

% 

90.7135 

654.84 

\/ 

114.668 

1046.3 

% 

67.1515 

358.84 

29 

91.1062 

660.52 

% 

115.061 

1053.5 

X 

67.5442 

363.05 

Vs 

91.4989 

666.23   , 

H 

115.454 

1060.7 

MENSURATION. 


413 


AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES.     (Continued.) 


Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 

CUlllf. 

In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

36% 

115.846 

1068.0 

44^ 

139.801 

1555.3 

52^ 

163.75o 

2133.9 

37 

116.239 

1075.2 

140.194 

1564.0 

164.148 

2144.2 

x£ 

116.632 

1082.5 

N 

140  586 

1572.8 

% 

164.541 

2154.5 

117.024 

1089.8 

» 

140.979 

1581.6 

% 

164.934 

2164.8 

ax 

117.417 

1097.1 

45 

141.372 

1590.4 

% 

165.326 

2175.1 

V6 

117.810 

1104.5 

141.764 

1599.3 

M 

165.719 

2185.4 

H 

118.202 

1111  8 

/4 

142.157 

1608.2 

% 

166.112 

2195.8 

HX 

118.59:5 

1119.2 

% 

142.550 

1617.0 

53 

166.504 

2206.2 

TV 

118.988 

1126.7 

L£ 

142.942 

1626.0 

166.897 

2216.6 

38 

119.381 

1134.1 

Sj' 

143.335 

1634.9 

/4 

167290 

2227.0 

119.773 

1141.6 

ax 

143.728 

1643.9 

% 

167.683 

2237.5 

xl 

120.166 

1149.1 

% 

144.121 

1652.9 

rx. 

168.075 

2248.0 

a| 

120.559 

1156.6 

46 

144.513 

1661.9 

7& 

168.468 

2258.5 

i/ 

120.951 

1164.2 

xfj 

144.906 

1670.9 

M 

168.861 

2269.1 

% 

121.344 

1171.7 

i 

145.299 

1680.0 

% 

169.253 

2279.6 

'¥* 

121.737 

1179.3 

145.691 

1689.1 

54 

169.646 

290.2 

% 

122.129 

1186.9 

V£ 

146.084 

1698.2 

x^ 

170.039 

2300.8 

39 

122  522 

1194.6 

(C; 

146.477 

1707.4 

y 

170.431 

2311.5 

H 

122.915 

1102.3 

« 

146.869 

1716.5 

170.824 

2322.1 

123.308 

1110.0 

xl 

147.262 

1725.7 

1Z 

171.217 

2332.8 

% 

123.700 

1117.7 

47 

147.655 

1734.9 

•2 

171.609 

2343.5 

jx 

124.093 

1225.4 

148.048 

1744.2 

a^ 

172.002 

2354.3 

H 

124.486 

1233.2 

x4 

148.440 

1753.5 

% 

172.395 

2365.0 

3/ 

124.878 

1241.0 

% 

148.833 

1762.7 

55 

172.788 

2375.8 

ex 

125.271 

1248.8 

M 

149.226 

1772.1 

173.180 

2386.6 

40 

125.664 

1256.6 

g 

149.618 

1781.4 

H 

173.573 

2397.5 

126.056 

1264.5 

150.011 

1790.8 

a2 

173.966 

2408.3 

x4 

126.449 

1272.4 

% 

150.404 

1800.1 

xlj 

174.358 

2419.2 

az 

126.842 

1280.3 

48 

150.796 

1809.6 

% 

174.751 

2430.1 

M 

127.235 

1288.2 

x£ 

151.189 

1819.0 

% 

175.144 

2441.1 

s2 

127.627 

1296.2 

i 

151,582 

18S8.5 

% 

75.536 

2452.0 

§i 

128.020 

1304.2 

151.975 

1837.9 

56 

75.929 

24630 

% 

128.413 

1312.2 

H 

152.367 

1847.5 

76.322 

2474.0 

41 

128.805 

1320.3 

% 

152.760 

ia57.0 

x4 

76.715 

2485.0 

*6 

129.198 

1328.3 

x4 

153.153 

1866.5 

/•» 

77.107 

2496.1 

129.591 

1336.4 

H 

153.545 

1876.1 

xis 

177.500 

2507.2 

% 

129.993 

13445 

49 

153.JJ88 

1885.7 

% 

77.893 

2518.3 

IX 

130.376 

1352.7 

154.331 

1895.4 

MX 

78.285 

2529.4 

n 

130.769 

1360.8 

J4 

154.723 

1905.0 

% 

178.678 

2540.6 

3x 

131.161 

1369.0 

% 

155.116 

1914.7 

57 

179.071 

2551.8 

% 

131.554 

1377.2 

xii 

155.509 

1924.4 

x^ 

179  463 

'^563.0 

42 

131.947 

1385.4 

KX 

155.902 

1934.2 

179.H56 

2574.2 

132.340 

1393.7 

n 

156.294 

1943.9 

% 

180.249 

2585.4 

ix 

132.732 

1402.0 

7X 

156.687 

1953.7 

IX. 

180.642 

2596.7 

% 

133.125 

1410.3 

50 

157.080 

1963.5 

% 

181.034 

2608.0 

i  -r 

133.518 

14186 

157.472 

1973.3 

M 

181.427 

2619.4 

KZ 

133.910 

1427.0 

ix; 

157.865 

1983.2 

H 

181.820 

2630.7 

M 

134.303 

1435.4 

g 

158.258 

1993.1 

58 

182.212 

2642.1 

% 

134.696 

1443.8 

158.650 

2003.0 

L/C 

182.605 

2653.5 

43 

135.088 

1452  2 

% 

159.043 

2012.9 

U 

182.998 

2664.9 

135.481 

1460.7 

ax; 

159.436 

2022.8 

% 

183.390 

2676.4 

IX 

135.874 

1469.1 

% 

159.829 

2032.8 

1Z 

183.783 

2687.8 

% 

136.267 

14776 

51 

160.221 

2042.8 

|| 

184.176 

2699.3 

IX 

136.659 

1486.2 

160.614 

2052.8 

3x 

184.569 

2710.9 

% 

137.052 

1494.7 

IX 

161.007 

2062.9 

TX; 

184.961 

2722.4 

M 

137.445 

1503.3 

% 

161.399 

2073.0 

59 

185.354 

2734.0 

% 

137.837 

1511.9 

IX 

161.792 

2083.1 

i/ 

185.747 

2745.6 

44 

138.230 

1520.5 

s2 

362.185 

2093  2 

IX, 

186.139 

2757.2 

% 

138.623 

\  1529.2 

M 

162.577 

2103.3 

% 

186.532 

2768.8 

139.015 

i  1537.9 

% 

162.970 

2113.5 

IX, 

186.925 

2780.5 

8 

139.408 

:  1546  6 

52 

163.363 

2123.7 

% 

187.317 

2702.3 

414 


MENSURATION. 


AREAS  AND  CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES.    (Continued.) 


Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 

CUlllf. 

In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

59% 

187.710 

2803.9 

67% 

21  i.  665 

3565.2 

75 

235.619 

4417.9 

% 

188.103 

2815.7 

2J  2.058 

3578.5 

y& 

236.012 

4432.6 

60 

188.496 

2827.4 

76 

212450 

&591.7 

*4 

2o6.405 

4447.4 

H 

188.888 

2839.2 

94 

212.843 

3605.0 

% 

236.798 

4462.2 

74 

189.281 

2851.0 

% 

213.23G 

36  IS.  3 

Yi, 

237.190 

4477.0 

% 

189.674 

2862.9 

68 

213.628 

3631.7 

5X 

237.583 

4491.8 

to 

190.066 

2874.8 

214.021 

3645.0 

94 

237.976 

4506.7 

% 

190.459 

2886.6 

IX 

214.414 

3658.4 

7X 

288.368 

4521.5 

n 

190.852 

2898.6 

% 

214  806 

3671.8 

76 

238.761 

4536.5 

H 

191.244 

2910.5 

ix 

215.199 

368o.3 

239.154 

4551.4 

61 

191.637 

2922.5 

KX 

215.592 

3698.7 

IX 

239.546 

4566.4 

ft 

192.030 

2934.5 

94 

215.984 

3712.2 

% 

239.939 

4581.3 

i| 

192.423 

2946.5 

yn 

216.377 

3725.7 

/^ 

240.332 

4596.3 

% 

192.815 

2958.5 

69 

216.770 

3739.3 

KX 

240.725 

4611.5 

H 

193.208 

2970.5 

217.163 

3752.8 

94 

241.117 

4626.4 

% 

193.601 

2982.7 

IX 

217.555 

3766.4 

% 

241.510 

4641.5 

94 

193.993 

2994.8 

% 

217.948 

3780.0 

77 

241.903 

4656.6 

% 

194.380 

3006.9 

ix 

218.341 

3793.7 

Ys 

242.295 

4671.8 

62 

194.779 

3019.1 

78 

218.733 

3807.3 

242.688 

4686.9 

/^J 

195.171 

3031.3 

94 

219.126 

3821.0 

% 

243.081 

4702.1 

M 

195.564 

3043.5 

7? 

219.519 

3834.7 

•\/ 

243.473 

4717.3 

:;s 

195.957 

3055.7 

70 

219.911 

3848.5 

% 

243.866 

4732.5 

Yz 

196.350 

3068.0 

76 

220  304 

3862.2 

94 

244.259 

4747.8 

Kg 

196.742 

3080.3 

220.697 

3876.0 

% 

244652 

4763.1 

94 

197.135 

3092.6 

«/ 

221.090 

3889.8 

78 

245.044 

4778.4 

% 

197.528 

3104.9 

y% 

221.482 

3903.6 

245.437 

4793.7 

63 

197.920 

3117.2 

KZ 

221.875 

3917.5 

IX 

245.830 

4809.0 

198.313 

3129.6 

94 

222.268 

3931.4 

78 

246.222 

4824.4 

^4 

198.706 

3142.0 

% 

222.660      3945.3 

r£ 

246.615 

4839.8 

% 

199.098 

3154.5 

71 

223.053      3959.2 

78 

247.008 

4855.2 

\fa 

199.491 

3166.9 

TB" 

223.446  i   3973.1 

94 

247.400 

4870.7 

% 

199.884 

3179.4 

223.838  j    3987.1 

% 

247.793 

4880.2 

94 

200.277 

3191.9 

96 

224.231  S   4001.1 

79 

248.1^6 

4901.7 

% 

200.669 

3204.4 

76 

224.624      4015.2 

248.579 

4917.2 

64 

201.062 

3217.0 

76 

225.017      4029.2 

IX 

248.971 

4932.7 

rtB 

201.455 

3229.6 

94 

225.409      4043.3 

% 

249.364 

4948.3 

201.847 

3242.2 

% 

225.802      4057.4 

1£ 

24L'.757 

4963.9 

% 

202.240 

3254.8 

72 

226.195 

4071.5 

% 

250.!  49 

4979.5 

MJ 

202.633 

3267.5 

226.587 

4085.7 

94 

150.542 

4995.2 

% 

203.025 

3280.1 

IX 

226.980 

4099.8 

% 

250.935 

5010.9 

94 

203.418 

3292.8 

% 

227.373 

4114.0 

80 

251.327 

5026.5 

% 

203.811 

3305.6 

JX 

227.765 

4128.2 

251.720 

5042.3 

65 

204.204 

3318.3 

7& 

2C8.158 

41J2.5 

M 

252.113 

5058.0 

/^ 

204.596 

3331.1 

94 

228  551 

415C.8 

% 

252  506 

5073.8 

/4 

204.989 

33439 

% 

228.944 

4171.1 

7§ 

252.898 

5089.6 

% 

205.382 

3356.7 

73 

229.336 

4185.4 

7H 

253.291 

5105.4 

72 

205.774 

3369.6 

229.729 

4199.7 

94 

253.684 

5121.2 

% 

206.167 

3382.4 

IX 

230.122 

4214.1 

% 

254  076 

5137.1 

9^ 

206.560 

3395.3 

s2 

230.514 

4228.5 

81 

254.469 

5153.0 

% 

206.952 

3408.2 

^ 

230.907 

4242.9 

r6 

254.862 

5168.9 

66 

207.345 

3421.2 

s 

231.300 

4257.4 

r4 

255.254 

5184.9 

54 

207.738 

3434.3 

231.692 

4271.8 

255.647  1   5200.8 

M 

208.131 

3447.2 

% 

232.085 

4286.3 

L/. 

256.040 

5216.8 

% 

208.523 

3460.2 

74 

232.47S 

4300.8 

% 

256.433 

5232.8 

i£ 

208.916 

3473.2 

232.871 

4315.4 

94 

256.825 

5248.9 

•2 

209.309 

3486.3 

IX 

233.263 

4329.9 

% 

257.218 

5264.9 

94 

209.701 

3499.4 

% 

233.656 

4344.5 

82 

257.611 

5281.0 

% 

210.094 

3512.5 

r£ 

234.049 

4359.2 

258.003 

5297.1 

67 

210.487 

3525.7 

T£ 

234.441 

4373.8 

M 

258.396 

5313.3 

i^j 

210.879 

3538.8 

94 

234.834 

4388.5 

% 

258.789 

5329.4 

M 

211.272 

3552.0 

2 

235.227 

440:i  1 

% 

259.181 

5345.6 

MENSURATION. 


AREAS   AND   CIRCUMFERENCE  OF  CIRCLES.    (Continued.) 


Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cunif. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

Diam. 
In. 

Cir- 
cumf. 
In. 

Area. 
Sq.  In. 

259.574 

5361,8 

88  V6 

278.031 

6151.4 

94% 

296.488 

6995.3 

af 

259.967 

5378.1 

278.424 

6168.8 

y> 

296.881 

7013.8 

% 

260.359 

5394.3 

M 

278.816 

6186.2 

RZ 

297.273 

7032.4 

83 

260.752 

5410.6 

£6 

279.209 

6203.7 

34 

297.666 

7051.0 

261.145 

5426.9 

89 

279.602 

6221.1 

ft 

298.059 

7069.6 

y 

261.533 

5443.3 

279.994 

628S.6 

95 

298.451 

7088.2 

OX 

261.930 

5459.6 

\A 

280.3S7 

6256.1 

ta 

298.844 

7106.9 

vl 

262.328 

5476.0 

% 

280.780 

6273.7 

299.237 

7125.6 

KS 

26-).716 

5492.4 

1£ 

281.173 

6291.2 

% 

299.629 

7144.3 

il 

263.108 

5508.8 

% 

281.565 

6308.8 

Mi 

300.022 

7163.0 

7X 

263.501 

55*5.3 

SX 

281.958 

63.'6.4 

% 

300.415 

7181.8 

84 

263.894 

5541.8 

% 

282.351 

6344.1 

94 

300.807 

7200.6 

364.286 

5558.3 

90 

282.743 

6361.7 

% 

301.200 

721U.A 

x4 

264.679 

5574.8 

283.136 

6379.4 

96 

301  .593 

7238.2 

S£ 

265.072 

5591.4 

IX 

283.52!) 

C3'J7.1 

H 

301.986 

7257.1 

IX 

265.465 

5607.9 

% 

283.921 

6414.9 

8 

302.378 

7276.0 

% 

265.857 

5624.5 

\Z 

284  314 

6432.6 

§ 

302.771 

7294.9 

3x 

266.250 

5641.2 

sZ 

284707 

6450.4 

303  164 

7313.8 

% 

266.613 

5657.8 

H 

285.100 

6468.2 

% 

303.556 

7332.8 

85 

267.035 

5674.5 

H 

285.192 

6486.0 

a/ 

303.949 

7351.8 

267.428 

5691.2 

91 

285.885 

6503.9 

% 

304.342 

7370.8 

i^ 

267.821 

5707.9 

286.278 

6521.8 

97 

304.734 

7389.8 

% 

268.213 

5724.7 

H 

286  670 

6539.7 

K 

305.127 

7408.9 

i/ 

268.606 

5741.5 

»z 

287.003 

6557.6 

B 

305.520 

7428.0 

% 

268.999 

5758.3 

ij 

287.456 

6575.5 

% 

305.913 

7447.1 

ax 

269.392 

5775.1 

KZ 

287.848 

6593.5 

306.305 

7466.2 

% 

269.784 

5791.9 

ax 

288.241 

6611.5 

% 

306.698 

7485.3 

86 

270.177 

5808.8 

% 

288.634 

6629.6 

% 

307.091 

7504.5 

270.570 

5825.7 

928 

289.027 

6647.6 

% 

307.483 

7523.7 

M 

270.962 

5812.6 

289.419 

6665.7 

98 

307.876 

7543.0 

% 

271.355 

5859.6 

y\ 

289.812 

6683.8 

^ 

308.269 

7562.2 

|,Z 

271.748 

58"6.5 

a2 

290.205 

6701.9 

M 

308.061 

7581.5 

% 

272.140 

5893.5 

H 

290.597 

6720.1 

% 

309.054 

7600.8 

3X. 

272.533 

5910.6 

% 

290.990 

6738.2 

Vis 

309.447 

7620.1 

% 

272.926 

5927.6 

« 

291.383 

6756.4 

a/ 

309.840 

7639.5 

87 

273.319 

5944.7 

H 

291.775 

6774.7 

M 

310232 

7058.9 

i/ 

273.711 

5961.8 

93 

292.168 

679^.9 

i/. 

310.625 

7678.3 

H 

274.104 

5978.9 

292.561 

6811.2 

99 

311.018 

7697.7 

% 

274.497 

5996.0 

i£ 

292.954 

6829.5 

16 

311.410 

7717.1 

H 

274.889 

6013.2 

% 

293.346 

6847.8 

U 

311.803 

7736.6 

% 

275.282 

6030.4 

/^ 

293.739 

6866.1 

g 

312.196 

7756.1 

n 

275.675 

6047.6 

% 

294.132 

6884.5 

312.588 

'J  775.6 

% 

276.067 

6064.9 

94 

294.524 

6902.9 

5^ 

312.981 

7795.2 

88 

276.460 

6082.1 

7/l 

294.917 

6921.3 

SX 

313.374 

7814.8 

xi 

276.853 

6099.4 

94 

295.310 

6939.8 

% 

313.767 

7834.4 

J4 

277.246 

6116.7 

Yn 

295.702 

6958.2 

100 

314.159 

7854.0 

% 

277.638 

6K34.1 

v\ 

296.095 

6976.7 

416 


MENSURATION". 


TABLE  82. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS. 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

i 
Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

1 

1 

1 

1.0000000 

.0000000 

1.000000000 

2 

4 

8 

1.4142136 

.2599210 

.500000000 

3 

9 

27 

1.7320508 

.4422496 

.333333333 

4 

16 

64 

2.0000000 

.5874011 

.250000000 

5 

25 

125 

2.2360680 

.7099759 

.200000000 

6 

36 

216 

2  4494897 

.8171206 

.166666667 

7 

49 

343 

2.6457513 

.9129312 

.142857143 

8 

64 

512 

2.8284271 

2.0000000 

.125000000 

9 

81 

729 

3.0000000 

2.0800837 

.111111111 

10 

100 

1000 

3.1622777 

2.1544347 

.100000000 

11 

121 

1331 

3.3166248 

2.2239801 

.090909091 

12 

144 

1728 

34641016 

2.2894286 

.083333333 

13 

169 

2197 

3  6055513 

2.3513347 

.076923077 

14 

196 

2744 

3.7416574 

2.4101422 

.071428571 

15 

225 

3375 

3.8729833 

2.4662121 

.066666667 

16 

256 

4096 

4.0000000 

2.5198421 

.062500000 

17 

289 

4913 

4.1231056 

2.5712816 

.058823529 

18 

324 

5832 

4.2426407 

2.6207414 

.055555556 

19 

361 

6859 

4.3588989 

2.6684016 

,052631579 

20 

400 

8000 

4.4721360 

2.7144177 

.050000000 

21 

441 

9261 

4.5825757 

2.7589243 

.047619048 

22 

484 

10648 

4  6904158 

2.8020393 

.045454545 

23 

529 

12167 

4.7958315 

2.8438670 

.043478261 

24 

576 

13824 

4.8989795 

2.8844991 

.041666667 

25 

625 

15625 

5.0000000 

2.9240177 

,040000000 

26 

676 

17576 

5.0990195 

2.9624960 

.038461538 

27 

729 

19683 

5  1961524 

3.0000000 

.037037037 

28 

784 

21952 

5.2915026 

3.0365889 

.035714286 

29 

841 

24389 

5.3851648 

3.0723168 

.034482759 

30 

900 

27000 

5.4772256 

3.1072325 

.033333333 

31 

961 

29791 

5.5677644 

3.1413806 

.032258065 

32 

1024 

32768 

5.6568542 

3.1748021 

.031250000 

33 

1089 

35937 

5.7445626 

3.2075343 

.030303030 

34 

1156 

39304 

5.8309519 

3.2396118 

.029411765 

35 

1225 

42875 

5.9160798 

3.2710663 

.028571429 

36 

1296 

46656 

6.0000000 

3.3019272 

.027777778 

37 

1369 

50653 

6.0827625 

3.3322218 

.027027027 

38 

1444 

54872 

6.1644140 

3.3619754 

.026315789 

39 

1521 

59319 

6.2449980 

3.3912114 

.025641026 

40 

1600 

64000 

6.3245553 

3.4199519 

.025000000 

41 

1681 

68921 

6.4031242 

3.4482172 

.024390244 

42 

1764 

74088 

6.4807407 

3.4760266 

.023809524 

43 

1849 

79507 

6.5574385 

3.5033981 

.023255814 

44 

1936 

85184 

6.6332496 

3.5303483 

.022727273 

45 

2025 

91125 

6.7082039 

3.5568933 

.022222222 

46 

2116 

97336 

6.7823300 

3.5830479 

.021739130 

47 

2209 

103823 

6.8556546 

3.6088261 

.021276600 

48 

2304 

110592 

6.9282032 

3.6342411 

.020833333 

49 

2401 

117649 

7.0000000 

3.6593057 

.020406163 

50 

2500 

125000 

7.0710678 

3.6840314 

.020000000 

51 

2601 

132651 

7.1414284 

3.7084298 

.019607843 

52 

2704 

140608 

7.2111026 

3.7325111 

.019230769 

53 

2809 

148877 

7.2801099 

3.7562858 

.018867925 

54 

2916 

157464 

7.3484692 

3.7797631 

.018518519 

55 

3025 

166375 

7.4161985 

3.8029525 

.018181818 

56 

3136 

175616 

7.4833148 

3.8258624 

.017857143 

57 

3249 

185193 

7.5498344 

3.8485011 

.017543860 

58 

3364 

195112 

7.6157731 

3.8708766 

.017241379 

59 

3481 

205379 

7.6811457 

3.8929965 

.016949153 

60 

3600 

216000 

7.7459667 

3.9148676 

.016666667 

61 

3721 

226981 

7.8102497 

3.9364972 

.016393443 

62 

3844 

238328 

7.8740079 

3.9578915 

.016129032 

MENSURATION.  417 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

£3 

3969 

250047 

7.9372539 

3.9790571 

.015873016 

ta 

4096 

262144 

8.0000000 

4.0000000 

.015625000 

€5 

4225 

274625 

8.0G22577 

4.0207256 

.015384615 

• 

4356 

287496 

8.1240384 

4.0412401 

.015151515 

E7 

4489 

300703 

8.1853528 

4  0615480 

.014925373 

B8 

4624 

314432 

82462113 

4.0816551 

.014705882 

69 

4761 

328509 

8.3066239 

4.1015661 

.014492754 

70 

4900 

343000 

8.3666003 

4.1212853 

.014285714 

71 

5041 

357911 

8.426M98 

4.1408178 

.014084507 

72 

5184 

373248 

8  4852814 

4.1601676 

.013888889 

73 

5329 

389017 

8.5440037 

4.1793390 

.013698630 

74 

5476 

405224 

8  6023253 

4.1983364 

.013513514 

75 

5625 

421875 

8  6602540 

4.2171633 

013333333 

76 

5776 

438976 

8  7177979 

4.2358236 

.013157895 

77 

5929 

456533 

8  7749644 

4.2543210 

.012087013 

78 

6084 

474552 

8.8317609 

4.2726586 

.012820513 

79 

6241 

493039 

8.8881944 

4.2908404 

.012658228 

80 

6400 

512000 

8.9442719 

4.3088695 

.012500000 

81 

6561 

531441 

9.0000000 

4.3267487 

.012345679 

82 

6724 

551368 

9.0553851 

4.3444815 

.012195122 

83 

6889 

571787 

9.1104336 

4.3620707 

.012048193 

84 

7056 

592704 

9.1651514 

4.3795191 

.011904762 

85 

7225 

614125 

9  2195445 

4.3968296 

.011764706 

86 

7396 

636056 

9.2736185 

4.4140049 

.011627907 

87 

7569 

658503 

9.3273791 

4.4310476 

.011494253 

88 

7744 

681472 

9.3808315 

4.4479602 

.011363636 

89 

7921 

704969 

9.4339811 

4.4647451 

.011235955 

90 

8100 

729000 

9.4868330 

4.4814047 

.011111111 

91 

8281 

753571 

9  5393920 

4.4979414 

.010989011 

92 

8464 

778688 

9.5916630 

4.5143574 

.010869565 

93 

8649 

804357 

9.6436508 

4.5306549 

.010752688 

94 

8836 

830584 

9.6953597 

4.5468359 

.010638298 

95 

9025 

857375 

9.7467943 

4.5629026 

.010526316 

96 

9216 

884736 

9.7979590 

4.5788570 

.010416667 

97 

9409 

912673 

9.8488578 

4.5947009 

.010309278 

98 

9604 

941192 

9.8994949 

4.6104363 

.010204082 

99 

9801 

970299 

9.9498744 

4.6260650 

.010101010 

100 

10000 

1000000 

10.0000000 

4.6415888 

.010000000 

101 

10201 

1030301 

10.0498756 

4.6570095 

.009900990 

102 

10104 

1061208 

10.0995049 

4.6723287 

.009803922 

103 

10609 

1092727 

10.1488916 

4.6875482 

.009708738 

104 

10816 

1124864 

10.1980390 

4.7026694 

.009615385 

105 

11025 

1157625 

10.2469508 

4.7176940 

.009523810 

106 

11236 

1191016 

10.2956301 

4.7326235 

.009433962 

107 

11449 

1225043 

10.3440804 

4.7474594 

.009345794 

108 

11664 

1259712 

10.3923048 

4.7622032 

.009259259 

109 

11881 

1295029 

10.4403065 

4.7768562 

.009174312 

110 

12100 

1331000 

10  4880385 

4.7914199 

.009090909 

111 

12321 

1367631 

10  5356538 

4.8058955 

.009009009 

112 

12544 

1404928 

10  '.5830052 

4.8202845 

.008928571 

113 

12769 

1442897 

10.6801458 

4.8343881 

.008849558 

114 

12996 

1481544 

10.C770783 

4.8488076 

.008771930 

115 

13225 

1520875 

10.7238033 

4.8629442 

.008695652 

116 

13456 

1560896 

10.7703296 

4.8769990 

.008620690 

117 

13689 

1601613 

10.8166538 

4.8909732 

.008547009 

118 

13924 

1643032 

10.8627805 

4.9048681 

.008474576 

119 

14161 

1685159 

10.9087121 

4.9186847 

.008403361 

120 

14400 

1728000 

10.9544512 

4.9324242 

.008333333 

121 

14641 

1771561 

11.00.0000 

4.9460874 

.0082644(53 

1£2 

14884 

1815848 

11.0453610 

4.9596757 

.008196721 

123 

15129 

1860867 

11.0905365 

4.9731898 

.008130081 

124 

15376 

1906624 

11.1315287 

4.9866310 

.008064516 

418 


MENSURATION". 


SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

-   -1 
Reciprocals. 

125 

15625 

1953125 

11.1803399 

5.0000000 

.008000000 

126 

15876 

2000376     11.2249722 

5.0132979 

.007936508 

127 

16129 

2048383 

11.2694277 

5.0265257 

.007874016 

128 

16384 

2097152 

11.3137085 

5.0396842 

.007812500 

129 

16641 

2146689 

11.3578167 

5.0527743 

.007751938 

130 

16900 

2197000 

11.4017543 

5.0657970 

.007692308 

131 

17161 

2248091 

11.4455231 

5.0787531 

.007633588 

132 

17424 

2299968 

11.4891253 

5.0916434 

.007575758 

133 

17689 

2352637 

11.5325626 

5.1044687 

.007518797 

134 

17956 

2406104 

11.5758369 

5.1172299 

.007462687 

135 

18225 

2460375 

11.6189500 

5.1299278 

.007407407 

136 

18496 

2515456 

11.6619038 

5.1425632 

.007352941 

137 

18769 

2571353 

11.7046999 

5.1551367 

.007299270 

138 

19044 

2628072 

11.7473401 

5.1676493 

.007246377 

139 

19321 

2685619 

11.7898261 

5.1801015 

.007194245 

140 

19600 

2744000 

11.8321596 

5.1924941 

.007142857 

141 

19881 

2803221 

11.8743421 

5.2048279 

.007092199 

142 

20164 

2863288 

11.9163753 

5.2171034 

.007042254 

143 

20449 

2924207 

11.9582607 

5.2293215 

.006993007 

144 

20736 

2985984 

12.0000000 

5.2414828 

.006944444 

145 

21025 

3048625 

12.0415946 

5.2535879 

.006896552 

146 

21316 

3112136 

12.0830460 

5.2656374 

.006849315 

147 

21609 

3176523 

12.1243557 

5.2776321 

.006802721 

148 

21904 

3241792 

12.1655251 

5.2895725 

.006756757 

149 

82201 

3307949 

12.2065556 

5.3014593 

.006711409 

150 

22500 

3375000 

12.2474487 

5.3132928 

.006666667 

151 

22801 

3442951 

12.2882057 

5.3250740 

.006622517 

152 

23104 

3511808 

12.3288280 

5.3368033 

.006578947 

153 

23409 

3581577 

12.3693169 

5.3484812 

.006535948 

154 

23716 

3652264 

12.4096736 

5.3601084 

.006493506 

155 

24025 

3723875 

12.4498996 

5.3716854 

.006451613 

156 

24336 

3796416 

12.4899960 

5.3832126 

.006410256 

157 

24649 

3869893 

12.5299641 

5  3946907 

.006369427   • 

158 

24964 

3944312 

12.5698051 

6.4061202 

.006329114 

159 

25281 

4019679 

12.6095203 

5.4175015 

.006289308 

160 

25600 

4096000 

12.6491106 

5.4288352 

.006250000 

161 

25921 

4173281 

12.6885775 

5.4401218 

.006211180 

162 

26244 

4251528 

12.7279221 

5.4513618 

.006172840   : 

163 

26569 

4330747 

12.7671453 

5.4625556 

.006134969   : 

164 

26896 

4410944 

12.8062485 

5.4737037 

.006097561 

165 

27225 

4492125 

12.8452326 

5.4848066 

.006060606 

166 

27556 

4574296 

12.8840987 

6.4958647 

.006024096 

167 

27889 

4657463 

12.9228480 

5.5068784 

.005988024 

168 

28224 

4741632 

12.9614814 

5.5178484 

.005952381 

169 

28561 

4826809 

13.0000000 

5.5287748 

.005917160 

170 

28900 

4913000 

13.0384048 

5.5396583 

.005882353 

171 

29241 

5000211 

13.0766968 

5.5504991 

.005847953 

172 

29584 

5088448 

13.1148770 

5.5612978 

.005813953 

173 

29929 

5177717 

13.1529464 

5.5720546 

.005780347 

174 

30276 

5268024 

13.1909060 

5.5827702 

.005747126 

175 

30625 

5359375 

13.2287566 

5.5934447 

.005714286 

176 

30976 

5451776 

13.2664992 

5.6040787 

.005681818 

177 

31329 

5545233 

13.3041347 

5.6146724 

.005649718 

178 

31684 

5639752 

13.3416641 

6.6252263 

.005617978 

179 

32041 

5735339 

13.3790882 

5.6357408 

.005586592 

180 

32400 

5832000 

13.4164079 

5.6462162 

.005555556 

181 

82761 

5929741 

13.4536240 

5.6566528 

.005524862 

182 

33124 

6028568 

13.4907376 

5.6670511 

.005494505 

183 

&S489 

6128487 

13.5277493 

5.6774114 

.005464481 

184 

33856 

6229504 

13.5646600 

5.6877340 

.005434783 

185 

34225 

6331625 

13.6014705 

5.6980192 

.005405405 

186 

34596 

6434856 

13.0381817 

6.7082675 

.005376344 

MENSURATION.  419 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cub©  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

187 

34969 

6539203 

13.6747943 

5.7184791 

.005347594 

188 

35344 

6644672 

13.7113092 

5.7286543 

.005319149 

189 

35721 

6751269 

13.7477271 

5.7387936 

.005291005 

190 

36100 

6859000 

13.7840488 

6.7488971 

.005263158 

191 

36481 

6967871 

13.8202750 

6.7589652 

.005235602 

192 

36864 

7077888 

13.8564065 

5.7689982 

.005208333 

193 

37249 

7189057 

13.8924440 

5.7789966 

.005181347 

194 

37636 

7301384 

13.9283883 

5.7889604 

.005154639 

195 

38025 

7414875 

13.9642400 

5.7988900 

.005128205 

196 

38416 

7529536 

14.0000000 

5.8087857 

.005102041 

197     38809 

7645373 

14.0356688 

5.8186479 

.005076142 

198 

39204 

7762392 

14.0712473 

5.8284767 

.005050505 

199 

39601 

7880599 

14.1067360 

5.8382725 

.005025126 

200 

40000 

8000000 

14.1421356 

5.8480355 

.005000000 

201 

40401 

8120601 

14.1774469 

5.8577660 

.004975124 

•602 

40804 

8242408 

14.2126704 

5.8674643 

.004950495 

203 

41209 

8365427 

14.2478068 

5.8771307 

.004926108 

204 

41816 

8489664 

14.2828569 

5.8867653 

.004901961 

205 

42025 

8615125 

14.3178211 

5.8963685 

.004878049 

206 

42436 

8741816 

14.3527001 

5.9059406 

.004854369 

207 

42849 

8869743 

14.3874946 

5.9154817 

004830918 

208 

43264 

8998912 

14.4222051 

5.9249921 

.004807692 

209 

43681 

9129329 

14.4568323 

6.9344721 

.004784689 

210 

44100 

9261000 

14.4913767 

5.9439220 

.004761905 

211 

44521 

9393931 

14.5258390 

5.9533418 

.004739336 

212 

44944 

9528128 

14.5602198 

5.9627320 

.004716981 

213 

45369 

9663597 

14.5945195 

5.9720926 

.004694836 

214 

45796 

9800344 

14.6287388 

5.9814240 

.004672897 

215 

46225 

9938375 

14.6628783 

5.9907264 

.004651163 

216 

46656 

10077696 

14.6969385 

6.0000000 

.004629630 

217 

47089 

10218313 

14.7309199 

6.0092450 

.004608295 

218 

47524 

10360232 

14.7648231 

6.0184617 

.004587156 

219 

47961 

10503459 

14.7986466 

6.0276502 

.004566210 

220 

48400 

10648000 

14.8323970 

6.0368107 

.004545455 

221 

48841 

10793861 

14.8660687 

6.0459435 

.004524887 

222 

49284 

10941048 

14.8996644 

6.0550489 

.004504505 

223 

49729 

11089567 

14.9331845 

6.0641270 

.004484306 

224 

50176 

11239424 

14.9666295 

6.0731779 

.004464286 

225 

50625 

11390625 

15.0000000 

6.0822020 

.004444444 

226 

51076 

11543176 

15.0332964 

6.0911994 

.004424779 

227 

51529 

11697083 

15.0665192 

6.1001702 

.004405286 

228 

51984 

11852352 

15.0996689 

6.1091147 

.004385965 

229 

52441 

12008989 

I5.13274GO 

6.1180332 

.004366812 

230 

52900 

12167000 

15.1657509 

6.1269257 

.004347826 

231 

53361 

12326391 

15.1986842 

6.1357924 

.004329004 

232 

53824 

12487168 

15.2315462 

6.1446337 

.004310345 

233 

54289 

12649337 

15.2643375 

6.1534495 

.004291845 

234 

54756 

12812904 

15.2970585 

6.1622401 

.004273504 

235 

55225 

12977875 

15.3297097 

6.1710058 

.004255319 

236 

55696 

13144256 

15.3622915 

6.1797466 

.004237288 

237 

56169 

13312053 

15.3948043 

6.18846.28 

.004219409 

238 

56644 

13481272 

15.4272486 

6.1971544 

.004201681 

239 

57121 

13651919 

15.4596248 

6.2058218 

.004184100 

240 

57600 

13824000 

15.4919334 

6.2144650 

.004166667 

241 

58081 

13997521 

15.5241747 

6.2230843 

.004149378 

242 

58564 

14172488 

15.5563492 

6.2316797 

.004132231 

243 

59049 

14348907 

15.5884573 

6.2402515 

.004115226 

244 

59536 

14526784 

15.6204994 

6.2487998 

.004098361 

245 

60025 

14706125 

15.6524758 

6.2573248 

.004081633 

246 

60516 

14886936 

15.6843871 

6.2658266 

.004065041 

247 

61009 

15069223 

15.7162336 

6.2743054 

.004048583 

248 

61504 

15252992   '   15.7480157 

6.2827613 

.004032258 

420  MENSURATION. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

249 

62001 

15438249 

15.7797:538 

6.2911946 

.004016064 

250 

62500 

15625000 

15.8113883 

6.2996053 

.004000000 

251 

63001 

15813251 

15.8429795 

6.3079935 

.003984064 

252 

63504 

16003008 

15.8745079 

6.3163596 

.003968254 

253 

64009 

16194277 

15.9059737 

6.3247035 

.003952569 

254 

64516 

16387064 

15.9373775 

6.3330256 

.003937008 

255 

65025 

16581375 

15.9687194 

6.3413257 

.003921569 

256 

65536 

16777216 

16.0000000 

6.3496042 

.003906250 

257 

66049 

16974593 

16.0312195 

6.3578611 

.003891051 

258 

66564 

17173512 

16.0623784 

6.3660968 

.00:3875969 

259 

67081 

17373979 

16.0934769 

6.3743111 

.00:3861004 

260 

67600 

17576000 

16.1245155 

6.3825043 

.003846154 

261 

68121 

17779581 

16.1554944 

6.3900705 

.00:3831418 

262 

68644 

17984728 

16.1864141 

6.3988279 

.003816794 

263 

69169 

18191447 

16.2172747 

6.4069585 

.003802281 

264 

69696 

18399744 

16.2480768 

6.4150687 

.003787879 

265 

70225 

18609625 

16.2788206 

6.4231583 

.003773585 

266 

70756 

18821096 

16.3095064 

6  4312276 

.003759398 

267 

71289 

19034163 

16.3401346  - 

6.4392767 

.003745318 

268 

71824 

19248832 

16.3707055 

6.4473057 

.003731343 

269 

72361 

19465109 

16.4012195 

6.4553148 

.003717472 

270 

72900 

19683000 

16.4316767 

6.4633041 

.003703704 

271 

73441 

19902511 

16.4620776 

6.4712736 

.003690037 

2?2 

73984 

20123648 

16.4924225 

6.4792236 

.003676471 

273 

74529 

20346417 

16.5227116 

6.4871541 

.003663004 

274 

75076 

20570824 

16.5529454 

6.4950653 

.003649635 

275 

75625 

20796875 

16.5831240 

6.5029572 

.003636364 

276 

76176 

21024576 

16.6132477 

6.5108300 

.003623188 

277 

76729 

21253933 

16.6433170 

6.5186839 

.003610108 

278 

77284 

21484952 

16.6733320 

6.5265189 

.003597122 

279 

77841 

21717639 

16.7032931 

6  5343351 

.003584229 

280 

78400 

21952000 

16.7332005 

6.5421326 

.003571429 

281 

78961 

22188041 

16.7630546 

6.5499116 

.003558719 

282 

79524 

22425768 

16.7928556 

6.5576722 

.00&546099 

283 

80089 

22665187 

16.8226038 

6.5654144 

.003533569 

284 

80656 

22906:304 

16.8522995 

6.5731385 

.003521127 

285 

81225 

23149125 

16.8819430 

6.5808443 

.003508772 

286 

81796 

23393656 

16.9115345 

6.5885323 

.003496503 

287 

82369 

23639903 

16.9410743 

6.5962023 

.003484321 

288 

82944 

23887872 

16.9705627 

6.6038545 

.003472222 

289 

83521 

24137569 

17.0000000 

6.6114890 

.003460208 

290 

84100 

24389000 

17.0293864 

6.6191060 

.003448276 

291 

84681 

24642171 

17.0587221 

6.6267054 

.003436426 

292 

85264 

24897088 

17.0880075 

6.6342874 

.003424658 

293 

85849 

25153757 

17,1172428 

6.6418522 

.003412969 

294 

86436 

25412184 

17.1464282 

6.6493998 

.003401361 

295 

87025 

25672375 

17.1755640 

6.6569302 

.003389831 

296 

87616 

25934336 

17.2046505 

6.6644437 

.003378378 

297 

88209 

26198073 

17.2336879 

6.6719403 

.003367003 

298 

88804 

20463592 

17.2626765 

6.6794200 

.00*355705 

299 

89401 

26730899 

17.2916165 

6.6868831 

.003344482 

300 

90000 

27000000 

17.3205081 

6.6943295 

.003333333 

301 

90601 

27'270<J01 

17.3493516 

6.7017593 

.003:322259 

302 

91204 

27543008 

17.3781472 

6  7091729 

.003311258 

303 

91809 

27818127 

17.4068952 

6.7165700 

.003300330 

304 

92416 

28094464 

17.4355958 

6.7239508 

.003289474 

305 

93025 

28372625 

17.4642492 

6.7313155 

.003278689 

306 

93636 

28652616 

17.4928557 

6.7386641 

.003267974 

307 

94249 

28934443 

17.5214155 

6.7459967 

.003257329 

308 

94864 

29218112 

17.5499288 

6.7533134 

.003246753 

309 

95481 

29503029 

17.5783958 

6.7606143 

.003236246 

310 

96100 

29791000 

17.6068169 

6.7678995 

.003225806 

MENSURATION.  421 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

311 

96721 

30080231 

17.6351921 

6.7751690 

.003215434 

312 

'J7344 

30371328 

1  .6685217 

6.7824229 

.003205128 

313 

97969 

30664297 

1  .69180(50 

6.7896613 

.003194888 

314 

98596 

30959144 

1  .7200451 

6.7968844 

.003184713 

315 

99225 

31255875 

1  .7482393 

6.8040921 

.003174603 

31G 

99856 

31554496 

1  .7763888 

6.8112847 

.003164557 

317 

100489 

31855013 

1  .80449:38 

6.8184620 

.  003154574 

318 

101124 

32157432 

1  .8325545 

6.8256242 

.003144654 

319 

101761 

32461759 

1  .8605711 

6.8327714 

.003134796 

320 

102400 

32768000 

1  .8885438 

6.8399037 

.003125000 

321 

103041 

33076161 

1  .9164729 

6.8470213 

.003115205 

322 

103684 

33386248 

1  .9443584 

6.8541240 

.003105590 

323 

104329 

33698267 

1  .9722008 

6.8612120 

.003095975 

324 

104976 

34012224 

18.0000000 

6.8682855 

.003086420 

325 

105625 

34328125 

18.0277564 

6.8753443 

.003076923 

326 

106276 

34645976 

18.0554701 

6.8823888 

.003067485 

327 

106929 

34965783 

18.0831413 

6.8894188 

.003058104 

328 

107584 

35287552 

18.1107703 

6.8964345 

.003048780 

329 

108241 

35611289 

18.1383571 

6.9034359 

.003039514 

330 

108900 

35937000 

18.1659021 

6.9104232 

.003030303 

331 

109561 

36264691 

18.1934054 

6.9173964 

.003021148 

332 

110224 

36594368 

18.2208072 

6.9243556 

.00:3012048 

333 

110889 

36926037 

18.2482876 

6.9313008 

003003003 

334 

111556 

37259704 

18.2756669 

6.9382321 

.002994012 

335 

112225 

37595375 

18.3030052 

6.9451496 

.002985075 

330 

112896 

37933056 

18.3303028 

6.9520533 

.002976190 

337 

113569 

38272753 

18.3575598 

6.9589434 

.002967359 

ass 

114244 

38614472 

18.3847763 

6  9658198 

.002958580 

339 

114921 

38958219 

18.4119526 

6.9726826 

.002949853 

340 

115600 

39304000 

18.4390889 

6.9795321 

.002941176 

341 

116281 

39651821 

18.4661853 

6.9803681 

.002932551 

342 

116964 

40001688 

18.4932420 

6.9931906 

.002923977 

343 

117649 

40353607 

18.5202592 

.0000000 

.002915452 

344 

118336 

40707584 

18.5472370 

.0067962 

.002906977 

345 

119025 

41063025 

18.5741756 

0135791 

,002898551 

346 

119716 

41421736 

18.6010752 

.0203490 

.002890173 

347 

120409 

41781923 

18.6279360 

.0271058 

.002881844 

348 

121104 

42144192 

18.6547581 

.Oa38497 

.002873563 

349 

121801 

42508549 

18.6815417 

7.0405806 

.002865330 

350 

122500 

42875000 

18.7082869 

7.0472987 

.002857143 

351 

123201 

43243551 

18.7349940 

7.0540041 

.002849003 

352 

123904 

43614208 

18.7616630 

7.0600967 

.002840909 

353 

121609 

43986977 

18.7882942 

7.0673767 

.0028:32801 

354 

125316 

44361864 

18.8148877 

7.0740440 

.002824859 

355 

126025 

44738875 

18.8414437 

7.0806988 

.002816901 

ar>6 

126736 

45118016 

18.8679023 

7.0873411 

.002808989 

357 

127449 

45499293 

18.8944436 

7.0939709 

.002801120 

358 

128164 

45882712 

18.920887'9 

7.1005885 

.002793296 

359 

128881 

4620827-9 

18.9472953 

7.1071937 

.0027-85515 

360 

129600 

46656000 

18.9736660 

7.1137866 

.002777778 

361 

130321 

47045881 

19.0000000 

7.1203674 

.002770083 

362 

131044 

47437928 

19.0262976 

7.1269360 

.002702431 

363 

131769 

47832147 

19.0525589 

7.1334925 

.002754*21 

3<>4 

132496 

48228544 

19.0787-840 

7.1400370 

.002747253 

365 

133223 

48627125 

19.1049732 

7.1465695 

.002739720 

366 

133956 

49027896 

19.1311265 

7.1530901 

.002732240 

367 

134689 

49430863 

19.157'2441 

7.15935)88 

.002724796 

368 

135424 

49836032 

19.1838261 

7.1660957 

.002717391 

369 

136161 

50243409 

19.2093727 

7.17-25809 

.002710027 

370 

136900 

50653000 

19.2353841 

7.1790544 

.002702703 

371 

137641 

51064811 

19.2613603 

7.  1855162 

.00269.5418 

372 

138384 

51478848 

19.  287;  in.-) 

7.1919063 

.002688172 

422  MENSURATION". 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.} 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

373 

139129 

51895117 

19.3132079 

7.1984050 

.002680965 

374 

139876 

52313624 

19.3390796 

7.2048322 

.002673797 

375 

140625 

52734375 

19.3649167 

7.2112479 

.002666667 

376 

141376 

53157376 

19.3907194 

7.2176522 

.002659574 

377 

142129 

53582633 

19.4164878 

7.2240450 

.002652520 

378 

142884 

54010152 

19.4422221 

7.2304268 

.002645503 

379 

143641 

54439939 

19.4679223 

7.2367972 

.002638522 

380 

144400 

54872000 

19.49&5887 

7.2431565 

.002631579 

381 

145161 

55306341 

19.5192213 

7.2495045 

.002624672 

382 

145924 

55742968 

19.5448203 

7.2558415 

.002017801 

383 

146689 

56181887 

19.5703858 

7.2621675 

.002610966 

884 

147456 

56623104 

19.5959179 

7.2684824 

.002604107 

385 

148225 

57066625 

19.6214169 

7.2747864 

.002597403 

386 

148996 

57512456 

19.6468827 

7.2810794 

.002590674 

387 

149769 

57960603 

19.6723156 

7.2873617 

.002583979 

388 

150544 

58411072 

19.6977156 

7.2936330 

.002577320 

389 

151321 

58863869 

19.7230829 

7.2998936 

.002570694 

390 

152100 

59319000 

19.7484177 

7.3061436 

.002564103 

391 

152881 

59776471 

19.7737199 

7.3123828 

.002557545 

392 

153664 

602S6288 

19.7989899 

7.3186114 

.002551020 

393 

154449 

60698457 

19.824*2276 

7.3248295 

.002544529 

394 

155236 

61162984 

19.8494332 

7.3310369 

.002538071 

395 

156025 

61629875 

19.8746069 

7.3372339 

.002531646 

396 

156816 

62099136 

19.8997487 

7.3434205 

.002525253 

397 

157609 

62570773 

19.9248588 

7.3495966 

.002518892 

398 

158404 

63044792 

19.9499373 

7.3557624 

.002512563 

399 

159201 

63521199 

19.9749844 

7.3619178 

.002506266 

400 

160000 

64000000 

20.0000000 

7.3680630 

.002500000 

401 

160801 

64481201 

20.0249844 

7.37'41979 

.002493766 

402 

161604 

64904808 

20.0499377 

7.3803227 

.002487562 

403 

162409 

65450827 

20.0748599 

7.3864373 

.002481390 

404 

163216 

65939264 

20.0997512 

7.3925418 

.002475248 

405 

164025 

66430125 

20.1246118 

7.3986363 

.002469136 

406 

164836 

66923416 

20.1494417 

7.4047206 

.002463054 

407 

165649 

67419143 

20.1742410 

7.4107950 

.002457002 

408 

166464 

67917312 

20.1990099 

7.4168595 

.002450980 

409 

16?'281 

68417929 

20.2237484 

7.4229142 

.002444988 

410 

168100 

68921000 

20.2484567 

7.4289589 

.002439024 

411 

168921 

69426531 

20.2731349 

7.4349938 

.002433090 

412 

169744 

69934528 

20.2977831 

7.4410189 

.002427184 

413 

170569 

70444997 

20.3224014 

7.4470342 

.002421308 

414 

171396 

70957944 

20.3469899 

7.4530399 

.002415459 

415 

172225 

71473375 

20.3715488 

7.4590359 

.002409639 

416 

173056 

71991296 

20.3960781 

7.4650223 

.002403846 

417 

173889 

72511713 

20.4205779 

7.4709991 

.002398082 

418 

174724 

73034632 

20.4450483 

7.4769664 

.002392344 

419 

175561 

73560059 

20.4694895 

7.4829242 

.002386635 

420 

176-100 

74088000 

20.4939015 

7.4888724 

.002380952 

421 

177241 

74618461 

20.5182845 

7.4948113 

.002375297 

422 

178084 

75151448 

20.5426386 

7.5007406 

.002369668 

423 

178929 

75686967 

20.56696:38 

7.5066607 

.002364066 

424 

179776 

J6225024 

20  5912603 

7.5125715 

.002358491 

425 

180625 

76765625 

20.6155281 

7.5184730 

.002:352941 

426 

181476 

77308776 

20.6397674 

7.5243652 

.003347418 

427 

182329 

77854483 

80.6639788 

7.5302482 

.002341920 

428 

183184 

78402752 

20.6881009 

7.5361221 

.002336449 

429 

184041 

78953589 

20.7123152 

7.5419867 

.002331002 

430 

184900 

79507000 

20.7364414 

7.5478423 

.002325581 

431 

185761 

80062991 

20.7605395 

7.5536888 

.002320186 

432 

186624 

80621568 

20.7846097 

7.5595263 

.002314815 

433 

187489 

81182737 

20.8086520 

7.5653548 

.002309409 

434 

188356 

81746504 

20.8326667 

7.5711743 

.002304147 

MENSURATION".  423 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

435 

189225 

82312875 

20.8566536 

7.5769849 

.002298851 

436 

190096 

82881856 

20.8806130 

7.5827865 

.002293578 

437 

190969 

83453453 

20.9045450 

7.5885793 

.002288330 

438 

191844 

84027672 

20.9284495 

7.5943633 

.002283105 

439 

192721 

84604519 

20.9523268 

7.6001385 

.002277904 

440 

193600 

85184000 

20.9761770 

7.6059049 

.002272727 

441 

194481 

85766121 

21.0000000 

7.6116626 

.002267574 

442 

195364 

86350888 

21.0237960 

7.6174116 

.002262443 

443 

196249 

86938307 

21.0475652 

7.6231519 

.002257336 

4y 

197136 

87528384 

21.0713075 

7.6288837 

.002252252 

445 

198025 

88121125 

21.0050231 

7.6346067 

.002247191 

446 

198916 

88716536 

21.1187121 

7.6403213 

.002242152 

447 

199809 

89314623 

21.1423745 

7.6460272 

.002237136 

448 

200704 

89915392 

21.1660105 

7.6517247 

.0022:3214:} 

449 

201601 

90518849 

21.1896201 

7.6574138 

.002227171 

450 

202500 

91125000 

21.2132034 

7.6630943 

.002222222 

451 

203401 

91733851 

21.2367606 

7.6687665 

.002217295 

452 

204304 

92345408 

21.2602916 

7.6744303 

.002212389 

453 

20520'J 

92959677 

21.2837967 

7.6800857 

.002207506 

454 

206116 

93576664 

21.30727.58 

7.6857328 

.002202643 

455 

207025 

94196375 

21.3307290 

7.6913717 

.002197802 

456 

90793d 

94818816 

21.3541565 

7.6970023 

.002192982 

457 

208849 

95443993 

21.3775683 

7.7026246 

.002188184 

458 

209764 

96071912 

21.4009346 

7.7082388 

.002183406 

459 

210681 

96702579 

21.4242853 

7.7138448 

.002178649 

460 

211600 

97336000 

21.4476106 

7.7194426 

.002173913 

461 

212521 

97972181 

21.4709106 

7.7250325 

.002169197 

462 

213444 

98611128 

21.4941853 

7.7306141 

.002164508 

463 

214369 

99252847 

21.5174348 

7.7361877 

.002159827 

464 

215296 

99897344 

21.5406592 

7.7417532 

.002155172 

465 

216225 

100544625 

21.5638587 

7.7473109 

.002150538 

466 

217156 

101194696 

21.5870331 

7.7528606 

.002145923 

467 

218089 

101847563 

21.6101828 

7.7584023 

.002141328 

468 

219024 

10250:3232 

21.6333077 

7.7639361 

.002136752 

409 

219961 

103161709 

21.6564078 

7.7694620 

.002132196 

470 

220900 

103823000 

21.6794834 

7.7749801 

.002127660 

471 

221841 

104487111 

21.7025344 

7.7804904 

.002123143 

472 

222784 

105154048 

21.7255610 

7.7859928 

.002118644 

473 

223729 

105823817 

21.7485632 

7.7914875 

.002114165 

474 

224676 

106496424 

21.7715411 

7.7969745 

.002109705 

475 

225635 

107171875 

21.7944947 

7.8024538 

.002105263 

476 

226576 

107850176 

21.8174242 

7.8079254 

.002100840 

477 

227529 

108531333 

21.8403297 

7.8133892 

.002096436 

478 

228484 

109215352 

21  8632111 

7.8188456 

.002092050 

479 

229441 

109902239 

21.8860686 

7.8242942 

.002087683 

480 

230400 

110592000 

21.9089023 

7.8297353 

.002088333 

481 

231361 

111284641 

21.9317122 

7.8351688 

.002079002 

482 

232324 

111980168 

21.9544984 

7.8405949 

.002074689 

483 

233289 

112678587 

21.9772610 

7.8460134 

.002070393 

484 

234256 

113379904 

22.0000000 

7.8514244 

.002066116 

485 

235335 

114084125 

22.0227155 

7.8568281 

.002061856 

486 

236196 

114791256 

22.0454077 

7.8622242 

.002057613 

487 

237169 

115501303 

22.0680765 

7.8676130 

.002053388 

488 

238144 

116214272 

22.0907220 

7.8729944 

.002049180 

489 

'239121 

116930169 

22.1133444 

7  .8783684 

.002044990 

490 

240100 

117649000 

22.1.359436 

7.8837352 

.002040816 

491 

241081 

118370771 

22.1585198 

7.8890946 

.002036660 

492 

242064 

119095488 

22.1810730 

7.8944468 

.002032520 

493 

243049 

119823157 

22.2036033 

7.8997917 

.002028398 

494 

244036 

120553784 

22.2261108 

7.9051294 

.002024291 

495 

245025 

121287375 

22.2485955 

7.9104599 

.002020202 

496 

246016 

12202:3936 

22.2710575 

7.9157*32 

.002016129 

424  MENSURATION. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

497 

247009 

122763473 

22.2934968 

7.9210994 

.002012072 

498 

248004 

123505992 

22.3159136 

7.9264085 

.002008032 

499 

249001 

124251499 

22.3383079 

7.9317104 

.002004008 

500 

250000 

125000000 

22.3606798 

7.9370053 

.002000000 

501 

251001 

125751501 

22.3830293 

7.9482931 

.001996008 

502 

252004 

126506008 

22.4053565 

7.9475739 

.001992032 

503 

253009 

127263527 

22.4276615 

7.9528477 

.001988072 

§04 

254016 

128024064 

22.4499443 

7.9581144 

.001984127 

505 

255025 

128787625 

22.4722051 

7.9633743 

.001980198 

506 

256036 

129554216 

22.4944438 

7.9686271 

.001976285 

507 

257049 

130323843 

22.5166605 

7.9738731 

.001972387 

508 

258064 

131096512 

22.5388553 

7.9791122 

.001968504 

509 

259081 

131872229 

22.5610283 

7.9843444 

.001964637 

510 

260100 

132651000 

22.5831796 

7.9895697 

.001960784 

511 

261121 

133432831 

22.6053091 

7.9947883 

.001956947 

512 

262144 

134217728 

22.6274170 

8.0000000 

.001953125 

513 

263169 

135005697 

22.6495033 

8.0052049 

.001949318 

514 

264196 

135796744 

22.6715681 

8.0104032 

.001945525 

515 

265225 

136590875 

22.6936114 

8.0155946 

.001941748 

516 

266256 

137388096 

22.7156334 

8.0207794 

.001937984 

517 

267289 

138*88413 

22.7376340 

8.0259574 

.001934236 

518 

268324 

138991832 

22.7596134 

8.0311287 

.001930502 

519 

269361 

139798359 

22.7815715 

8.0362935 

.001926782 

520 

270400 

140608000 

22.8035085 

8.0414515 

.001923077 

521 

271441 

141420761 

22.8254244 

8.0466030 

.001919386 

522 

272484 

142236648 

22.8473193 

8.0517479 

.001915709 

523 

273529 

143055667 

22.8691933 

8.0568862 

.001912046 

524 

274576 

143877824 

22.8910463 

8.0620180 

.001908397 

525 

275625 

144703125 

22.9128785 

8.0671432 

.001904762 

526 

276676 

145531576 

22.9346899 

8.0722620 

.001901141 

527 

277729 

146363183 

22.9564806 

8.0773743 

.001897533 

528 

278784 

147197952 

22.9782506 

8.0824800 

.001893939 

529 

279841 

148035889 

23.0000000 

8.0875794 

.001890359 

530 

280900 

148877000 

23.0217289 

8.0926723 

.001886792 

531 

281961 

149721291 

23.0434372 

8.0977589 

.001883239 

532 

283024 

150368768 

23.0651252 

8.1028390 

.001879699 

533 

284089 

151419437 

23.0867928 

8.1079128 

.001876173 

534 

285156 

152273304 

23.1084400 

8.1129803 

.001872659 

535 

286225 

153130375 

23.1300670 

8.1180414 

.001869159 

536 

287296 

153990656 

23.1516738 

8.1230962 

.001865672 

537 

288369 

154854153 

23.1732605 

8.1281447 

.001862197 

538 

289444 

155720872 

23.1948270 

8.1331870 

.001858736 

539 

290521 

156590819 

23.2163735 

8.1382230 

.001855288 

540 

291600 

157464000 

23.2379001 

8.1432529 

.001851852 

&41 

292681 

158340421 

23.2594067 

8.1482765 

.001848429 

542 

293764 

159220088 

23.2808935 

8.1532939 

.001845018 

543 

294849 

160103007 

23.3023604 

8.1583051 

.001841621 

544 

295936 

160989184 

23.3238076 

8.1633102 

.001838235 

545 

297025 

161878625 

23.3452351 

8.1683092 

.001834862 

546 

298116 

162771336 

23.3666429 

8.1733020 

.001831502 

547 

299209 

163667323 

23.3880311 

8.1782888 

.001828154 

548 

300304 

164566592 

23.4093998 

8.1832695 

.001824818 

549 

301401 

165469149 

23.4307490 

8.1882441 

.001821494 

550 

302500 

166375000 

23.4520788 

8.1932127 

.001818182 

551 

303601 

167284151 

23.4733892 

8.1981753 

.001814882 

552 

304704 

168196608 

23.4946802 

8.2031319 

.001811594 

553 

305809 

169112377 

23.5159520 

8.2080825 

.001808318 

554 

306916 

170031464 

23.5372046 

8.2130271 

.001805054 

555 

308025 

170953875 

23.5584380 

8.2179657 

.001801802 

556 

309136 

171879616 

23.5796522 

8.22289a5 

.001798561 

557 

310249 

172808693 

23.6008474 

8.2278254 

.001795332 

558 

311364 

173741112 

23.6220236 

8.2327463 

.001792115 

ME1STSURATIOK. 


425 


SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

559 

312481 

174676879 

23.6431808 

8.2376614 

..001788909 

560 

313600 

175616000 

23.6643191 

8.2425706 

.001785714 

561 

314721 

176558481 

23.6854386 

8.2474740 

.001782531 

562 

315844 

177504328 

23.7065392 

8.2523715 

.001779359 

563 

316969 

17845-3547 

23.?276210 

8.2572633 

.001776199 

564 

318096 

179406144 

23.7486842 

8.2621492 

.001773050 

565 

319225 

180362125 

23.7697286 

8.2670294 

.001769912 

566 

820356 

181321496 

23.7907545 

8.2719039 

.001766784 

567 

321489 

182284263 

23.8117618 

8.2767726 

.001763668 

568 

822624 

183250432 

23.8327506 

8.2816355 

.001760563 

569 

323761 

184220000 

i>3.8537209 

8.2864928 

.001757469 

570 

324900 

185193000 

23.8746728 

8.  2913444 

.001754386 

571 

326041 

186169411 

23.8956063 

8.2961903 

.001751313 

572 

327184 

187149248 

23.9165215 

8.3010304 

.001748252 

573 

328329 

188132517 

23.9374184 

8.3058651 

.001745201 

574 

329476 

189119224 

23.9582971 

8.3106941 

.001742160 

575 

330625 

190109375 

23.9791576 

8.3155175 

.001739130 

576 

331776 

191102976 

24.0000000 

8.3203353 

.001736111 

577 

332929 

192100033 

24.0208243 

8.3251475 

.001733102 

578 

334084 

193100552 

24.0416306 

8.3299542 

.001730104 

579 

335241 

194104539 

24.0624188 

8.3347553 

.001727116 

580 

336400 

195112000 

24.0831891 

8.3395509 

.001724138 

581 

337561 

196122941 

24.1039416 

8.3443410 

.001721170 

582 

338724 

197137368 

24.12467C2 

8.3491256 

.001718213 

583 

339889 

198155287 

24.1453929 

8.3539047 

.001715266 

584 

341056 

199176704 

24.1660919 

8.3586784 

.001712329 

585 

342225 

200201625 

24.1867732 

8.3634466 

.001709402 

586 

343396 

201230056 

24.2074369 

8.3682095 

.001706485 

587 

344569 

202262003 

2-1.2280829 

8.  3729668 

.001703578 

588 

345744 

203297472 

24.2487113 

8.3777188 

001700680 

589 

346921 

204336469 

24.2693222 

8.3824653, 

001697793 

590 

348100 

205379000 

24.2899156 

8.3872065 

.001694915 

591 

349281 

206425071 

24.3104916 

8.3919423 

.001692047 

592 

350464 

207474688 

24.3310501 

8.3966729 

.001689189 

593 

351649 

208527857 

24.3515913 

8.4013981 

.001686341 

594 

352836 

209584584 

24.3721152 

8.4061180 

.001683502 

595 

354025 

210644875 

24.3926218 

8.4108326 

.001680673 

596 

355216 

211708736 

24.4131112 

8.4155419 

.001677852 

597 

356409 

212776173 

24.4335834 

8.4202460 

.001675042 

598 

357604 

213847192 

24.4540385 

8.4249448 

.001672241 

599 

358801 

214921799 

24.4744765 

8.4296383 

.001669449 

600 

360000 

216000000 

24.4948974 

8.4348267 

.001666667 

601 

361201 

217081801 

24.5153013 

8.4390098 

.001663894 

602 

362404 

218167208 

24.5356883 

8.4436877 

.001661130 

603 

363609 

219256227 

24.5560583 

8.4483605 

.001658375 

604 

364816 

220348864 

24.5764115 

8.4530281 

.001C55629 

605 

366025 

221445125 

24.5967478 

8.4576906 

.001652893 

606 

3G7236 

222545016 

24.6170673 

8.4623479 

.001650165 

607 

368449 

223648543 

24.6373700 

8.4670001 

.001647446 

608 

369664 

224755712 

24.6576560 

8.4716471 

.001644737 

609 

370881 

225866529 

24.6779254 

8.4762892 

.001642036 

610 

372100 

226981000 

24.6981781 

8.4809261 

.001639344 

611 

37.3321 

228099131 

24.7184142 

8.4855579 

.001636661 

612 

374544 

229220928 

24.7386338 

8.4901848 

.001633987 

C13 

375769 

230346397 

24.7588368 

8.4948065 

001631321 

614 

376996 

231475544 

24.7790234 

8.4994233 

.001628664 

615 

378225 

232608375 

24.7991935 

8.5040350 

.001626016 

616 

379456 

233744896 

24.8193473 

8.5086417 

.001623377 

617 

380689 

234885113 

24.8394847 

8.51  32435 

.001620746 

618 

381924 

236029032 

24.8596058 

8.5178403 

.001618123 

619 

383101 

237176659 

24.8797106 

8.5224321 

.001615509 

620 

384400 

238328000 

24.8997992 

8.5270189 

.001612903 

426  MENSURATION. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Square 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots 

Reciprocals. 

621 

385641 

239483061 

24.9198716 

8.5316009 

.001610306 

622 

386884 

240641848 

24.9399278 

8.5361780 

.001607717 

623 

388129 

241804367 

24.9599679 

8.5407501 

.001605136 

624 

389376 

242370024 

24.9799920 

8.5453173 

.001602564 

625 

390625 

244140625 

25.0000000 

8.5498797 

.001600000 

626 

391876 

245314376 

25.0199920 

8.5544372 

.001597444 

627 

393129 

246491883 

25.0399681 

8.5589899 

.001594896 

628 

394384 

247673152 

25.0599282 

8.5635377 

.001592357 

629 

395641 

248858189 

25.0798724 

8.5680807 

.001589825 

630 

396900 

250047000 

25.0998008 

8.5726189 

.001587302 

631 

398161 

251239591 

25.1197134 

8.5771523 

.0015847'80 

632 

399424 

252435968 

25.1396102 

8.5816809 

.001582278 

633 

400689 

253636137 

25.1594913 

8.5862047 

.001579779 

634 

401956 

254840104 

25.1793566 

8.5907238 

.001577287 

635 

403225 

256047875 

25.1992063 

8.5952380 

.00157'4803 

636 

404496 

257259456 

25.2190404 

8.5997476 

.001572327 

637 

405769 

258474853 

25.2388589 

8.6042525 

001569859 

638 

407044 

259694072 

25.2586619 

8.6087526 

001567398 

639 

408321 

200917119 

25.2784493 

8.6132480 

.001564945 

640 

409600 

262144000 

25.2982213 

8.6177388 

.001562500 

641 

410881 

26337'4721 

25.3179778 

8.6222248 

.001500062 

642 

412164 

264609288 

25.3377189 

8.6267063 

.00155703;! 

643 

413449 

265847707 

25.3574447 

8.6311830 

.001555210 

644 

414736 

267089984 

25.3771551 

8.6356551 

.001552795 

645 

416025 

268336125 

25.3968502 

8.6401226 

.001550388 

646 

417316 

269586136 

25.4165301 

8.6445855 

.001547988 

647 

418609 

270840023 

25.4361947 

8.6490437 

.001545595 

648 

419904 

272097792 

25.4558441 

8.6534974 

.001543210 

649 

421201 

273359449 

25.4754784 

8.6579465 

.001540832 

650 

422500 

274625000 

25.4950976 

8.6623911 

.001538462 

651 

423801 

275894451 

25.5147016 

8.6668310 

.001536098 

652 

425104 

277167808 

25.5342907 

8.6712665 

.001533742 

653 

426409 

278445077 

25.5538647 

8.6756974 

.001531394 

654 

427716 

279726264 

25.5734237 

8.6801237 

.001529052 

655 

429025 

281011375 

25.5929678 

8.6845456 

.001526718 

656 

430336 

282300416 

25.6124969 

8.6889630 

.001524390 

657 

431649 

283593393 

25.6320112 

8.6933759 

.001522070 

658 

432964 

284890312 

25.6515107 

8,6977843 

.001519757 

659 

434281 

286191179 

25.6709953 

8.7021882 

.001517451 

660 

435600 

287496000 

25.6904652 

8.7065877 

.001515152 

661 

436921 

288804781 

25.7099203 

8.7109827 

.001512859 

662 

438244 

290117528 

25.7293607 

8.7153734 

.001510574 

663 

439569 

291434247 

25.7487864 

8.7197596 

.001508296 

664 

440896 

292754944 

25.7681975 

8.7241414 

.001506024 

665 

442225 

294079625 

25.7875939 

8.7285187 

.001503759 

666 

443556 

295408296 

25.8069758 

8.7328918 

.001501502 

667 

444889 

296740963 

25.8263431 

8.7372604 

.001499250 

668 

446224 

298077632 

25.8456960 

8.7416246 

.001497006 

669 

447561 

299418309 

25.8650343 

8.7459846 

.001494768 

670 

448900 

300763000 

25.8843582 

8.7503401 

.001492537 

671 

450241 

302111711 

25.9036677 

8.7546913 

.001490313 

672 

451584 

303464448 

25.9229628 

8.7'590383 

.001488095 

673 

452929 

304821217 

25.9422435 

8.7633809 

.001485884 

674 

454276 

306182024 

25.9615100 

8.7677192 

.001483680 

675 

455625 

307546875 

25.9807621 

8.7720532 

.001481481 

676 

456976 

308915776 

26.0000000 

8.7763830 

.001479290 

677 

458329 

310288733 

26.0192237 

8.7807084 

.001477105 

678 

459684 

311665752 

26.0384331 

8.7850296 

.001474926 

679 

461041 

313046839 

26.0576284 

8.7893466 

.001472754 

680 

462400 

314432000 

26.0768096 

8.7936593 

.001470588 

681 

463761 

315821241 

26.0959767 

8.7979679 

.001468429 

682 

465124 

317214568 

26.1151297 

8.8022721 

.001466276 

MENSURATION.  427 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

683 

466489 

318611987 

26.1342687 

8  8065722 

.001464129 

684 

467856 

320013504     26.1533937 

8.8108681 

.001461988 

685 

469225 

321419125 

26.1725047 

8.8151598 

.001459854 

686 

470596 

322828856 

26.1916017 

8.8194474 

.001457726 

687 

471969 

324242703 

26.2106848 

8.8237307 

.001455604 

688 

473344 

325660672 

26.2297541 

8.8280099 

.001453488 

689 

474721 

327082769 

26.2488095 

8.8322850 

.001451379 

690 

476100 

328509000 

26.2678511 

8.8365559 

.001449275 

691 

477481 

329939371 

26.2868789 

8.8408227 

.001447178 

692 

478864 

331373888 

26.3058929 

8.8450854 

.001445087 

693 

480249 

332812557 

26.3248932 

8.8493440 

.001443001 

694 

481636 

334255384 

26.3438797 

8.8535985 

.001440922 

695 

483025 

335702375 

26.3628527 

8.8578489 

.001438849 

696 

484416 

337153536 

26.3818119 

8.8620952 

.001436782 

697 

485809 

338608873 

26.4007576 

8.8663375 

.001434720 

698 

487201: 

340068:392 

26.4196896 

8.8705757 

.001432665 

699 

488601 

341532099 

26.4:386081 

8.8748099 

.001430615 

700 

490000 

343000000 

26.4575131 

8.8790400 

.001428571 

701 

491401 

344472101 

26.4764046 

8.8832661 

.001426534 

702 

492804 

345948408 

26.4952826 

8.8874882 

.001424501 

703 

494209 

347428927 

26.5141472 

8.8917063 

.001422475 

704 

495616 

348913664 

26.5329983 

8.8959204 

.001420455 

705 

497025 

350402625 

26.5518361 

8.9001304 

.001418440 

706 

498436 

351895816 

26.5706605 

8.9043366 

.001416431 

707 

499849 

353393243 

26.5894716 

8.9085387 

.001414427 

708 

501264 

354894912 

26.6082694 

8.9127369 

.001412429 

709 

502681 

356400829 

26  6270539 

8.9169311 

.001410437 

710 

504100 

357911000 

26.6458252 

8.9211214 

.001408451 

711 

505521 

359425431 

26.6645833 

8.9253078 

.001406470 

712 

506944 

360944128 

26.6833281 

8.9294902 

.001404494 

713 

508:369 

362467097 

26.7020598 

8.9336687 

.001402525 

7!4 

509796 

363994344 

26.7207784 

8.9378433 

.001400560 

715 

511225 

365525875 

26.7394839 

8.9420140 

.001398601 

716 

512656 

367061696 

26.7581763 

8.9461809 

.001396648 

717 

514089 

368601813 

26.7768557 

8.9503438 

.0013947'00 

718 

515524 

370146232 

26.7955220 

8.9545029 

.001392758 

719 

516961 

371694959 

26.8141754 

8.9586581 

.001390821 

720 

518400 

373248000 

26.8328157 

8.9628095 

.001388889 

721 

519841 

374805361 

26.8514432 

8.9669570 

.001386963 

722 

521284 

376367048 

26.  870057? 

8.9711007 

.001385042 

723 

522729 

3779a3067 

26.8886593 

8.9752406 

.001383126 

724 

524176 

37950:3424 

26.9072481 

8.9793766 

.001381215 

725 

525625 

381078125 

26.9258240 

8.9835089 

.001379310 

726 

527076 

382657176 

26.9443872 

8.9876373 

.001377410 

727 

528529 

384240583 

26.9629375 

8.9917620 

.001375516 

728 

529984 

385828352 

26.9814751 

8.9958829 

.001373626 

729 

531441 

387420489 

27.0000000 

9.0000000 

.001371742 

730 

532900 

389017000 

27.0185122 

9.0041134 

.001369863 

731 

534361 

390617891 

27.0370117 

9.0082229 

.001367989 

732 

535824 

392223168 

27.0554985 

9.0123288 

.001366120 

733 

537289 

393832837 

27.0739727 

9.0164309 

.001364256 

734 

538756 

395446904 

27.0924344 

9.0205293 

.001362398 

735 

540225 

397065375 

27.1108834 

9.0246239 

.001360544 

736 

541696 

398688256 

27.1293199 

9.0287149 

.001358696 

737 

543169 

400315553 

27.1477439 

9.0328021 

.001356852 

738 

5446-14 

401947272 

27.1661554 

9.0368857 

.001355014 

739 

546121 

403583419 

27.1845544 

9.0409655 

.001353180 

740 

547600 

405224000 

27.2029410 

9.0450419 

.001351351 

741 

549081 

406869021 

27.2213152 

9.0491142 

.001349528 

742 

550564 

408518488 

27.2396769 

9.0531831 

.001347709 

743 

552049 

410172407 

27.2580263 

9.0572482 

.001345895 

744 

553536 

411830784 

27.2763634 

9.0613098 

.001344086 

428  MENSURATION*. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE   ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

745 

555025 

413493625 

27.2946881 

9.0653677 

.001342282 

746 

556516 

415160936 

27.3130006 

9.0694220 

.001340483 

747 

558009 

416832723 

27.3313007 

9.07'34726 

.001*38688 

748 

559504 

418508992 

27.3495887 

9.077'5197 

.0013:36898 

749 

561001 

420189749 

27.3678644 

9.0815631 

.001335113 

750 

562500 

421875000 

27.3861279 

9.0856030 

.001333333 

751 

564001 

423564751 

27.4043792 

9.0896392 

.Odl331558 

752 

565504 

425259008 

27.4226184 

9.0936719 

.0013297'87 

753 

567009 

426957777 

27.4408455 

9.0977010 

.001328021 

754 

568516 

428661064 

27.4590604 

9.1017265 

.001326260 

755 

570025 

430368875 

27.4772633 

9.1057485 

.001324503 

756 

571536 

432081216 

27.4954542 

9.1097669 

.001322751 

757 

573049 

433798093 

27.5136330 

9.1187818 

.001321004 

758 

574564 

435519512 

27.5317998 

9.1177931 

.001319261 

759 

576081 

437245479 

27.5499546 

9.1218010 

.001317523 

760 

577600 

438976000 

27.5680975 

9.1258053 

.001315789 

7'61 

579121 

440711081 

27.5862284 

9.1298061 

.001314060 

762 

580644 

442450728 

27.6043475 

9.1338034 

.001312336 

763 

582169 

444194947 

27.62,4546 

9.1377971 

.001310616 

764 

583690 

445943744 

27.6405499 

9.1417874 

.001308901 

765 

585225 

447697125 

27.6586334 

9.1457742 

.001307190 

766 

586756 

449455096 

27.6767050 

9.1497576 

.001305483 

767 

588289 

451217663 

27.6947648 

9.1537375 

.001303781 

768 

589824 

452984832 

27.7128129 

9.1577139 

.001302083 

769 

591361 

454756609 

27.7308492 

9.1616869 

.001300390 

770 

592900 

456533000 

27.7488739 

9.1656565 

.001298701 

771 

594441 

458314011 

27.7668868 

9.1696225 

.001297017 

772 

595984 

460099648 

27.7848880 

9.1735852 

.001295337 

773 

597529 

461889917 

27.8028775 

9.1775445 

.001293661 

774 

599076 

46368482-1 

27.8208555 

9.1815003 

.001291990 

775 

600625 

465484375 

27.8388218 

9.1854527 

.001290323 

776 

602176 

467288576 

27.8567766 

9.1894018 

.001288660 

777 

603729 

469097433 

27.8747197 

9.1933474 

.001287001 

778 

605284 

470910952 

27.8926514 

9.1972897 

.001285347 

779 

606841 

472729139 

27.9105715 

9.2012286 

.001283697 

780 

608400 

474552000 

27.9284801 

9.2051641 

.001282051 

781 

609961 

476379541 

27.9463772 

9.2090962 

.001280410 

782 

611524 

478211768 

27.9642629 

9.2130250 

.001278772 

783 

613089 

480048687 

27.9821372 

9.2169505 

.001277139 

784 

614656 

481890:304 

28.0000000 

9.2206726 

.001275510 

785 

616225 

483736625 

28.0178515 

9.2247914 

.00127:3885 

786 

617796 

485587656 

28.0356915 

9.2287068 

.001272265 

787 

619369 

4874434C3 

28.0535203 

9.2326189 

.001270648 

788 

620944 

489303872 

28.0713377 

9.2365277 

.001269036 

789 

622521 

491169069 

28.0891438 

9.2404333 

.001267427 

790 

624100 

493039000 

28.1069386 

9.2443355 

.001265823 

791 

625681 

494913671 

28.1247'222 

9.2482344 

.001264223 

792 

627264 

496793088 

28.1424946 

9.2521300 

.001262626 

793 

628849 

498677257 

28.1602557 

9.2560224 

.001261034 

794 

630436 

500566184 

28.1780056 

9.2599114 

.001259446 

795 

632025 

502459875 

28.1957444 

9.2637973 

.001257862 

796 

633616 

504358336 

28.2134720 

9.2676798 

.001256281 

797 

635209 

506261573 

28.2311884 

9.2715592 

.001254705 

798 

636804 

508169592 

28.2488938 

9.2754£52 

.001253133 

799 

638401 

510082399 

28.2665881 

9.2793081 

.001251564 

800 

640000 

512000000 

28.2842712 

9.2831777 

.001250000 

801 

641601 

513922401 

28.3019434 

9.2870440 

.001248439 

802 

643204 

515849608 

28.3196045 

9.2909072 

.001246883 

803 

644809 

517781627 

28..  3372546 

9.2947671 

.001245:330 

804 

646416 

519718464 

28.3548938 

9.2986239 

.001243781 

805 

648025 

521660125 

28.3725219 

9.3024775 

.001242236 

806 

649636 

523606616 

28.3901391 

9.3063278 

.001240695 

MENSURATION.  429 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

807 

651249 

525557943 

28.4077454 

9.3101750 

.001239157 

808 

652864 

527514112 

28.4253408 

9.3140190 

.001237624 

809 

654481 

529475129 

28.4429253 

9.3178599 

.001236094 

810 

656100 

531441000 

28.4604989 

9.3216975 

.001234568 

811 

657721 

533411731 

28.4780617 

9.3255320 

.001233046 

812 

659344 

535387328 

28.4956137 

9.3293634 

.001231527 

813 

660969 

537367797 

28.5131549 

9.3331916 

.001230012 

814 

662596 

539353144 

28.5306852 

9.3370167 

.001228501 

815 

664225 

541343375 

28.5482048 

9.3408386 

.001226994 

816 

665856 

543338496 

28.5657137 

9.3446575 

.001225490 

817 

667489 

545338513 

28.5832119 

9.3484731 

.001223990 

818 

669124 

547343432 

28.6006993 

9.3522857 

.001222494 

819 

670761 

549353259 

28.6181760 

9.3560952 

.001221001 

820 

672400 

551368000 

28.6356421 

9.3599016 

.001219512 

821 

674041 

553387661 

28.6530976 

9.3637'049 

.001218027 

822 

675684 

555412248 

28.6705424 

9.3675051 

.001216545 

823 

677329 

557441767 

28.6879766 

9.3713022 

.001215067 

824 

678976 

559476224 

28.7054002 

9.3750963 

.001213592 

825 

680625 

561515625 

28.7228132 

9.3788873 

.001212121 

826 

682276 

563559976 

28.7402157 

9.3826752 

.001210654 

827 

683929 

565609283 

28.7576077 

9.3864600 

.001209190 

828 

685584 

567663552 

28.7749891 

9.3902419 

.001207729 

829 

687241 

569722789 

28.7923601 

9.3940206 

.001206273 

830 

688900 

571787000 

28.8097206 

9.3977964 

.001204819 

mi 

690561 

573856191 

28.8270706 

9.4015691 

.001203369 

8Z2 

692224 

575930368 

28.8444102 

9.4053387 

.001201923 

833 

693889 

578009537 

28.8617394 

9.4091054 

.001200480 

834 

695556 

580093704 

28.8790582 

9.4128690 

.001199041 

835 

697225 

582182875 

28.8963666 

9.4166297 

.001197605 

836 

698896 

584277056 

28.9136646 

9.4203873 

.001196172 

837 

700569 

586376253 

28.9309523 

9.4241420 

.001194743 

838 

702244 

588-J80472 

28.9482297 

9.4278936 

.001193317 

839 

703921 

590589719 

28.9654967 

9.4316423 

.001191895 

840 

705600 

592704000 

28.9827535 

9.4353880 

.001190476 

841 

707281 

594823321 

29.0000000 

9.4391307 

.001189061 

842 

708964 

596947688 

29.0172363 

9.4428704 

.001187648 

843 

710649 

599077107 

29.0344623 

9.4466072 

.001186240 

844 

712336 

601211584 

29.0516781 

9.4503410 

.001184834 

845 

714025 

603351125 

29.0688837 

9.4540719 

.001183432 

846 

715716 

605495736 

29.0860791 

9.4577999 

.001182033 

847 

717409 

607645423 

29.1032644 

9.4615249 

.001180638 

848 

719104 

609800192 

29.1204396 

9.4652470 

.001179245 

849 

720801 

611960049 

29.1376046 

9.4689661 

.001177856 

850 

722500 

614125000 

29.1547595 

9.4726824 

.001176471 

851 

724201 

616295051 

29.1719043 

9.4763957 

.001175088 

852 

725904 

618470208 

29.1890390 

9.4801061 

.001173709 

853 

727609 

620650477 

29.2061637 

9.4838136 

.001172333 

854 

729316 

622835864 

29.2232784 

9.4875182 

.001170960 

855 

731025 

625026375 

29.2403830 

9.4912200 

.001169591 

856 

732736 

627222016 

29.2574777 

9.4949188 

.001168224 

857 

734449 

629422793 

29.2745623 

9.4986147 

.001166861 

858 

736164 

631628712 

29.2916370 

9.5023078 

.001165501 

859 

737881 

633839719 

29.3087018 

9.5059980 

.001164144 

860 

739600 

636056000 

29.3257566 

9.5096SS4 

.001162791 

861 

741321 

638277381 

29.3428015 

9.5133699 

.001161440 

862 

743044 

640503928 

29.3598365 

9.5170515 

.001160093 

863 

744769 

6427-35647 

29.3768616 

9.5207303 

.001158749 

864 

746496 

644972544 

29.3938769 

9.5244063 

.001157407 

865 

748225 

647214625 

29.4108823 

9.5280794 

.001156069 

866 

749956 

649461896 

29.4278779 

9.5317497 

.001154734 

867 

751689 

651714363 

29.4448637 

9.5354172 

.001153403 

868 

753424 

653972032 

29.4618397 

9.5390818 

.001152074 

430  MENSURATION. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Recipfd<?afe/ 

869 

755161 

656234909 

29.4788059 

9.5427437 

.001150748 

870 

756900 

658503000 

29.4957624 

9.5464027 

.001149425 

871 

758641 

660776311 

29.5127091 

9.5500589 

.001148106  . 

872 

760384 

663054848 

29.5296461 

9.5537123 

.001146789 

873 

762129 

665338617 

29.5465734 

9.5573630 

.001145475 

874 

763876 

667627624 

29.5634910 

9.5610108 

.001144165 

875 

765625 

669921875 

29.5803989 

9.5646559 

.001142857 

876 

767376 

672221376 

29.5972972 

9.5682982 

001141553 

877 

769129 

674526133 

29.6141858 

9.5719377 

.001140251 

878 

770884 

676836152 

29.6310648 

9.5755745 

.001138952 

879 

772641 

679151439 

29.6479342 

9.5792085 

.001137656 

880 

774400 

681472000 

29.6647939 

9.5828397 

.001136364 

881 

776161 

683797841 

29.6816442 

9.5864682 

.001135074 

882 

777924 

686128968 

29.6984848 

9.5900939 

.001133787 

£88 

779689 

688465387 

29.7153159 

9.5937169 

.001132503 

884 

781456 

690807104 

29.7321375 

9.5973373 

.001131222 

885 

783225 

693154125 

29.7489496 

9.6009548 

.001129944 

886 

784996 

695506456 

29.7657521 

9.6045696 

.001128668 

887 

786769 

697864103 

29.7825452 

9.6081817 

.001127396 

888 

7B8544 

700227072 

29.7993289 

9.6117911 

.001126126 

889 

790321 

702595369 

29.8161030 

9.6153977 

.001124859  , 

890 

792100 

704969000 

29.8328678 

9.6190017 

.001123596 

891 

793881 

707347971 

29.8496231 

9.6226030 

.001122334 

892 

795664 

709732288 

29.8663690 

9.6262016 

.001121076 

893 

797449 

712121957 

29.8831056 

9.6297975 

.001119821 

894 

799236 

714516984 

29.8998328 

9.6333907 

.001118568 

895 

801025 

716917375 

29.9165506 

9.6369812 

.001117318 

896 

802816 

719323136 

29.9332591 

9.6405690 

.001116071 

897 

804609 

721734273 

29.9499583 

9.6441542 

.001114827 

898 

806404 

724150792 

29.9666481 

9.6477367 

.001113586  : 

899 

808201 

726572699 

29.9833287 

9.6513166 

.001112347 

900 

810000 

729000000 

30.0000000 

9  6548938 

.001111111 

901 

811801 

731432701 

30.0166620 

9.6584684 

.001109878 

902 

813604 

733870808 

30.0333148 

9  6620403 

.001108647 

903 

815409 

736314327 

30.0499584 

9.6656096 

.001107420 

904 

817216 

738763264 

30.0665928 

9.6691762 

.001106195 

905 

819025 

741217625 

30.0832179 

9.6727403 

.001104972 

906 

820836 

743677416 

30.0998339 

9.6763017 

.001103753 

907 

822649 

746142643 

30.1164407 

9.6798604 

.001102536 

908 

824464 

748613312 

30.1330383 

9.6834166 

.001101322 

909 

826281 

751089429 

30.1496269 

9.6869701 

.001100110 

910 

828100 

753571000 

30.1662063 

9.6905211 

.001098901 

911 

829921 

756058031 

30.1827765 

9.6940694 

.001097695 

912 

831744 

758550528 

30.1993377 

9.6976151 

.001096491 

913 

833569 

761048497 

30.2158899 

9.7011583 

.001095290 

914 

835396 

763551944 

30.2324329 

9.7046989 

.001094092 

915 

837225 

766060875 

30.2489669 

9.7082369 

.001092^)6 

916 

839056 

768575296 

30.2654919 

9.7117723 

.001091703 

917 

840889 

771095213 

30.2820079 

9.7153051 

.001090513 

918 

842724 

773620632 

30.2985148 

9.7188354 

.001089335 

919 

844561 

776151559 

30.3150128 

9.7223631 

.001088139 

920 

846400 

778688000 

30.&315018 

9.7258883 

.001086957 

921 

848241 

781229961 

30.3479818 

9.7294109 

.001085776 

922 

850084 

783777448 

30.3644529 

9.7329309 

.001084599 

923 

a51929 

786330467 

30.3809151 

9.7364484 

001083423 

924 

853776 

788889024 

30.3973683 

9.7399634 

.001082251 

925 

855625 

791453125 

30.4138127 

9.7434758 

.001081081 

926 

857476 

794022776 

30.4302481 

9.7469857 

.001079914 

927 

859329 

796597983 

30.4466747 

9.7504930 

.001078749 

928 

861184 

799178752 

30.4630924 

9.7539979 

.001077586 

929 

863041 

801765089 

30.4795013 

9.7575002 

.001076426 

930 

864900 

804357000 

30.4959014 

9.7610001 

.001075269 

JtfENSURATIOK.  431 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    (Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

931 

866761 

806954491 

30.5122926 

9.7644974 

.001074114 

932 

868624 

809557568 

30.5286750 

9.7679922 

.001072961 

933 

870489 

812166237 

30.5450487 

9.7714845 

.001071811 

934 

872356 

814780504 

30.5614136 

9.7749743 

.001070664 

935 

874225 

817400375 

30.5777697 

9.7784616 

.001069519 

936 

876096 

820025856 

30.5941171 

9.7819466 

.001068376 

937 

877969 

822656953 

30.6104557 

9.7854288 

.001067236 

938 

879844 

825293672 

30.6267857 

9.7889087 

.001066098 

939 

881721 

827936019 

30.6431069 

9.7923861 

.001064963 

940 

883600 

830584000 

30.6594194 

9.7958611 

.001063830 

941 

885481 

833237621 

30.6757233 

9.7993336 

.001062699 

942 

887364 

835896888 

30.6920185 

9.8028036 

.001061571 

943 

889249 

838561807 

30.7083051 

9.8062711 

.001060445 

944 

891136 

841232384 

30.7245830 

9.8097362 

.001059322 

945 

893025 

843908625 

30.7408523 

9.8131989 

.001058201 

946 

894916 

846590536 

30.7571130 

9.8166591 

.001057082 

947 

896809 

849278123 

30.7733651 

9.8201169 

.001055966 

948 

898704 

851971392 

30.7896086 

9.8235723 

.001054852 

949 

900601 

854670349 

30.8058436 

9.8270252 

.001053741 

950 

902500 

857375000 

30.8220700 

9.8304757 

.001052632 

951 

904401 

860085351 

30.8382879 

9.8339238 

.001051525 

952 

900304 

862801408 

30.8544972 

9.8373695 

.001050420 

953 

908209 

865523177 

30.8706981 

9.8408127 

.001049318 

954 

910116 

868250664 

30.8868904 

9.8442536 

.001048218 

955 

912025 

8709&3875 

30.9030743 

9.8476920 

.001047120 

956 

913936 

873722816 

30.9192497 

9.8511280 

.001046(^25 

D57 

915849 

876467493 

30.9354166 

9.8545617 

.001044932 

S58 

917764 

879217912 

30.9515751 

9.8579929 

.001043841 

S59 

919681 

881974079 

30.9677251 

9.8614218 

.001042753   ; 

860 

921600 

884736000 

30.9838668 

9.8648483 

.001041667 

861 

923521 

887503681 

31.0000000 

9.8682724 

.001040583   ' 

862 

925444 

890277128 

31.0161248 

9.8716941 

.001039501 

863 

927369 

893056347 

31.0322413 

9.8751135 

.001038422  : 

S64 

929296 

895841344 

31.0483494 

9.8785305 

.001037344  ' 

965 

931225 

898632125 

31.0644491 

9.8819451 

.001036269  .- 

966 

933156 

901428096 

31.0805405 

9.8853574 

.001035197 

967 

935089 

904231063 

31.0966236 

9.8887673 

.001034126 

968 

937024 

907039232 

31.1126984 

9  8921749 

.001033058 

969 

938961 

909853209 

31.1287648 

9.8955801 

.001031992 

970 

940900 

912673000 

31.1448230 

9.8989830 

.001030928 

971 

942841 

915498611 

31.1608729 

9.9023835 

.001029866 

972 

944784 

918330048 

31.1769145 

9.9057817 

.001028807 

973 

946729 

921167'317 

31.1929479 

9.9091776 

.001027749 

974 

948676 

924010424 

31.2089731 

9.9125712 

.001026694 

975 

950625 

926a5<)375 

31.2249900 

9.9159624 

.001025641 

976 

952576 

929714176 

31.2409987 

9.9193513 

.001024590 

977 

954529 

932574833 

31.2569992 

9.9227379 

.001023541 

978 

956484 

935441352 

31.2729915 

9.9261222 

.001022495 

979 

958441 

938313739 

31.2889757 

9.9295042 

.001021450 

980 

960400 

941192000 

31.3049517 

9  9328839 

.001020408 

981 

962361 

944076141 

31.3209195 

9.9362613 

.001019368 

982 

964324 

946966168 

31.3368792 

9.9396363 

.001018330 

983 

966289 

949862087 

31.3528308 

9.9430092 

.001017294 

984 

968256 

952763904 

31.3687743 

9.9463797 

001016260 

985 

970225 

955671625 

31.3847097 

9.9497479 

.001015228 

986 

972196 

958585256 

31.4006369 

9.9531138 

.001014199 

987 

974169 

961504803 

31.4165561 

9.9564775 

.001013171 

988 

976144 

964430272 

31.4324673 

9.9598389 

.001012146 

989 

978121 

967361669 

31.4483704 

9.9631981 

.001011122 

990 

980100 

970299000 

31.4642654 

9.9665549 

.001010101 

991 

982081 

973242271 

31.4801525 

9.9699095 

.001009082 

992 

084061 

976191488 

31.4960315 

9.97'32619 

.001008065 

432  MENSURATION. 

SQUARE  ROOTS  AND  CUBE  ROOTS  OF  NUMBERS.    ^Continued.) 


No. 

Squares. 

Cubes. 

Square 
Roots. 

Cube  Roots. 

Reciprocals. 

993 

986049 

979146657 

31.5119025 

9.9766120 

.001007049 

994 

988036 

982107784 

31.5277655 

9.9799599 

.001006036 

995 

990025 

985074875 

31.5436206 

9.9833055 

.001005025 

996 

992016 

988047936 

31.5594677 

9.9866488 

.001004016 

997 

994009 

991026973 

31.5753068 

9.9899900 

.001003009 

998 

996004 

994011992 

31.5911380 

9.9933289 

.001002004 

999 

998001 

997002999 

31  .6069613 

9.9966656 

.001001001 

1000 

1000000 

1000000000 

31.6227766 

10.0000000 

.001000000 

1001 

1002001 

1003003001 

31.6385840 

10.0033322 

.0009990010 

1002 

1004004 

1006012008 

31.6543836 

10.0066622 

.0009980040 

1003 

1006009 

1009027027 

31.6701752 

100099899 

.0009970090 

1004 

1008016 

1012.148064 

31.6859590 

10.0133155 

.0009960159 

1005 

1010025 

1015075125    31.7017349 

10.0166389 

.0009950249 

1006 

1012036 

1018108216 

31.7175030 

10  0199601 

.0009940358 

1007 

1014049 

1021147'343 

31.7:332633 

10.0232791 

.0009930487 

1008 

1016064 

1024192512    31.7490157 

10.0265958 

.00099S06a5 

1009 

1018081 

1027243729    31.7647603 

10.0299104 

.0009910803 

1010 

1020100 

1030301000    31.7804972 

10.0332228 

.0009900990 

1011 

1022121 

1033364331  \  31.7962262 

10.0365330 

.0009891197 

1012 

1024144 

1036433728 

31.8119474 

10.0398410 

.0009881423 

1013 

1026169 

1039509197 

31.8276609 

10.0431469 

.0009871668 

1014 

1028196 

1042590744 

31.8433666 

10.0464506 

.0009861933 

1015 

1030225 

1045678375 

31.8590646 

10.0497521 

.  0009852217 

1016 

1032256 

1048772096 

31.8747549 

10.0530514 

.0009842520 

1017 

1034289 

1051871913 

31.8904374 

10.0563485 

.0009832842 

1018 

1036324 

1054977832 

31.9061123 

10.0596435 

.0009823183 

1019 

1038361 

1058089859 

31.9217794 

10.0629364 

.0009813543 

1020 

1040400 

1061208000 

31.9374388 

10.0662271 

.0009803922 

1021 

1042441 

1064332261 

31.9530906 

100695156 

.0009794319 

1022 

1044484 

1067462648 

31.9687347 

10.0728020 

.0009784736 

1023 

1046529 

1070599167 

31.9843712 

10.0760863 

.0009775171 

1024 

1048576 

1073741824 

32.0000000 

10.0793684 

.0009765625 

1025 

1050625 

1076890625 

32.0156212 

10.0826484 

.0009756098 

1026 

1052676 

1080045576 

32.0312348 

10.0859262 

.0009746589 

1027 

1054729 

1083206683 

32.0468407 

10  0898019 

.0009737098 

1028 

1056784 

1086373952 

32.0624391 

10.0924755 

.0009727626 

1029 

1058841 

1089547389 

32.0780298 

10.0957469 

.0009718173 

1030 

1060900 

1092727000 

32.0936131 

10.0990163 

.0009708738 

1031 

1062961 

1095912791 

32.1091887 

10.1022835 

.0009699321 

1032 

1065024 

1099104768 

38.1247568 

10.1055487 

.00)9689922 

1033 

1067089 

1102302937 

32.1403173 

10.1088117 

.0009680542 

1034 

1069156 

1105507304 

32.1558704 

10.1120726 

.0009671180 

1035 

1071225 

1108717875 

32.1714159 

10.1153314 

.0009661836 

1036 

1073296 

1111934656 

32.1869539 

10.1185882 

.0009652510 

1037 

1075369 

1115157653 

32.2024844 

10.1218428 

.0009643202 

1038 

1077444 

1118886871 

32.2180074 

10.1250953 

.000963:3911 

1039 

1079521 

1121622319 

32.2335229 

10  .1283457 

.0009624639 

1040 

1081600 

1124864000 

32.2490310 

10.1315941 

.0009615385 

1041 

1083681 

1128111921 

32.2645316 

10.1348403 

.0009606148 

1042 

1085764 

1131366088 

32.2800248 

10.1380845 

.0009596929 

1043 

1087849 

1134626507 

32.2955105 

10.1413266 

.0009587738 

1044 

1089936 

1137893184 

32.3109888 

10.1445667 

.0009578544 

1045 

1092025 

1141166125 

32.3264598 

10  1478047 

.0009569378 

1046 

1094116 

1144445336 

32.3419233 

10  1510406 

.0009560229 

1047 

1096209 

1147730823 

32.,  3573794 

10  1542744 

.0009551098 

1048 

109&304 

1151022592 

32.3728281 

10.1575062 

.0009541985 

1049 

1100401 

1154320649 

32.3882695 

10.1607359 

.0009532888 

1050 

1102500 

1157625000 

32.4037035 

10.1639636 

.0009523810 

1051 

1104601 

1160935651 

32.4191301 

10.1671893 

.0009514748 

1052 

1106704 

1164252608 

32.4345495 

10.1704129 

.0009505703 

1053 

1108809 

1167575877 

32.4499615 

10.1736344 

.0009496676 

1054 

1110916 

1170905464 

32.4653662 

10.1768539 

.0009487666 

TABLE  83. 

LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS 

FROM 

1   tO   1O,OOO 
TO  SIX  DECIMAL  PLACES. 


X. 


Log. 


0.000000 
0.301030 
0.477121 
0. 

O.i 


0.778151 
0.845098 
0.903090 
0.954243 
1.000000 

1.041393 
1.079181 
1.113943 
1.146128 
1 


1  204120 
1.230449 
1.255273 
1.278754 
1.301030 


N. 


40 


Log, 


322219 
342423 
,361728 
,380211 


.414973 
.4313&4 

,447158 


.477121 


.505150 
.518514 
.531479 
.544068 

.556303 

.568202 
.579784 
.591065 
.603060 


Log. 


.612784 


643453 
,653213 

662758 
,672098 
,681241 
.690196 


.707570 
.716003 
.724276 


.748188 
.755875 
.763428 
.770852 
.778151 


N. 


04 


Log. 


1.785330 
1.792392 
1.799341 
1.806180 
1.812913 

1.819544 
1.826075 


.845098 
.851258 


.86.3323 
.869232 
.875061 

.880814 
.886491 


.897(527 


433 


434 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


No. 

100  L.  000.) 

[No.  109  L.  040. 

N. 

0 

1          2 

8         4 

5 

6 

7 

8          9 

Diff. 

100 

000000 

0434     0868 

1301      1734 

2166 

2598 

3029 

3461      3891 

432 

1 

4321 

4751      5181 

5609     6038 

6466 

6894 

7321 

7748     8174 

428 

2 

8600 

9026      9451 

9876 

0300 

0724 

1147 

1570 

1  (Vtt       9,11  fi 

AQA 

3 

012837 

3259     3680 

4100     4521 

4940 

5360 

5779 

6197     6616 

vM 
420 

4 

7033 

7451      7868 

8284     8700 

9116 

9532 

9947 

„ 

A-\  A 

5 

021189 

1603     2016 

2428     2841 

3252 

3664 

4075 

4486     4896 

41O 
412 

6 

5306 

5715     6125 

6533     6942 

7350 

7757 

8164 

8571      8978 

408 

7 

9384 

9789 

0195 

0600      1004 

1408 

1812 

2216 

2619     3021 

A(\A 

8 

033424 

3826     4227 

4628     5029 

5430 

5830 

6230 

6629      7028 

4U4 

400 

9 

7426 

7825     8223 

8620     9017 

9414 

9811 

04 

0207 

0602     0998 

397 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

f 

8 

9 

434 

43.4 

86.8 

131 

3.2 

173.6 

217.0 

260 

4 

303.8 

347.2 

390.6 

433 

43.3 

86.6 

129.9 

173.2 

216.5 

259 

8 

3C 

13.1 

346.4 

389.7 

432 

43.2 

86.4 

121 

3.6 

172.8 

216.0 

259 

9 

3C 

12.4 

345.6 

388.8 

431 

43.1 

86.2 

129.3 

172.4 

215.5 

258 

6 

301.7 

344.8 

387.9 

430 

43.0 

86.0 

121 

3.0 

172.0 

215.0 

258 

0 

3C 

1.0 

344.0 

387.0 

429 

42.9 

85.8 

12 

3.7 

171.6 

214.5 

257 

4 

H 

10.3 

343.2 

386  1 

428 

42.8 

85.6 

128.4 

171.2 

214.0 

256 

<S 

i 

>9.6 

342.4 

385.2 

427 

42.7 

85.4 

12! 

3.1 

170.8 

213.5 

256 

298.9 

341.6 

384.3 

426 

42.6 

85.2 

12! 

7.8 

170.4 

213.0 

255 

G 

21 

)8.2 

340.8 

383.4 

425 

42.5 

85.0 

127.5 

170.0 

212.5 

255 

0 

297.5 

340.0 

382.5 

424 

42.4 

84.8 

127.2 

169.6 

212.0 

254 

4 

2£ 

)6.8 

339.2 

381.6 

423 

42.3 

84.6 

126.9 

169.2 

211.5 

253.8 

296.1 

338.4 

380.7 

422 

42.2 

84.4 

12 

6.6 

168.8 

211.0 

253 

2 

2f 

)5.4 

337.6 

379.8 

421 

42.1 

84.2 

126.3 

168.4 

210.5 

252.6 

294.7 

336.8 

378.9 

420 

42.0 

84.0 

12 

6.0 

168.0 

210.0 

252 

0 

2i 

)4.0 

336.0 

378.0 

419 

41.9 

83.8 

12 

5.7 

167.6 

209.5 

251 

4 

2< 

)3.3 

335.2 

377.1 

418 

41.8 

83.6 

125.4 

167.2 

209.0 

250.8 

292.6 

334.4 

376.2 

417 

41.7 

83.4 

12 

5.1 

166.8 

208.5 

250 

o 

2< 

)1.9 

333.6 

375.3 

416 

41.6 

83.2 

124.8 

166.4 

208.0 

249.6 

291.2 

332.8 

374.4 

415 

41.5 

83.0 

124.5 

166.0 

207.5 

249.0 

290.5 

332.0 

373.5 

414 

41.4 

82.8 

124.2 

165.6 

207.0 

248.4 

a 

59.8 

331.2 

372.6 

413 

41.3 

82.6 

12 

3.9 

165.2 

206.5 

247 

H 

2* 

59.1 

330.4 

371.7 

412 

41.2 

82.4 

123.6 

164.8 

206.0 

247.2 

288.4 

329.6 

370.8 

411 

41.1 

82.2 

12 

3.3 

164.4 

205.5 

246 

(5 

2* 

57.7 

328.8 

369.9 

410 

41.0 

82.0 

123.0 

164.0 

205.0 

246 

0 

287.0 

328.0 

369.0 

409 

40.9 

81.8 

12 

2.7 

163.6 

204.5 

245 

4 

2* 

56.3 

327.2 

368.1 

408 

40.8 

81.6 

12 

2.4 

163.2 

204.0 

244 

8 

• 

55.6 

326.4 

367.2 

407 

40.7 

81.4 

122.1 

162.8 

203.5 

244 

2 

284.9 

325.6 

366.3 

406 

40.6 

81.2 

12 

1.8 

162.4 

203.0 

243 

0 

2* 

54.2 

324.8 

365.4 

405 

40.5 

81.0 

121.5 

162.0 

202.5 

243.0 

283.5 

324.0 

364.5 

404 

40.4 

80.8 

121.2 

161.6 

202.0 

242.4 

• 

52.8 

323.2 

363.6 

403 

40.3 

80.6 

12 

0.9 

161.2 

201.5 

241 

8 

2f 

52.1 

322.4 

362.7 

402 

40.2 

80.4 

120.6 

160.8 

201.0 

241 

281.4 

321.6 

361.8 

401 

40.1 

80.2 

12 

0.3 

160.4 

200.5 

240 

(5 

a 

50.7 

320.8 

360.9 

400 

40.0 

80-0 

120.0 

160.0 

200.0 

240.0 

280.0 

320.0 

360.0 

399 

39.9 

79.8 

11 

9.7 

159.6 

199.5 

239 

4 

2r 

'9.3 

319.2 

359.1 

398 

39.8 

79.6 

11 

9.4 

159.2 

199.0 

238 

8 

2r 

8.6 

318.4 

858.  2 

397 

39.7 

79.4 

119.1 

158.8 

198.5 

238 

2 

277.9 

317.6 

357.3 

396 

39.6 

79.2 

11 

8.8 

158.4 

198.0 

237 

6 

27 

7  2 

316.8 

356.4 

395       39.5 

79.0         118.5       158.0 

197.5       237 

0       276.5       316.0     355.5 

LOGARITHMS   OF    NUMBERS. 


435 


No. 

110  L.  041.] 

• 

[No.  119  L.  078. 

N. 

0 

i 

2 

3          4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

110 

041393 

1787 

2182 

2576     2969 

3362 

3755 

4148 

4540 

4932 

393 

1 

5323 

5714 

6105 

6495     6885 

7275     7664 

8053 

8442      8830 

390 

2 

9218 

9606 

995  (3 

0380     0766 

1153 

-if^ie 

1924 

2309 

2694 

386 

3 

053078 

3463 

3H4G 

4230     4613 

4996      5378 

5760 

6142 

6524 

383 

4 

6905 

7286 

7666 

8046      8426 

8805      9185 

9563 

9942 

0320 

379 

5 

060698 

1075 

1452 

1829     2206 

2582  I  2958 

8838 

3709 

4083 

376 

6 

4458 

4832 

5206 

5580     5953 

6326     6699 

7071 

7443 

7815 

373 

7 

8186 

8557 

8928 

9298     9668 

0038 

0407 

0776 

1-J4K 

1514 

370 

8 

071882 

2250 

2617 

2985     3352 

3718 

4085 

4451 

llfiO 

4816 

5182 

366 

9 

5547 

5912 

6276 

6640     7004 

7368 

7731 

8094 

8457 

8819 

363 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

395 
394 

39.5 
39.4 

79.0 

78.8 

118.5 
118.2 

158.0 
157.6 

197.5 
197.0 

237 
236 

.0 
.4 

276.5 
275.8 

316.0 
315.2 

355.5 
354.6 

393 

39.3 

78.6 

11 

7.9 

157.2 

196.5 

235 

.8 

2 

75.1 

314.4 

353.7 

392 

39.2 

78.4 

11 

7.6 

156.8 

196.0 

235 

.2 

274.4 

313.6 

352.8 

391 

39.1 

78.2 

11 

7.3 

156.4       195.5 

234 

.6 

2 

73.7 

312.8 

351.9 

390 

39.0 

78.  ( 

11 

7.0 

156.0       195.0 

234 

.0 

2 

73.0 

312.0 

351.0 

389 

33.9 

77H 

116.7 

155.6 

194.5 

233 

.4 

272.3 

311.2 

350.1 

388 

38.8 

7~.( 

» 

11 

6.4 

155.2       194.0 

232 

.8 

2 

71.6 

310.4 

349.2 

387 

38.7 

TA 

116.1 

154.8       193.5 

232 

2 

270.9 

309.6 

348.3 

386 

38.6 

r«"*  f 

i 

11 

5.8 

154.4  |     193.0 

231 

i; 

2 

70.2 

308.8 

347.4 

385 

38.5 

77*0 

115.5 

154.0 

192.5 

231 

[0 

269.5 

308.0 

346.5 

384 

38.4 

76  J 

i 

115.2 

153.6 

192.0 

230.4 

2 

68.8 

307.2 

345.6 

383 

38.3 

>76.6 

114.9 

153.2 

191.5 

229.8 

268.1 

306.4 

344.7 

38£ 

: 

38.2 

76." 

I 

1 

4.6 

152.8 

191.0 

229 

.2 

2 

67.4 

305.6 

343.8 

381 

38.1 

76.5 

5 

1 

4.3       152.4 

190.5 

228 

.6 

2 

66.7 

304.8 

342.9 

380 

38.0 

76.0 

114.0 

152.0 

190.0 

228.0 

266.0 

304.0 

342.0 

37! 

> 

37.9 

75.  * 

1 

1 

3.7 

151.6 

189.5 

227 

.4 

2 

65.3 

303.2 

341.1 

m 

1 

37.8 

75.  < 

J 

1 

3.4 

151.2 

189.0 

226 

.8 

2 

'64.  6 

302.4 

340.2 

377 

37.7 

75.4 

113.1 

150.8 

188.5 

226.2 

263.9 

301.6 

339.3 

37( 

37.6 

75.  j 

2 

1 

2.8 

150.4 

188.0 

225 

.0 

g 

63.2 

300.8 

338.4 

375 

37.5 

75.0 

112.5 

150.0 

187.5 

225.0 

262.5 

300.0 

337.5 

374 

37.4 

74.  i 

5 

112.2 

149.6 

187.0 

224 

.4 

261.8 

299.2 

336.6 

37J 

J 

37.3 

74. 

> 

1 

11.9 

149.2 

186.5 

223 

.8 

2 

61.1 

298.4 

335.7 

372 

37.2 

74.4 

111.6 

148.8 

186.0 

223.2 

260.4 

297.6 

334.8 

37 

L 

37.1 

74.  S 

• 

1 

11.3 

148.4 

185.5 

222 

.<; 

2 

,59.7 

296.8 

333.9 

37( 

) 

37.0 

74. 

) 

1 

11.  0 

148.0 

185.0 

222 

.0 

2 

59.0 

296.0 

333.0 

36 

1 

36.9 

73. 

i 

1 

10.7 

147.6 

184.5 

221 

.4 

2 

58.3 

295.2 

332.1 

368 

36.8 

73.6 

110.4 

147.2 

184.0 

220.8 

257.6 

294.4 

331.2 

26 

r 

36.7 

73. 

1 

1 

10.1 

146.8 

183.5 

22C 

.2 

c 

56.9 

293.6 

830.3 

36 

3 

36.6 

73. 

J 

1 

)9.8 

146.4 

183.0 

218 

.(i 

s 

56.2 

292.8 

329.4 

365 

36.5 

73.0 

1 

)9.5 

146.0 

182.5 

219.0 

255.7 

292.0 

328.5 

364 

36.4 

72.8 

109.2 

145.6 

182.0 

218.4 

254.8 

291.2 

327.6 

363 

36.3 

72.6 

108.9 

145.2 

181.5 

217.8 

254.1 

290.4 

326.7 

36 

2 

36.2 

72. 

1 

1 

18.6 

144.8 

181.0 

217 

! 

!53.4  i     289.6 

325.8 

36 

I 

36.1 

72! 

2 

1 

18.3 

144.4 

180.5 

216 

.'o 

2 

52.7 

288.8 

324.9 

30 

9 

36.0 

72.0 

108.0 

144.0 

180.0 

216.0 

252.0 

288.0 

324.0 

35 

I 

35.9 

71. 

3 

1 

57.7 

143.6 

179.5 

215 

.4 

S 

51.3 

287.2 

323.1 

35 

1 

35.8 

71. 

5 

1 

57.4 

143.2  i     179.0 

214 

.8 

2 

50.6 

286.4 

322.2 

357 

71.4 

107.1 

142.8  !     178.5 

214.2 

249.9 

285.6 

321.3 

356 

ssie 

71.2 

106.8 

142.4  i     178.0       213.6 

2 

49.2 

284.8 

320.4 

436 


LOGARITHMS   OF   KUMBERS. 


No.  120  L.  079.] 

• 

[No.  134  L.  130. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

120 

079181 

9543 

9904 

360 

0266 

0626 

0987 

1347 

1707 

2067 

2426 

1 

082785 

3144 

3503 

3861 

4219 

4576 

4934 

5291 

5647 

6004 

357 

2 

6360 

6716 

7071 

7426 

7781 

|    8136 

8490 

8845 

9198 

9552 

355 

OQAK 

yyuo 

0258      0611 

0903 

1315 

1667 

2018 

2370 

2721 

3071 

352 

4 

093422 

3772 

4122 

4471 

4820 

5169 

5518 

5866 

6215 

6562 

349 

5 

6910 

7257 

7604 

7951 

8298 

8644 

8990 

9335 

9681 

0026 

346 

6 

100371 

0715 

1059 

1403 

1747 

2091 

2434 

2777 

3119 

3462 

343 

7 

3804 

4146 

4487 

4828 

5169 

5510 

5851 

6191 

6531 

6871 

341 

8 

7210 

7549 

7888 

8227 

8565 

8903 

9241 

9579 

9916 

0253 

338 

9 

110590 

0926 

1263 

1599 

1934 

2270 

2605 

2940 

3275 

3609 

335 

130 

3943 

4277 

4611 

4944 

5278 

5611 

5943 

6276 

6608 

6940 

333 

7271 

7603 

7934 

8265 

8595 

8926 

9256 

9586 

9915 

0245 

330 

2 

120574 

0903 

1231 

1560 

1888 

2216 

2544 

2871 

3198 

3525 

328 

3 

3852 

4178 

4504 

4830 

5156 

5481 

5806 

6131 

6456 

6781 

325 

4 

7105 

7429 

7753 

8076 

8399 

8722 

9045 

9368 

9690 

13 

0012 

323 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

3 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

865 

35.5 

71.0 

106.5 

142.0 

177.5 

213.0 

248.5 

284.0 

319.5 

354 

35  4 

7'0.8 

ioe 

.2 

1 

41.6 

177.0 

212.4 

247.8 

283.2 

318.6 

a53 

35!3 

70.6 

105.9 

141.2 

176.5 

211.8 

247.1 

282.4 

317.7 

352 

35.2 

70.4 

10? 

.6 

1 

40.8 

176.0 

211.2 

246.4 

281.6 

316.8 

a>i 

35.1 

70.2 

10S 

a 

1 

40.4 

175.5 

210.6 

245.7 

280.8 

315.9 

350 

a5.o 

70.0 

105.0 

140.0 

175.0 

210.0 

245.0 

280.0 

315.0 

349 

34.9 

69.8 

104 

1 

39.6 

174.5 

209.4 

244.3 

279.2 

314.1 

348 

34.8 

69.6 

104 

.4 

1 

39.2 

174.0 

208.8 

243.6 

278.4 

313.2 

347 

34.7 

69.4 

104.1 

138.8 

173.5 

208.2 

242.9 

277.6 

312.3 

346 

34.6 

69.2 

103 

.8 

138.4 

173.0 

207.6 

242.2 

276.8 

311.4 

345 

34.5 

69.0 

103.5 

138.0 

172.5 

207.0 

241.5 

276.0 

310.5 

344 

34.4 

68.8 

103 

.2 

1 

37.6 

172.0 

206.4 

240.8 

275.2 

309.6 

343 

34.3 

68.6 

102 

.9 

1 

37.2 

171.5 

205.8 

240.1 

274.4 

308.7 

342 

34.2 

68.4 

102.6 

136.8 

171.0 

205.2 

239.4 

273.6 

307.8 

341 

34.1 

68.2 

102.3 

136.4 

170.5 

204.6 

238.7 

272.8 

306.9 

310 

34.0 

68.0 

102 

.0 

1 

36.0 

170.0 

204.0 

238.0 

272.0 

306.0 

339 

33.9 

67.8 

101 

.7 

1 

35.6 

169.5 

203.4 

237.3 

271.2 

305.1 

ass 

33.8 

67.6 

101 

.4 

135.2 

169.0 

202.8 

236.6 

270.4 

304.2 

337 

33.7 

67.4 

101 

.1 

1 

34.8 

168.5 

202.2 

235.9 

269.6 

303.3 

336 

33.6 

67.2 

100.8 

134.4 

168.0 

201.6 

235.2 

268.8 

302.4 

a35 

as.  5 

67.0 

100.5 

134.0 

167.5 

201.0 

234.5 

268.0 

301.5 

334 

as.  4 

66.8 

100.2 

1 

33.6 

167.0 

200.4 

2as.s 

267.2 

300.6 

333 

33.3 

66.6 

99 

.9 

1 

33.2 

166.5 

199.8 

233.1 

266.4 

299.7 

332 

33.2 

66.4 

99 

.6 

1 

S2.8 

166.0 

199.2 

232.4 

265.6 

298.8 

331 

33  1 

66.2 

99.3 

1 

32.4 

165.5 

198.6 

231.7  !     264.8 

297.9 

330 

33^0 

66.0 

99 

.0 

1 

32.0 

165.0 

198.0 

231.0       264.0 

297.0 

329 

32.9 

65.8 

98 

.7 

1 

31.6 

164.5 

197.4 

230.3 

263.2 

296.1 

328 

32.8 

65.6 

98 

.4 

1 

SI.  2 

164.0 

196.8 

229.6 

262.4 

295.2 

327 

32.7 

65.4 

98.1 

130.8 

1(53.5 

196.2 

228.9 

261.6 

294.3 

326 

32.6 

65.2 

97.8 

130.4 

103.0 

195.6 

228.2 

260.8 

293.4 

325 

32.5 

65.0 

97 

.5 

130.0 

162.5 

195.0 

227.5 

260.0 

292.5 

324 

32.4       64.8 

97 

.2 

1 

29.6 

162.0 

194.4 

226.8 

259.2 

291.6 

323 

32.3       64.6 

96 

() 

1 

29.2 

161.5 

193.8 

226.1 

258.4 

290.7 

322 

32.2       64.4 

96 

.6 

1 

J8.8       161.0 

193.2 

225.4 

257.6 

289.8 

LOGARITHMS   OF   HUMBERS. 


437 


No.  135  L.  130.] 

[No,  149  L,  175, 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5    1 

6 

• 

8         9 

Diff. 

135 

130334 

0655 

0977 

1298 

1619 

1939  i  2260 

2580 

2900     3219 

321 

6 

3539 

3858 

4177 

4496 

4814 

5133  !  5451 

5769 

6086     6403 

318 

6721 
9879 

7037 

7354 

7671 

7987 

8303  |  8618 

8934 

9249     9564 

316 

0194 

0508 

0822 

1136 

1450 

1763 

2076 

2389     2702 

314 

9 

143015 

3327 

3639 

3951 

4263 

4574 

4885 

5196 

5507     5818 

311 

140 

6128 
9219 

6438 
9527 

6748 
9835 

7058 

7367 

7676 

7985 

8294 

8603     8911 

309 

. 

0142 

0449 

0756 

1063 

1370 

1676     1982 

307 

2 

152288 

2594 

2900 

3205 

a5io 

3815 

4120 

4424 

4728     5032 

305 

3 

5336 

5640 

5943 

6246 

6549 

6852 

7154 

7457 

7759     8061 

303 

8362 

8664 

8965 

9266 

9567 

9868 

0168 

0469 

0769      1068 

301 

5 

161368 

1667 

1967 

2266 

2564 

2863 

3161 

3460 

3758     4055 

299 

6 

4353 

4650 

4947 

5244 

5541 

5838 

6134 

6430 

6726     7022 

297 

7 

7317 

7613 

7908 

8203 

8497 

8792 

9086 

9380 

9674     9968 

295 

8 

170262 

0555 

0848 

1141 

1434 

1726 

2019 

2311 

2603     2895 

293 

9 

3186 

3478 

3769 

4060 

4351 

4641 

4932 

5222 

5512     5802 

291 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

* 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

~82i~ 

32.1 

64  2 

96 

.3 

128.4 

160.5 

192 

a 

224.7 

256.8 

288.9 

320 

32.0 

64.0 

96 

.0 

128.0 

160.0 

192 

a 

2S 

4.0 

256.0 

288.0 

319 

31.9 

63.8 

95 

.7 

127.6 

159.5 

191 

4 

81 

,3.3 

255.2 

287.1 

318 

31.8 

63.6 

95 

.4 

127.2 

159.0 

190 

8 

81 

•2.6 

254.4 

286.2 

317 

31.7 

63.4 

95 

.1 

126.8 

158.5 

190 

2 

221.9 

253.6 

285.3 

316 

31.6 

63.2 

94 

.8 

126.4 

158.0 

189 

Q 

2S 

1.2 

252.8 

284.4 

315 

31.5 

63.0 

94 

.5 

126.0 

157.5 

189 

0 

220.5 

252.0 

283.5 

314 

31.4 

62.8 

94 

.2 

125.6 

157.0 

188 

4 

21 

9.8 

251.2 

282.6 

313 

31.3 

62.6 

93 

.9 

125.2 

156.5 

187 

8 

21 

9.1 

250.4 

281.7 

312 

31.2 

62.4 

93 

.6 

124.8 

156.0 

187 

2 

218.4 

249.6 

280.8 

311 

31.1 

62.2 

93.3 

124.4 

155.5 

186 

6 

217.7 

248.8 

279.9 

310 

31.0 

62.0 

93 

.0 

124.0 

155.0 

186 

0 

217.0 

248.0 

279.0 

309 

30.9 

61.8 

92 

7 

123.6 

154.5 

185 

4 

21 

6.3 

247.2 

278.1 

308 

30.8 

61.6 

92 

'A 

123.2 

154.0 

184 

8 

21 

5.6 

246.4 

277.2 

307 

30.7 

61.4 

92 

.1 

122.8 

153.5 

184.2 

214.9 

245.6 

276.3 

306 

30.6 

61.2 

91 

.8 

122.4 

153.0 

183 

<; 

21 

4.2 

244.8 

275.4 

305 

30.5 

61.0 

91 

.5 

122.0 

152.5 

183 

0 

21 

3.5 

244.0 

274,5 

304 

30.4 

60.8 

91 

.2 

121.6 

152.0 

182.4 

212.8 

243.2 

273.6 

303 

30.3 

60.6 

90 

.9 

121.2 

151.5 

181 

8 

21 

2.1 

242.4 

272.7 

302 

30.2 

60.4 

90.6 

120.8 

151.0 

181 

2 

211.4 

241.6 

271.8 

301 

30.1 

60.2 

90 

.3 

120.4 

150.5 

180.6 

210.7 

240.8 

270.9 

300 

30.0 

60.0 

90 

.0 

120.0 

150.0 

180 

0 

21 

0.0 

240.0 

270.0 

299 

29.9 

59.8 

89 

.7 

119.6 

149.5 

179.4 

209.3 

239.2 

269.1 

298 

29.8 

59.6 

89 

.4 

119.2 

149.0 

178 

8 

2( 

)8.6 

238.4 

268.2 

297 

29.7 

59.4 

89 

.1 

118.8 

148.5 

178 

2 

2( 

)7.9 

237.6 

267.3 

296 

29.6 

59.2 

88 

.8 

118.4 

148.0 

177 

a 

207.2 

236.8 

266.4 

295 

29.5 

59.0 

88 

.5 

118.0 

147.5 

177 

0 

a 

)6.5 

236.0 

265.5 

294 

29.4 

58.8 

88 

.2 

117.6 

147.0 

176 

4 

a 

)5.8 

235.2 

264.6 

293 

29.3 

58.6 

87 

.9 

117.2 

146.5 

175 

8 

2( 

)5.1 

234.4 

263.7 

292 

29.2 

58.4 

87 

.6 

116.8 

146.0 

175.2 

204.4 

233.6 

262.8 

291 

29.1 

58.2 

87 

.3 

116.4 

145.5 

174 

6 

203.7 

232.8 

261.9 

290 

29.0 

58.0 

87 

.0 

116.0 

145.0 

174 

0 

203.0 

232.0 

261.0 

289 

28.9 

57.8 

86 

.7 

115.6 

144.5 

173 

4 

2( 

)2.3 

231.2 

260.1 

288 

28.8 

57.6 

86 

.4 

115.2 

144.0 

172 

8 

2( 

)1.6 

230.4 

259.2 

287 

28.7 

57.4 

86 

.1 

114.8 

143.5 

172 

2 

200.9 

229.6 

258.3 

286 

28.6 

57.2        85 

.8 

114.4 

143.0 

171 

6 

200.2 

228.8 

257.4 

438 


LOOrAKTTHMS   OF   NtJMBEKS. 


No.  150  L.  176.]                                                                                       [No.  169  L.  230. 

N1 

2* 

T\;-*V 

. 

7825 

Dill. 

150 

176091 

6381 

6670 

6959 

7248 

7536 

8113 

8401 

8689 

289 

1 

8977 

9264 

Qs;n9        0«3Q 

0126 

0413 

0699 

0986 

1272 

1  Pi^ft 

OC7 

2 

181844 

2129 

2415 

2700 

2985 

3270 

3555 

3839 

VSCm 

4123 

1DOO 

4407 

iffy  4 
285 

3 

4691 

4975 

5259 

5542     5825 

6108 

6391 

6674 

6956 

7239 

283 

4 

7521 

7803 

8084 

8366     8647 

8928 

9209 

9490 

9771    — 
0051 

OQ-f 

5 
6 

190332 
3125 

0612     0892 
3403     3681 

1171 
3959 

1451 
4237 

11 

2010 
4792 

2289 
5069 

2567     2846 
5346     5623 

/to  .I 

279 

278 

7 

5900 

6176 

6453 

6729 

7005 

7281 

7556 

7832 

8107 

8382 

276 

OKtyy 

U(10.> 

oorut 

9481 

9755 

oODl 

OJO& 

J^UO 

0029 

0303 

0577 

0850 

1  19J. 

074. 

9 

201397 

1670 

1943 

2216 

2488 

2761 

3033 

3305 

3577 

IJUeft 

3848 

AM4 

272 

1GO 

4120 

4391 

4663 

4934 

5204 

5475 

5746 

6016 

6286 

6556 

271 

1 

2 

6826 
9515 

7096 

9783 

7365 

7634 

7904 

8173 

8441 

8710 

8979 

9247 

269 

0051 

0319 

0586 

0853 

1121  1  i?****1 

1654 

1921 

267 

3 

212188 

2454 

2720 

2986 

3252 

3518 

3783 

4049 

4314 

4579 

266 

4 

4844 

5109 

5373 

5638 

5902 

6166 

6430 

6694 

6957 

7221 

264 

5 

7484 

7747 

8010 

8273 

8536 

8798 

9060 

9323 

9585 

9846 

262 

6 

220108 

0370 

0631 

0892 

1153 

1414 

1675 

1936 

2196 

2456 

261 

7 

2716 

2976 

3236 

3496 

3755 

4015 

4274 

4533 

4792 

5051 

259 

8 

5309 

5568 

5826 

6084 

6342 

6600 

6858 

7115 

7372 

7630 

258 

9 

7887 

8144 

8400 

8657 

8913 

9170 

9426 

9682 

9938 

23 

0193 

256 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

285 

28.5 

57.0 

85.5 

114.0 

142.5 

171.0 

199.5 

228.0 

256.5 

284 

28.4 

56.8 

85.2 

113.6 

142.0 

170.4 

198.8 

227.2 

255.6 

283 

28.3 

56.6 

84.9 

113.2 

141.5 

169.8 

198.1 

226.4 

254.7 

282 

28.2 

56.4 

84.6 

112.8 

141.0 

169.2 

197.4 

225.6 

253.8 

281 

28.1 

56.2 

84.3 

112  4 

140.5 

168.6 

196.7 

224.8 

252.9 

280 

28.0 

56.0 

84.0 

112.0 

140.0 

168.0 

196.0 

224.0 

252.0 

279 

27.9 

55.8 

83.7 

111.6 

139.5 

167.4 

195.3 

223.2 

251.1 

278 

27.8 

55.6 

83.4 

111.2 

139.0 

166.8 

194.6 

222.4 

250.2 

277 

27.7 

55.4 

83.1 

110.8 

138.5 

166.2 

193.9 

221.6 

249.3 

276 

27.6 

55.2 

82.8 

110.4 

138.0- 

165.6 

193.2 

220.8 

248.4 

275 

27.5 

55.0 

82.5 

110.0 

137.5 

165.0 

192.5 

220.0 

247.5 

274 

27.4 

54.8 

82.2 

109.6 

137.0 

164.4 

191.8 

219.2 

246.6 

273 

27.3 

54.6 

81.9 

109.2 

136.5 

163.8 

191.1 

2.18.4 

245.7 

272 

27.2 

54.4 

81.6 

108.8 

136.0 

163.2 

190.4 

217.6 

244.8 

271 

27.1 

54.2 

81.3 

108.4 

135.5 

162.6 

189.7 

216.8 

243.9 

270 

27.0 

54.0 

81.0 

108.0 

135.0 

162.0 

189.0 

216.0 

243.0 

269 

26.9 

53.8 

80.7 

107.6 

134.5 

161.4 

188.3 

215.2 

242.1 

268 

26.8 

53.6 

80.4 

107.2 

134.0 

160.8 

187.6 

214.4 

241.2 

267 

26.7 

53.4 

80.1 

106.8 

133.5 

160.2 

186.9 

213.6 

240.3 

266 

26.6 

53.2 

79.8 

106.4 

133.0 

159.6 

186.2 

212.8     239.4 

265 

26.5 

53.0 

79.5 

106.0 

132.5 

159.0 

185.5       212.0 

238.5 

264 

26.4 

52.8 

79.2 

105.6 

132.0 

158.4 

184.8       211.2 

237.6 

263 

26.3 

52.6 

78.9 

105.2 

131.5 

157.8 

184.1       210.4 

236.7 

262 

26.2 

52.4 

78.6 

104.8 

131.0 

157.2 

183.4       209.6 

235.8 

261 

26.1 

52.2 

78.3 

104.4 

130.5 

156.6 

182.7       208.8 

234.9 

260 

26.0 

52.0 

78.0 

104.0 

130.0 

156.0 

182.0       208.0 

234.0 

259 

25.9 

51.8 

77.7 

103.6 

129.5 

155.4 

181.3       207.2 

233.1 

258 

25.8 

51.6 

77.4 

103.2 

129.0 

154.8 

180.6 

206.4 

232.2 

257 

25.7 

51.4 

T7.1 

102.8 

128.5 

154.2 

179.9 

205.6 

231.3 

256 

25.6 

51.2 

76.8 

102.4 

128.0 

153.6 

179.2 

204.8 

230.4 

255 

25.5 

51.0 

76.5 

102.0 

127.5 

153.0 

178.5 

204.0 

229.5 

LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


439 


No.  170  L.  230.]                                                                                       [No.  189  L.  278. 

N' 

g 

9 

. 

' 

170 

230449 

0704 

0960 

1215 

1470 

1724 

1979 

2£U 

2488 

2742 

255 

1 

2996 

3250 

3504 

3757 

4011 

4264 

4517 

4770 

5023 

5276 

253 

2 

5528 

5781 

6033 

6285 

6537 

6789 

7041 

7292 

7544 

7795 

252 

Wfldfi 

8548 

8799 

9049 

9299 

9550 

9800 

OU4O 

0050 

0300 

250 

4 

240549 

0799 

1048 

1297 

1546 

1795 

2044 

2293 

2541 

2790 

249 

5 

3038 

3286 

3534 

3782 

4030 

4277 

4525 

4772 

5019 

5266 

248 

6 

5513 

5759 

6006 

6252 

6499 

6745 

6991 

7237 

7482 

7728 

246 

8219 

8464 

8709 

8954 

9198 

9443 

9687 

9932 

7973 

0176 

245 

8 

250420 

0664 

0908 

1151 

1395 

1638 

1881 

2125 

2368 

2610 

243 

9 

2853 

3096 

3338 

3580 

3822 

4064 

4306 

4548 

4790 

5031 

243 

180 

5273 

5514 

5755 

5996 

6237 

6477 

6718 

6958 

7198 

7439 

241 

1 

7679 

7918 

8158 

8398 

8637 

8877 

9116 

9355 

9594 

9833 

239 

2 

260071 

0310 

0548 

0787 

1025 

1263 

1501 

1739 

1976 

2214 

238 

3 

2451 

2688 

2925 

3162 

3399 

3636 

3873 

4109 

4346 

4582 

237 

4 

4818 

5054 

5290 

5525 

5761 

5996 

6232 

6467 

6702 

6937 

235 

5 

c 

7172 

o=1  q 

7406 
J<4o 

7641 
9980 

7875 

8110 

8344 

8578 

8812 

9046 

9279 

234 

D 

VDlu 

0213 

0446 

0679 

0912 

1144 

1377 

1609 

233 

7 

271842 

2074 

2306 

2538 

2770 

3001 

3233 

3464 

3696 

3927 

232 

8 

4158 

4389 

4620 

4850 

5081 

5311 

5542 

5772 

6002 

6232 

230 

9 

6462 

6692 

6921 

7151 

7380 

7609 

7838 

8067 

8296 

8525 

229 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

255 

25.5 

51  0 

76  5 

102.0 

127.5 

153.0 

178.5 

204.0 

229.5 

254 

25.4 

50'8 

76  ~2 

101.6 

127.0 

152.4 

177.8 

203.2 

228.6 

253 

25.3 

5o!e 

75^9 

101.2 

126.5 

151.8 

177.1 

202.4 

227.7 

252 

25.2 

50.4 

75.6 

100.8 

126.0 

151.2 

176.4 

201.6 

226.8 

251 

25.1 

50.2 

75.3 

100.4 

125.5 

150.6 

175.7 

200.8 

225.9 

250 

25  0 

50.0 

75.0 

100.0 

125.0 

150.0 

175.0 

200.0 

225.0 

249 

24.9 

49.8 

74.7 

99.6 

124.5 

149.4 

174.3 

199.2 

224.1 

248 

24.8 

49.6 

74.4 

99.2 

124.0 

148.8 

173.6 

198.4 

223.2 

247 

24.7 

49.4 

74.1 

98.8 

123.5 

148.2 

172.9 

197.6 

222.3 

246 

24.6 

49.2 

73.8 

98.4 

123.0 

147.6 

172.2 

196.8 

221.4 

245 

24.5 

49.0 

73.5 

98.0 

122.5 

147.0 

171.5 

196.0 

220.5 

244 

24.4 

48.8 

73.2 

97.6 

122.0 

146.4 

170.8 

195.2 

219.6 

243 

24.3 

48.6 

72.9 

97.2 

121.5 

145.8 

170.1 

194.4 

218.7 

242 

24.2 

48.4 

72.6 

96.8 

121.0 

145.2 

169.4 

193.6 

217.8 

241 

24.1 

48.2 

72.3 

96.4 

120.5 

144.6 

168.7 

192.8 

216.9 

240 

24.0 

48.0 

72.0 

96.0 

120.0 

144.0 

168.0 

192.0 

216.0 

239 

23.9 

47.8 

71.7 

95.6 

119.5 

143.4 

167.3 

191.2 

215.1 

238 

23.8 

47.6 

71.4 

95.2 

119.0 

142.8 

166.6 

190.4 

214.2 

237 

23.7 

47.4 

71.1 

94.8 

118.5 

142.2 

165.9 

189.6 

213.3 

236 

23.6 

47.2 

70.8 

94.4 

118.0 

141.6 

165.2 

188.8 

212.4 

235 

23.5 

47.0 

70.5 

94.0 

117.5 

141.0 

164.5 

188.0 

211.5 

234 

23.4 

46.8 

70.2 

93.6 

117.0 

140.4 

163.8 

187.2 

210.6 

233 

23.3 

46.6 

69.9 

93.2 

116.5 

139.8 

163.1 

186.4 

209.7 

232 

23.2 

46.4 

69.6 

92.8 

116.0 

139.2 

162.4 

185.6 

208.8 

231 

23.1 

46.2 

69.3 

92.4 

115.5 

138.6 

161.7 

184.8 

207.9 

230 

23.0 

46.0 

69.0 

92.0 

115.0 

138.0 

161.0 

184.0 

207.0 

229 

22.9 

45.8 

68.7 

91.6 

114.5 

137.4 

160.3 

183.2 

206.1 

228 

22.8 

45.6 

68.4 

91.2 

114.0 

136.8 

15S.6 

182.4 

205.2 

227 

22.7 

45.4 

68.1 

90.8 

113.5 

136.2 

158.9 

181.6 

204.8 

m 

22.6 

45.2 

67.8 

90.4       113.0 

135.6 

158  2 

180.8 

203.4 

440 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS. 


No.  190  L.  278.]                                                                                  [No.  214  L.  332. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

190 

278754 

8982 

9211 

9439 

9667 

9895 

0123 

0351 

0578 

0806 

228 

1 

281033 

1261 

1488 

1715 

1942 

2169 

2396 

2622 

2849 

3075 

227 

2 

3301 

3527 

3753 

3979 

4205 

4431 

4656 

4882 

5107 

5332 

226 

3 

5557 

5782 

6007 

6232 

6456 

6681 

6905 

7130 

7354 

7578 

225 

4 

7802 

8026 

8249 

8473 

8696 

8920 

9143 

9366 

9589 

9812 

223 

5 

290035 

0257 

0480 

0702 

0925 

1147 

1369 

1591 

1813 

2034 

222 

6 

2256 

2478 

2699 

2920 

3141 

3363 

3584 

3804 

4025 

4246 

221 

7 

4466 

4687 

4907 

5127 

5347 

5567 

5787 

6007 

6226 

6446 

220 

8 

6665 

6884 

7104 

7323 

7542 

7761 

7979 

8198 

8416 

8635 

219 

9 

8853 

9071 

9289 

9507 

9725 

9943 

fttfii 

AO^Q 

AKQK 

AQ-JO 

01  C 

200 

301030 

1247 

1464 

1681 

1898 

2114 

2331 

VOIO 

2547 

uoyo 
2764 

Uolo 

2980 

ivSO 

217 

1 

3196 

3412 

3628 

3844 

4059 

4275 

4491 

4706 

4921 

5136 

216 

2 

5351 

5566 

5781 

5996 

6211 

6425 

6639 

6854 

7068 

7282 

215 

3 

7496 

7710 

7924 

8137 

8351 

8564 

8778 

8991 

9204 

9417 

213 

4 

9630 

9843 

OO'Sfi 

02fiS 

ruai 

/W.QO 

AQAft 

111S 

•joqn 

01  O 

5 

311754 

1966 

uuoo 
2177 

U/SOo 

2389 

2600 

2812 

uyuo 
3023 

lllo 
3234 

looU 

3445 

3656 

mmm 

211 

6 

3867 

4078 

4289 

4499 

4710 

4920 

5130 

5340 

5551 

5760 

210 

7 

5970 

6180 

6390 

6599 

6809 

7018 

7227 

7436 

7646 

7854 

209 

8 

8063 

8272 

8481 

8689 

8898 

9106 

9314 

9522 

9730 

9938 

208 

9 

320146 

0354 

0562 

0769 

0977 

1184 

1391 

1598 

1805 

2012 

207 

210 

2219 

2426 

2633 

2839 

3046 

3252 

3458 

3665 

3871 

4077 

206 

1 

4282 

4488 

4694 

4899 

5105 

5310 

5516 

5721 

5926 

6131 

205 

2 

6336 

6541 

67'45 

6950 

7155 

7359 

7563 

7767 

7972 

8176 

204 

3 

8380 

8583 

8787 

8991 

9194 

9398 

9601 

9805 

0008 

0211 

203 

4 

330414 

0617 

0819 

1022 

1225 

1427 

1630 

1832 

2034 

2236 

202 

PROPORTIONAL.  PARTS. 

Diff. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

225 

22.5 

45.0 

67.5 

90.0 

112.5 

135.0 

157.5 

180.0 

202.5 

224 

22.4 

44.8 

67.2 

89.6 

112.0 

134.4 

156.8 

179.2 

201.6 

223 

22.3 

44.6 

66.9 

89.2 

111.5 

133.8 

156.1 

178.4 

200.7 

222 

22.2 

44.4 

66.6 

88.8 

111.0 

133.2 

155.4 

177.6 

199.8 

221 

22.1 

44.2 

66.3 

88.4 

110.5 

132.6 

154.7 

176.8 

198.9 

220 

22.0 

44.0 

66.0 

88.0 

110.0 

132.0 

154.0 

176.0 

198.0 

219 

21.9 

43.8 

65.7 

87.6 

109.5 

131.4 

153.3 

175.2 

197.1 

218 

21.8 

43.6 

65.4 

87.2 

109.0 

130.8 

152.6 

174.4 

196.2 

217 

21.7 

43.4 

65.1 

86.8 

108.5 

130.2 

151.9 

173.6 

195.3 

216 

21.6 

43.2 

64.8 

86.4 

108.0 

129.6 

151.2 

172.8 

194.4 

215 

21.5 

43.0 

64.5 

86.0 

107.5 

129.0 

150.5 

172.0 

193.5 

214 

21.4 

42.8 

64.2 

85.6 

107.0 

128.4 

149.8 

171.2 

192.6 

213 

21.3 

42.6 

63.9 

85.2 

106.5 

127.8 

149.1 

170.4 

191.7 

212 

21.2 

42.4 

63.6 

84.8 

106.0 

127.2 

148.4 

169.6 

190.8 

211 

21.1 

42.2 

63.3 

84.4 

105.5 

126.6 

147.7 

168.8 

189.9 

210 

21.0 

42.0 

63.0 

84.0 

105.0 

126.0 

147.0 

168.0 

189.0 

209 

20.9 

41.8 

62.7 

83.6 

104.5 

125.4 

146.3 

167.2 

188.1 

208 

20.8 

41.6 

62.4 

as.2 

104.0 

124.8 

145.6 

166  4 

187.2 

207 

20.7 

41.4 

62.1 

82.8 

103.5 

124.2 

144.9 

165.6 

186.3 

206 

20.6 

41.2 

61.8 

82.4 

103.0 

123.6 

144.2 

164.8 

185.4 

205 

20.5 

41.0 

61.5 

82.0 

102.5 

123.0 

143.5 

164.0 

184.5 

204 

20.4 

40.8 

61.2 

81.6 

102.0 

122.4 

142.8 

163.2 

183.6 

203 

20.3 

40.6 

60.9 

81.2 

101.5 

121.8 

142.1 

162.4 

182.7 

202 

20.2 

40.4 

60.6 

T0.8 

101.0 

121.2 

141.4 

161.6 

181.8 

LOGARITHMS   OP   LUMBERS. 


441 


No.  215  L.  332.]                                                                                        [No.  239  L.  380. 

T\iflF 

. 

3246 

Dill. 

215 

332438 

2640 

2842 

3044 

3447 

3649 

3850 

4051 

4253 

202 

6 

4454 

4655 

4856 

5067 

5257 

5458 

5658 

5859 

6059 

6260 

201 

7 

6460 

€660 

6860 

7060 

7260 

7459 

7659 

7858 

8058 

8257 

200 

g 

8456 

8656 

8855 

9054 

9253 

9451 

9650 

9849 

0047 

0246 

-in!) 

9 

340444 

0642 

0841 

1039 

1237 

1435 

1632 

1830 

2028 

2225 

lyif 
198 

220 

2423 

2620 

2817 

3014 

3212 

3409 

3606 

3802 

3999 

4196 

197 

1 

4392 

4589 

4785 

4981 

5178 

5374 

557'0 

5706 

5962 

6157 

196 

2 

G353 

6549 

6744 

6939 

7135 

7330 

7525 

7720 

7915 

8110 

195 

3 

8305 

8500 

8694 

8889 

9083 

9278 

9472 

9666 

9860 

0054 

194 

4 

350248 

0442 

0636 

0829 

1023 

1216 

1410 

1603 

1796 

1989 

193 

5 

2183 

2375 

2568 

2761 

2954 

3147 

3339 

3532 

3724 

3916 

193 

6 

4108 

4301 

4493 

4685 

4876 

5068 

5260 

5452 

5643 

5834 

192 

7 

6026 

6217 

6408 

6599 

6790 

6981 

7172 

7363 

7554 

7744 

191 

8 

g 

7935 
9835 

8125 

8316 

8506 

8696 

8886 

9076 

9266 

9456 

9646 

190 

0025 

0215 

0404 

0593 

0783 

0972 

1161 

1350 

1539 

189 

230 

361728 

1917 

2105 

2294 

2482 

2671 

2859 

3048 

3236 

3424 

188 

1 

3612 

3800 

3988 

4176 

4363 

4551 

4739 

4926 

5113 

5301 

188 

2 

5488 

5675 

5862 

6049 

6236 

6423 

6610 

6796 

6983 

7169 

187 

3 

7356 

7542 

7729 

7915 

8101 

8287 

8473 

8659 

8845 

9030 

186 

4 

9216 

9401 

9587 

9772 

9958 

01451 

nqoQ 

AK-(Q 

OfiQS 

AQQQ 

1QK 

5 

371068 

1253 

1437 

1622 

1806 

U14O 

1991 

Uo/£o 

2175 

UOIu 

2360 

uoyo 
2544 

Uooo 

2728 

lou 
184 

6 

2912 

3096 

3280 

3464 

3647 

3831 

4015 

4198 

4382 

4565 

184 

7 

4748 

4932 

5115 

5298 

5481 

5664 

5846 

6029 

6212 

6394 

183 

8 

6577 

6759 

6942 

7124 

7306 

7488 

7670 

7852 

8034 

8216 

182 

9 

8398 

8580 

8761 

8943 

9124 

9306 

9487 

96Q8 

9849 

38 

|  0030 

181 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diflf. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

r 

8 

9 

202 
201 

20.2 
20.1 

40.4 

40.2 

60.6 
60.3 

80.8 
80.4 

101.0 
100.5 

121.2 
120.6 

~W1.4 
140.7 

161.6 
160.8 

~181.8 
180.9 

200 

20.0 

40.0 

60.0 

80.0 

100.0 

120.0 

140.0 

160.0 

180.0 

199 

19.9 

39.8 

59.7 

79.6 

99.5 

119.4 

139.3 

159.2 

179.1 

198 

19.8 

39.6 

59.4 

79.2 

99.0 

118.8 

138.6 

158.4 

178.2 

197 

19.7 

39.4 

59.1 

78.8 

98.5 

118.2 

137.9 

157.6 

177.3 

196 

19.6 

39.2 

58.8 

78.4 

98.0 

117.6 

137.2 

156.8 

176.4 

195 

19.5 

39.0 

58.5 

78.0 

97  5 

117.0 

136.5 

156.0 

175.5 

194 

19.4 

38.8 

58.2 

77.6 

97.0 

116.4 

135.8 

155.2 

174.6 

193 

19.3 

38.6 

57.9 

77.2 

96.5 

115.8 

135.1 

154.4 

173.7 

192 

19.2 

38.4 

57.6 

76.8 

96.0 

115.2 

134.4 

153.6 

172.8 

191 

19.1 

38.2 

57.3 

76.4 

95.5 

114.6 

133.7 

152.8 

171.9 

190 

19.0 

38.0 

57.0 

76.0 

95.0 

114.0 

133.0 

152.0 

171.0 

189 

18.9 

37.8 

56.7 

75.6 

94.5 

113.4 

132.3 

151.2 

170.1 

188 

18.8 

37.6 

56.4 

75.2 

94.0 

112.8 

131.6 

150.4 

169.2 

187 

18.7 

37  4 

56.1 

74.8 

93.5 

112.2 

130.9 

149.6 

168.3 

186 

18.6 

37.2 

55.8 

74.4 

93.0 

111.6 

130.2 

148.8 

167.4 

185 

18.5 

37.0 

55.5 

74.0 

92.5 

111.0 

129.5 

148.0 

166.5 

184 

18.4 

36.8 

55.2 

73.6 

92.0 

110.4 

128.8 

147.2 

165.6 

183 

18.3 

36.6 

54.9 

73.2 

91.5 

109.8 

128.1 

146.4 

164.7 

182 

18.2 

36.4 

54.6 

72.8 

91.0 

109.2 

127.4 

145.6 

163.8 

181 

18.1 

36.2 

54.3 

72.4 

90.5 

108.6 

126.7 

144.8 

162.9 

180 

18.0 

36.0 

54.0 

72.0 

90.0 

108.0 

126.0 

144.0 

162.0 

179 

17.9 

35.8 

53.7 

71.6 

89.5 

107.4 

125.3 

143.2 

161.1 

442 


LOGARITHMS   Otf   XTTMBERS. 


No.  240  L.  380.]                                 [No.  269  L.  431 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

240 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 

7 
8 
9 

250 
1 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

6 
9 

260 
1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

380211 
2017 
3815 
5606 
7390 
9166 

0392 
2197 
3995 

5785 
7568 
9343 

0573 
2377 
4174 
5964 

7746 
9520 

0754 
2557 
4*53 
6142 
7924 
9698 

0934 
2737 
4533 
6321 
8101 
9875 

1115 

!  2917 
4712 
6499 
8279 

1296 
3097 
4891 
6677 
8456 

1476 
3277 
5070 
6856 
8634 

1656 
3456 
5249 

7oai 

8811 

1837 
3636 
5428 

7212 
8989 

181 

ISO 
179 

178 
178 

177 
176 
176 
175 
174 
173 

173 
172 
171 
171 
170 
169 

169 
168 
167 

167 
166 
165 

165 
164 
164 
163 
162 
162 

161 

0051 
1817 
3575 
5326 
7071 

8808 

0228 
1993 
3751 
5501 
7245 
8981 

0405 
2169 
3926 
5676 
7419 

9154 

0582 
2345 
4101 
5850 
7592 

9328 

1056 
2777 
4492 
6199 
7901 
9595 

0759 
SJW1 
4277 
6025 
7766 

9501 

1228 
2949 
4663 
6370 
8070 
9764 

390035 
2697 
4452 
6199 

7940 
9674 

1112 
2873 
4627 
6374 

8114 
9847 

1288 
3048 
4802 
6548 
8287 

1464 
3224 
4977 
6722 

8461 

1641 
3400 
5152 
6896 

8634 

0020 
1745 
3464 
5176 

6881 
8579 

0192 
1917 
3635 
5346 
7051 
8749 

0365 
2089 
.3807 
5517 
7221 
8918 

0538 
2261 
3978 
5688 
7391 
9087 

0711 
2433 
4149 
5858 
7561 
9257 

0883 
2605 
4320 
6029 
7731 
9426 

401401 
3121 

4834 
6540 
8240 
9933 

1573 
3292 
5005 
6710 
8410 

0102 
1788 
3467 

5140 

6807 
8467 

0271 
1956 
3635 

5307 
6973 
8633 

0440 
2124 
3803 

5474 
7139 
8798 

0609 
2293 
3970 

5641 
7306 
8964 

0777 
2461 
4137 

5808 
7472 
9129 

0946 
2629 
4305 

5974 
7638 
9295 

1114 
2796 

4472 

6141 

7804 
9460 

1283 
2964 
4639 

6308 
7970 
9625 

1451 
3132 

4806 

6474 
8135 
9791 

411620 
3300 

4973 
6641 
8301 
9956 

0121 
1768 
3410 
5045 
6674 
8297 
9914 

0286 
1933 
3574 
5208 
6836 
8459 

0075 

0451 
2097 
3737 
5371 
6999 
8621 

0616 
2261 
3901 
5534 
7161 
8783 

0781 
2426 
4065 
5697 
7324 
8944 

0945 
2590 
4228 
5860 
7486 
9106 

1110 
2754 
4392 
6023 
7648 
9268 

1275 

2918 
4555 
6186 
7811 
9429 

1439 
3082 
4718 
6349 
7973 
9591 

421604 
3246 
4882 
6511 
8135 
9752 
43 

0236 

0398 

0559 

0720 

0881 

1042 

1203 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6      7 

8 

9 

178 
177 
176 
175 
174 
173 
172 
171 
170 

169 
168 
167 
166 
165 
164 
163 
162 
161 

17.8 
17.7 
17.6 
17.5 
17.4 
17.3 
17.2 
17.1 
17.0 

16.9 
16.8 
16.7 
16.6 
16.5 
16.4 
16.3 
16.2 
16.1 

35.6 
35.4 
S5.2 
35.0 
34.8 
34.6 
34.4 
34.2 
34.0 

33.8 
33.6 

as.  4 

33.2 

as.o 

32.8 
32.6 
32.4 
32.2 

53.4 
53.1 
52.8 
52.5 
52.2 
51.9 
51.6 
51.3 
51.0 

50.7 
50.4 
50.1 
49.8 
49.5 
49.2 
48.9 
48.5 
48.3 

71.2 
70.8 
70.4 
70.0 
69.6 
69.2 
68.8 
68.4 
68.0 

67.6 
67.2 
66.8 
66.4 
66.0 
65.6 
65.2 
64.8 
64.4 

89.0 
88.5 
88.0 
87.5 
87.0 
86.5 
86.0 
85.5 
85.0 

81.5 
84.0 
83.5 
83.0 
82.5 
82.0 
81.5 
81.0 
80.5 

106.8   124.6 
106.2   123.9 
105.6   123.2 
105.0   122.5 
104.4   121.8 
103.8   121.1 
103.2   120.4 
102.6   119.7 
102.0   119.0 

101.4   118.3 
100.8   117.6 
100.2   116.9 
99.6   116.2 
99.0   115.5 
98.4   114.8 
97.8   114.1 
97.2   113.4 
96.6   112.7 

142.4 
141.6 
140.8 
140.0 
139.2 
138.4 
137.6 
136.8 
136.0 

ia5.2 
134.4 
133.6 
132.8 
132.0 
131.2 
130.4 
129.6 
128.8 

160.2 
159.3 
158.4 
157.5 
156.6 
155.7 
1.54.8 
153.9 
153.0 

152.1 
151.2 
150.3 
149.4 
148.5 
147.6 
146.7 
145.8 
144.9 

LOGARITHMS 


HUMBERS. 


443 


No.  270  L  431.]                                  [No.  299  L.  476. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

1 

431364 

1525 

1685 

1846 

2007 

2167 

2328 

2488 

2649 

2809 

161 

"  1 

2969 

3130 

3290 

3450 

3610 

3770 

3930 

4090 

4249 

4-109 

160 

2 

4569 

4729 

4888 

5048 

5207 

5367 

5526 

5685 

5844 

6004 

159 

3 

6163  6322 

6481 

6640  1  6799 

6957 

7116 

7275 

7433 

7592 

159 

4 

7751 

7909 

8067 

8226 

8384 

8543 

8701 

8859 

9017 

9175 

158 

9o48 

0122  rc>79 

0437 

0594 

0752 

158 

c 

440909 

1066 

1224 

1381 

1538 

1695 

1852 

2009 

2166 

2323 

157 

7 

2480 

2637 

2793 

2950 

3106 

3263 

3419 

3576 

3732 

3889 

157 

8 

4045 

4201 

4357 

4513 

4669 

4825  ;  4981 

5137 

5293 

5449 

156 

9 

5604 

5700 

5915 

6071 

6226 

6382 

6537 

6692 

6848 

7003 

155 

380 

7158 

7313 

7468 

7623 

7778 

7933 

8088 

8242 

8397 

8552 

155 

1" 

8706 

8861 

9015 

9170 

9324 

9478 

9633 

9787 

9941 

0095 

154 

2 

450249 

0403 

0557 

0711 

0865 

1018 

1172 

1326 

1479 

1633 

154 

3 

1786 

1940 

2093 

2247 

2400 

2553 

2706 

2859 

3012 

3165 

153 

4 

3318 

3471 

3624 

3777 

3930 

4082 

4235 

4387 

4540 

4692 

153 

5 

4845 

4997 

5150 

5302 

5454 

5606 

5758 

5910 

6062 

6214 

152 

6 

6366 

6518 

6670 

6821 

6973 

7125 

7276 

7428 

7579 

7731 

152 

7 

7882 

8033 

8184 

8.336 

8487 

8638 

8789 

8940 

9091 

9242 

151 

9392 

9543 

9694 

9845 

9995 

0146 

0296 

0447 

0597 

0748 

151 

9 

460898 

1048 

1198 

1348 

1499 

1649 

1799 

1948 

2098 

2248 

150 

690 

2398 

2548 

2697 

2847 

2997 

3146 

3296 

3445 

3594 

3744 

150 

1 

3893 

4042 

4191 

4340 

4490 

4639 

4788 

4936 

5085 

5234 

149 

2 

5383 

5532 

5680 

5829 

5977 

6126 

6274 

6423 

6571 

6719 

149 

3 

6868 

7016 

7164 

7312 

7460 

7608 

7756 

7904 

8052 

8200 

148 

4 

8347 

9822 

8495 
9969 

8643 

8790 

8938 

9085  j  9233 

9380 

9527 

9675 

148 

0116 

0263 

0410 

0557 

0704 

0851 

0998 

1145 

147 

6 

471292 

1438"" 

1585 

1732 

1878 

2025 

2171 

2318 

2464 

2610 

146 

7 

2756 

2903 

3049 

3195 

3341 

3487 

3633 

3779 

3925 

4071 

146 

8 

4216 

4362 

4508 

4653 

4799 

4944 

5090 

5235 

5381 

5526 

146 

9 

5671 

5816 

5962 

6107 

6252 

6397 

6542 

6687 

6832 

6976 

145 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

161   16.1 

32.2 

48.3 

64.4 

80.5 

96.6 

112.7 

128.8 

144.9 

160   16.0 

32.0 

48.0 

64.0 

80.0 

96.0 

112.0 

128.0 

144.0 

159   15.9 

31.8 

47.7 

63.6 

79.5 

95.4 

111.3 

127.2 

143.1 

158   15.8 

31.6 

47.4 

63.2 

79.0 

94.8 

110.6 

126.4 

142.2 

157   ''5.7 

31.4 

47.1 

62.8 

78.5 

94.2 

109.9 

125.6 

141.3 

156  •  1-3.6 

31.2 

46.8 

62.4 

78.0 

93.6 

109.2 

124.8 

140.4 

155   15.5 

31.0 

46.5 

62.0 

77.5 

93.0 

108.5 

124.0 

139.5 

154   15.4 

30.8 

46.2 

61.6 

77.0 

92.4 

107.8 

123.2 

138.6 

153   15.3 

30.6 

45.9 

61.2 

76.5 

91.8 

107.1 

122.4 

137.7 

152   15.2 

30.4 

45.6 

60.8 

76.0 

91.2 

106.4 

121.6 

136.8 

151   15.1 

30.2 

45.3 

60.4 

75.5 

90.  G 

105.7 

120.8 

135.9 

150   15.0 

30.0 

45.0 

60.0 

75.0 

90.0 

105.0 

120.0 

135.0 

149   14.9 

29.8 

44.7 

59.6 

74.5 

89.4 

104.3 

119.2 

134.1 

148   14.8 

29.6 

44.4 

59.2 

74.0 

88.8 

103.6 

118.4 

133.2 

147   14.7 

29.4 

44.1 

58.8 

73.5 

88.2 

102.9 

117.6 

132.3 

146   14.6 

29.2 

43.8 

58.4 

73.0 

87.6 

102.2 

116.8 

131.4 

145   14.5 

29.0 

43.5 

58.0 

72.5 

87.0 

101.5 

116.0 

130.5 

144   14.4 

28.8 

43.2 

57.6 

72.0 

86.4 

100.8 

115.2 

129.6 

143   14.3 

28.6 

42.9 

57.2 

71.5 

85.8 

100.1 

114.4 

128.7 

142   14.2 

28.4 

42.6 

56.8 

71.0 

85.2 

99.4 

113.6 

127.8 

141   14.1 

28.2 

42.3 

56.4 

70.5 

84.6 

98.7 

112.8 

120.  9 

140   14.0 

28.0 

42.0 

56.0 

70.0 

84.0 

98.0 

113.0 

12(5.0 

444 


LOGARITHMS  OF  NUMBERS. 


No.  300  L.  477.] 

[NO.  339  L.  531. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

300 
1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

310 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

320 
1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

330 
1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

477121 
8566 

7266 
8711 

7411 

8855 

7555 
8999 

7700 
9143 

7844 
9287 

7989 
9431 

8133 
9575 

8278 
9719 

8422 
9863 

145 
144 

144 
143 
143 
142 
142 
141 
141 

140 

140 
139 
139 
139 
138 
138 

137 

137 
136 
136 

136 
135 
135 

134 

134 
133 
133 
133 
132 
132 

181 

131 
131 
130 
130 
129 
129 
129 

128 

128 

480007 
1443 
2874 
4300 
5721 
7138 
8551 
9958 

0151 

1586 
3016 
4442 
5863 
7280 
8692 

0294 
1729 
3159 
4585 
6005 
7421 
8833 

0438 
1872 
3302 
4727 
6147 
7563 
8974 

0582 
2016 
3445 
4869 
6289 
7704 
9114 

0725 
2159 
3587 
5011 
6430 
7845 
9255 

0869 
2302 
3730 
5153 
6572 
7986 
9396 

1012 
2445 

3872 
5295 
6714 
8127 
9537 

1156 
2588 
4015 
5437 
6855 
8269 
9677 

1081 

2481 
3876 
5267 
6653 
8035 
9412 

1299 
2731 
4157 
5579 
6997 
8410 
9818 

0099 

1502 
2900 
4294 
5683 
7068 
8448 
9824 

0239 

1642 
3040 
4433 

5822 
7206 
8586 
9962 

0380 

1782 
3179 
4572 
5960 
7344 
8724 

0520 

1922 
3319 
4711 
6099 
7483 
8862 

0236 
1607 
2973 
4335 

5693 
7046 
8395 
9740 

0661 

2062 
3458 
4850 
6238 
7621 
8999 

0801 

2201 
3597 
4989 
6376 
7759 
9137 

0941 

2341 
3737 
5128 
6515 
7897 
9275 

1222 

2621 
4015 
5406 
6791 
8173 
9550 

491362 
2760 
4155 
5544 
6930 
8311 
9687 

0099 
1470 
2837 
4199 

5557 
6911 
8260 
9606 

0374 
1744 
3109 
4471 

5828 
7181 
!  8530 
9874 

0511 
1880 
3246 
4607 

5964 
7316 
8664 

0648 
2017 
3382 
4743 

6099 
7451 
8799 

0785 
2154 
3518 
4878 

6234 
7586 
8934 

0922 
2291 
3655 
5014 

6370 
7721 
9068 

501059 
2427 
3791 

5150 
6505 
7856 
9203 

1196 
2564 
3927 

5286 
6640 
7991 
9337 

1333 

2700 
4063 

5421 
6776 
8126 
9471 

0009 
1349 
2684 
4016 
5344 
6668 
7987 

9303 

0143 

1482 
2818 
4149 
5476 
6800 
8119 

9434 

0277 
1616 
2951 
4282 
5609 
6932 
8251 

9566 

0411 
1750 
3084 
4415 
5741 
7064 
8382 

9697 

510545 
1883 
3218 
4548 
5874 
7196 

8514 

9828 

0679 
2017 
3351 
4681 
6006 
7328 

8646 
9959 

0813 
2151 
3484 
4813 
6139 
7460 

8777 

0947 
2284 
3617 
4946 
6271 
7592 

8909 

1081 
2418 
3750 
5079 
6403 
7724 

9040 

1215 
2551 
3883 
5211 
6535 
7855 

9171 

0090 
1400 
2705 
4006 
5304 
6598 
7888 
9174 

0221 
1530 
2835 
4136 
5434 
6727 
8016 
9302 

0353 
1661 
2966 
4266 
5563 
6856 
8145 
9430 

0484 
1792 
3096 
4396 
i  5693 
6985 
8274 
9559 

0615 
1922 
3226 
4526 
5822 
7114 
8402 
9687 

0745 
2053 
3356 
4656 
5951 
7243 
8531 
9815 

0876 
2183 
3486 
4785 
6081 
7372 
8660 
9943 

1007 
2314 
3616 
4915 
6210 
7501 
8788 

521138 
2444 
3746 
5045 
6339 
7630 
8917 

1269 
2575 
3876 
5174 
6469 
7759 
9045 

0072 
1351 

530200 

0328 

0456 

0584 

0712 

0840 

0968 

1096 

1223 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

139   13.9 
138   13.8 
137   13.7 
136   13.6 
135   13.5 
134   13.4 
133   13.3 
132   13.2 
131   13.1 
130   13.0 
129   12.9 
128   12.8 
127   12  7 

27.8 
27.6 
27.4 
27.2 
27.0 
26.8 
26.6 
26.4 
26.2 
26.0 
25.8 
25.6 
25.4 

41.7 
41.4 
41.1 
40.8 
40.5 
40.2 
39.9 
39.6 
89.3 
89.0 
38.7 
38.4 
38.1 

55.6 
55.2 
54.8 
54.4 
54.0 
53.6 
53.2 
52.8 
62.4 
52.0 
51.6 
51.2 
50.8 

69.5 
69.0 
68.5 
68.0 
67.5 
67.0 
66.5 
66.0 
65.5 
65.0 
64.5 
64.0 
63.5 

83.4 

82.8 
82.2 
81.6 
81.0 
80.4 
79.8 
79.2 
78.6 
78.0 
77.4 
76.8 
76.2 

97.3 

96.6 
95.9 
95.2 
94.5 
93.8 
93.1 
92.4 
91.7 
91.0 
90.3 
89.6 
88.9 

111.2 
110.4 
109.6 
108.8 
108.0 
107.2 
106.4 
105.6 
104.8 
104.0 
108.2 
102.4 
101.6 

125.1 
124.2 
123.3 
122.4 
121.5 
120.6 
119.7 
118.8 
117.9 
117.0 
116.1 
115.2 
114.3 

LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


445 


No.  340  L.  531.] 

[No.  379  L.  579. 

N. 

340 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 
350 
1 
2 
3 
4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

360 
1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

370 
1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

2245 
3518 
4787 
6053 
7315 
8574 
9829 

7 

2372 
3645 
4914 
61RO 
7441 
8699 
9954 

8 

9 

Diff. 

531479 
2754 
4026 
5294 
6558 
7819 
9076 

1607 
2882 
4153 
5421 
6685 
7945 
9202 

1734 

3009 
4280 
5547 
6811 
8071 
9327 

1862 
3136 
4407 
5674 
6937 
8197 
9452 

1990 
3264 
4584 
5800  i 
7063 
8322 
9578  j 

2117 
3391 
4661 
5927 
7189 
8448 
9703 

2500 
3772 
5041 
6306 
7567 
8825 

2627 
3899 
5167 
6432 
7693 
8951 

128 
127 
127 
126 
126 
126 

125 
125 
125 
124 

124 

124 
123 
123 

1.23 
122 
122 
121 
121 
121 
120 
120 
120 

119 
119 
119 
119 

118 
118 
118 

117 

117 
117 
116 
116 
116 
115 
115 
115 
114 

0079 
1330 
2576 
3820 

5060 
6296 
7529 
8758 
9984 

0204 
1454 
2701 
3944 

5183 

6419 
7652 
8881 

540329 
1579 
2825 

4068 
5307 
6543 

7775 
9003 

0455 
1704 
2950 

4192 
5431 
6666 
7898 
9126 

0580 
1829 
3074 

4316 
5555 
6789 
8021 
9249 

0705 
1953 
3199 

4440 
5678 
6913 
8144 
9371 

0830 
2078 
3323 

4564 

5802 
7036 
8267 
9494 

0955 
2203 
3447 

4688 
5925 
7159 
8389 
9616 

1080 
2327 
3571 

4812 
6049 
7282 
8512 
9739 

1205 
2452 
3696 

4936 
6172 
7405 
8635 
9861 

0106 
1328 
2547 
3762 
4973 
6182 

7387 
8589 
9787 

550228 
1450 
2668 
3883 
5094 

6303 
7507 
8709 
9907 

0351 
1572 
2790 
4004 
5215 

6423 
7627 

8829 

0473 
1694 
2911 
4126 
5336 

6544 

7748 
8948 

0595 
1816 
3033 
4247 
5457 

6664 
7868 
9068 

0717 
1938 
3155 
4368 
5578 

6785 
7988 
9188 

0840 
2060 
3276 

4489 
5699 

6905 
8108 
9308 

0962 

2181 
3398 
4610 
6820 

7026 
8228 
9428 

1084 
2303 
3519 
4731 
5940 

7146 
8349 
9548 

1206 
2425 
3640 

4852 
6061 

7267 
8469 
9667 

0026 
1221 
2412 
3600 
4784 
5966 
7144 

8319 
9491 

0146 
1340 
2531 
3718 
4903 
6084 
7262 

8436 
9608 

0265 
1459 
2(550 
3837 
5021 
6202 
7379 

8554 
9725 

0385 
1578 
2769 
3955 
5139 
6320 
7497 

8671 

9842 

0504 
1698 
2887 
4074 
5257 
6437 
7614 

8788 
9959 

1126~ 
2291 
3452 
4610 
5765 
6917 
8066 
9212 

0624 
1817 
3006 
4192 
5376 
6555 
7732 

8905 

0743 
1936 
3125 
4311 
5494 
6073 
7H49 

9023 

0863 
2055 
3244 
4429 
5612 
67!)1 
7907 

9140 

0309 
1476 
2639 
3800 
4957 
6111 
7262 
8410 
9555 

0982 
2174 
3362 
4548 
5730 
6909 
8084 

9257 

561101 
2293 
3-481 
4666 
5848 
7026 

8202 
9374 

0076 
1243 
2407 
3568 
4726 
5880 
7032 
8181 
9326 

0193 
1359 
2523 
3684 
4841 
5996 
7147 
8295 
9441 

0426 
1592 
2755 
3915 
5072 
6226 
7377 
8525 
9669 

570543 
1709 

2872 
4031 
5188 
6341 
7492 
8639 

0660 
1825 
2988 
4147 
5303 
6457 
7607 
8754 

0776 
1942 
3104 
4263 
5419 
6572 
7722 
8868 

0893 
2058 
3220 
4379 
5534 
6687 
7836 
8983 

1010 
2174 
3336 
4494 
5650 
6802 
7951 
9097 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

128   12.8 
127   12.7 
126   12.6 
125   12.5 
124   12.4 
123   12.3 
122   12.2 
121   12.1 
120   12.0 
119   11.9 

25.6 
25.4 
25.2 
25.0 
24.8 
24.6 
24.4 
24.2 
24.0 
23.8 

38.4 
38.1 
37.8 
37.5 
37.2 
36.9 
36.6 
36.3 
36.0 
35.7 

51.2 

50.8 
50.4 
50.0 
49.6 
49.2 
48.8 
48.4 
48.0 
47.6 

64.0 
63.5 
63.0 
62.5 
62.0 
61.5 
61.0 
60.5 
60.0 
59.5 

76.8 
76.2 
75.6 
75.0 
74.4 
73.8 
73.2 
72.6 
72.0 
71.4 

89.6 
88.9 
88.2 
87.5 
86.8 
86.1 
85.4 
84.7 
84.0 
83.3 

102.4 
101.6 
100.8 
100.0 
99.2 
98.4 
97.6 
96.8 
96.0 
95.2 

115.2 
114.3 
113.4 
112.5 
111.6 
110.7 
109.8 
108.9 
108.0 
107.1 

44G 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


No.  380.  L.  579.] 

[No.  414  L.  617. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

380 

579784 

9898 

0469 

0583 

0697 

0811 

114 

0012 

0126 

0241 

0355 

1 

580925 

1039 

1153 

1267 

1381 

1495 

1608  r 

"22 

1830 

1950 

2 

2063 

2177 

2291 

240 

4 

2518 

2631 

27'45 

2t 

w8 

297X 

3085 

3 

3199 

3312 

3426 

3539 

3652 

3765 

3879 

3992 

4105 

4218 

4 

4331 

4444 

4557 

467 

0 

4783 

4896 

5009 

5] 

23 

523J 

5348 

113 

5 

5461 

5574 

5686 

579 

.) 

5912 

6024 

6137 

65 

>50 

636X 

, 

6475 

6 

6587 

6700 

6812 

6925 

7037 

7149 

7262 

7'374 

7486 

7599 

7 

7711 

7823 

7935 

804 

7 

8160 

8272 

8384 

fr 

196 

860J 

! 

8720 

112 

8 

8832 

8944 

9056 

9167 

9279 

9391 

9503 

9615 

9726 

9838 

9950 

0061 

0173 

028 

j. 

0396 

0507 

0619 

0730 

0843 

0953 

390 

591065 

1176 

1287 

1399 

1510 

1621 

1732 

1843 

1955 

2066 

1 

2177 

2288 

2399 

251 

0 

2621 

2732 

2843 

2 

)5i 

306 

1 

3175 

111 

2 

3286 

3397 

3508 

3618 

3729 

3840 

3950 

4061 

417 

1 

4282 

3 

4393 

4503 

4614 

472 

4 

4834 

4945 

5055 

5 

65 

527 

3 

5386 

4 

5496 

5606 

5717 

5827 

5937 

604? 

6157 

6267 

637' 

6487 

5 

6597 

67'07 

6817 

692 

7 

7037 

7146 

7256 

r 

sot; 

747 

7586 

110 

6 

7695 

7805 

7914 

8024 

8134 

8243 

8353 

8462 

8572 

8681 

7 

0 

8791 
9883 

8900 
9992 

9009 

9119 

9228 

9337 

9446 

9556 

9665 

9774 

o 

0101 

0210 

0319 

0428 

0537 

0646 

0755 

0864 

109 

9 

600973 

1083 

1191 

1299 

1408 

1517 

1625 

1734 

1843 

1951 

400 

2060 

2169 

2277 

23? 

0 

2494 

2603 

2711 

2819 

2928 

3036 

1 

3144 

3253 

3361 

3469 

3577 

3686 

3794 

3902 

4010 

4118 

108 

2 

4226 

4334 

4442 

455 

0 

4658 

4766 

4874 

4 

)K3 

508 

3 

5197 

3 

5305 

5413 

5521 

56S 

8 

5736 

5844 

5951 

(i 

159 

6161 

6274 

4 

6381 

6489 

6596 

6704 

6811 

6919 

7026 

7 

133 

7241 

7348 

5 

7455 

7562 

7669 

777 

7 

7884 

7991 

8098 

8 

JUS 

831 

2 

8419 

107 

6 

8526 
9594 

8633 
9<01 

8740 
J808 

8847 
QQ1-1* 

8954 

9061 

9167 

9274 

9381 

9488 

yji 

•x 

0021 

0128 

0234 

0341 

0447 

0554 

8 

610660 

0767 

0873 

0979 

1086 

1192 

1298 

1405 

1511 

1617 

9 

1723 

1829 

1936 

2043 

2148 

2254 

3360 

2466 

2572 

267'8 

106 

410 

2784 

2890 

2996 

3103 

3207 

3313 

3419  3525 

3630 

3736 

1 

3842 

3947 

4053 

41E 

9 

4264 

4370 

4475 

4 

•>si 

468 

j 

4792 

2 

4897 

5003 

5108 

5213 

5319 

5424 

5529 

5634 

5740 

58-15 

3 

5950 

6055 

6160 

62t 

5 

6370 

6476 

6581   61 

iSli 

6791 

3 

6895 

105 

4 

7000 

7105 

7210 

7315 

7420 

1  7525 

7629  7734 

7885) 

7943 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

2      3 

4 

5 

6 

JJL; 

8 

9 

118   11.8 

23.6    35.4 

47.2 

59.0 

70.8 

82.6 

94.4 

106.2 

117   11.7 

23.4    35.1 

46.8 

58.5 

70.2 

81.9 

93.6 

105.3 

116   11.6 

23.2    34.8 

46.4 

58.0 

69.6 

81.2 

92.8 

104.4 

115   11.5 

23.0    34.5 

46.0 

57.5 

69.0 

80.5 

92.0 

103.5 

114   11.4 

22.8    34.2 

45.6 

57.0 

68.4 

79.8 

91.2 

102.6 

113   11.3 

22.6    33.9 

45.2 

56.5 

67.8 

79.1 

90.4 

101.7 

113   11.2 

22.4    33.6 

44.8 

56.0 

67.2 

78.4 

89.6 

100.8 

111   11.1 

22.2    33.3 

44.4 

55.5 

66.6 

77.7 

88.8 

99.9 

110   11.0 

22.0    33.0 

44.0 

55.0 

66.0 

77.0 

88.0 

99.0 

109   10.9 

21.8    32.7 

43.6 

54.5 

65.4 

76.3 

87.2 

98.1 

108   10.8 

21.6    32.4 

43.2 

54.0 

64.8 

75.6 

86.4 

97.2 

107   10.7 

21.4    32.1 

42.8 

53.5 

64.2 

74.9 

85.6 

96.3 

106   10.6 

21.2    31.8 

42.4 

53.0 

63.6 

74.2 

84.8 

95.4 

105   10.5 
105   10.5 

21.0    31.5 
21.0    31.5 

42.0 
42.0 

52.5 
52.5 

63.0 
63.0 

73.5 
73.5 

M:8 

Bi 

104   10.4 

20.8    31.2 

41.6 

52.0 

62.4 

72.8 

83.2 

93.6 

LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS. 


447 


No.  415  L.  618.] 

[No.  459  L.  662 

N. 

0 

1 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

415 
6 

7 
8 
9 

420 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

430 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

440 
1 
2 
3 
4 
•  5 
6 

8 
9 

450 
1 
2 
3 

4 
5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

618048 
9093 

8153 
9198 

8257 
9302 

0344 
1384 
2421 

3456 

4488 
5518 
6546 
7571 
8593 
9613 

0631 
1647 
2660 

3670 
4679 
5685 
6688 
7690 
8689 
9686 

8362 
9406 

8466 
9511 

8571 
9615 

8676 
9719 

8780 
9824 

8884 
9928 

8989 

0032 
1072 
2110 
3146 

4179 
5210 
6238 
7263 

8287 
9308 

105 
104 

103 

102 

101 
100 

99 

98 

87 
96 

95 

620136 
1176 
2214 

3249 

4282 
5312 
6340 
7866 
8389 
9410 

0240 
1280 
2318 

3353 

4385 
5415 
6443 
7468 
8491 
9512 

0448 
1488 
2525 

3559 
4591 
5621 
6648 
7673 
8695 
9715 

0733 
1748 
2761 

3771 
4779 
57'85 
6789 
7790 
8789 
9785 

0552 
1592 

2628 

3663 
4695 
5724 
6751 

7775 
8797 
9817 

0656 
1695 
2732 

3766 
4798 
5827 
6853 
7878 
8900 
9919 

1951 
2963 

3973 
4981 
5986 
6989 
7990 
8988 
9984 

0760 
1799 
2835 

3869 
4901 
5929 
6956 
7980 
9002 

0864 
1903 
2939 

3973 
5004 
6032 

7058 
8082 
9104 

0968 
2007 
3042 

4076 
5107 
6135 
7161 
8185 
9206 

0021 
1038 
2052 
3064 

4074 

5081 
6087 
7089 
8090 
9088 

0123 
1139 
2153 
3165 

4175 

5182 
6187 
7189 
8190 

9188 

0224 
1241 
2255 
3266 

4276 
5283 
6287 
7290 
8290 
9287 

0326 
1342 
2356 
3367 

4376 
5383 
6388 
7390 
8389 
9387 

630428 
1444 
2457 

3468 
4477 
5484 

6488 
7490 
8489 
9486 

0530 
1545 
2559 

3569 
4578 
5584 
6588 
7590 
8589 
9586 

0835 
1849 
2862 

3872 
4880 
5886 
6889 
7890 
8888 
9885 

0084 
1077 
2069 
3058 

4044 
5029 
6011 
6992 
7'969 
8945 
9919 

0183 
1177 
2168 
3156 

4143 

5127 
6110 
7089 
8067 
9043 

0283 
1276 
2267 
3255 

4242 
5226 
6208 
7187 
8165 
9140 

0382 
1375 
2366 
3354 

4340 
5324 
6306 

7285 
8262 
9237 

640181 
1474 
2465 

3453 
4439 
5422 
6404 
7383 
8360 
9335 

0581 
1573 
2563 

3551 
4537 
5521 

6502 
7481 
8458 
9432 

0405 
1375 
2343 

3309 
4273 
5235 
6194 
7152 
8107 
9060 

0680 
1G72 
2662 

3650 
4636 
5619 
6600 
7'579 
8555 
9530 

0779 
1771 
2761 

3749 
4734 
5717 
6698 
7676 
8653 
9627 

0879 
1871 
2860 

3847 
4832 
5815 
6796 
7774 
8750 
9724 

0978 
1970 
2959 

3946 
4931 
5913 
6894 
7872 
8848 
9821 

0016 
0987 
1956 
2923 

3888 
4850 
5810 
6769 
7725 
8679 
9631 

0113 

1084 
2053 
3019 

3984 
4946 
5906 
6864 
7820 
8774 
9726 

0210 
1181 
2150 
3116 

4080 
5042 
6002 
6960 
7916 
8870 
9821 

650308 
1278 
2246 

3213 
4177 
5138 
6098 
7'056 
8011 
8965 
9916 

0502 
1472 
2440 

3405 
4369 
5331 
6290 

7247 
8202 
9165 

0599 
1569 
2536 

3502 
4465 
5427 
6386 
7343 
8298 
9250 

0696 
1666 
2633 

3598 
4562 
5523 
6482 
7438 
8393 
9346 

1  0793 
1762 
2730 

3695 
1  4658 
5619 
6577 
7534 
8488 
9441 

0890 
1859 
2826 

3791 

4754 
5715 
6673 
7629 
8584 
9536 

0011 
0960 
1907 

0106 
1055 
2002 

0201 
1150 
2096 

0296 
1245 
2191 

0391 
1339 

2286 

0486 
1434 
2380 

0581 
1529 
2475 

0676 
1623 
2569 

0771 

1718 
2663 

660865 
1813 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

105   10.5 
104   10.4 
103   10.3 
102   10.2 
101   10.1 
100   10.0 
99    9.9 

21.0    31.5    42.0 
20N.8    31.2    41.6 
20.6    30.9    41.2 
20.4    30.6    40.8 
20.2    30.3    40.4 
20.0    30.0    40.0 
19.8    29.7    39.6 

52.5 
52.0 
51.5 
51.0 
50.5 
50.0 
49.5 

63.0 
62.4 
61.8 
61.2 
60.6 
60.0 
59.4 

73.5 

72  .8 
72  1 
71.4 
70  7 
700 
69.3 

84.0 
83.2 
82.4 
81.6 
80.8 
80.0 
79.2 

94.5 
93.6 
92.7 
91.8 
90.9 
90.0 
89.1 
» 

448 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


No.  460  L.  662.] 

[No.  499  L.  698. 

8 

9 

Diff. 

. 

. 

460 

662758 

2852 

2947 

3041 

3135 

3230 

3324 

3418 

3512 

3607 

1 

3701 

3795 

3889 

39* 

8  4078 

4172 

4266  4360 

445 

4 

4548 

2 

4642 

4736 

4830 

41); 

&4 

5018 

5112 

5206  5299 

539 

3 

5487 

94 

3 

5581 

5675 

5769 

58f 

B 

5956 

6050 

6143 

6237 

6331 

6424 

4 

C518 

6612 

6705 

67! 

W 

6892 

6986 

7079 

7173 

726 

6 

7360 

5 

7453 

7546 

7640 

77J 

53 

7826 

7920 

8013 

8106 

819 

9 

8293 

6 

8386 

8479 

857'2 

8665 

8759 

8852 

8945 

9038 

9131 

9224 

9317 

9410 

9503 

95< 

Hi 

9689 

9782 

9875 

9967 

006 

n 

0153 

93 

8 

670246 

0339 

0431 

0524 

0617 

0710 

0802 

0895 

0988 

1080 

9 

1173 

1265 

1358 

1451 

1543 

1636 

1728 

1821 

1913 

2005 

470 

2098 

2190 

2283 

2375 

2467 

2560 

2652 

2744 

2836 

2929 

1 

3021 

3113 

3205 

32< 

»: 

3390 

3482 

3574 

3666 

375 

8 

3850 

2 

3942 

4034 

4126 

4218 

4310 

4402 

4494 

4586  !  467 

7 

4769 

92 

3 

4861 

4953 

5045 

51 

IT 

5228 

5320 

5412 

5503  558 

5 

5687 

4 

5778 

5870 

5962 

60 

>3 

6145 

6236 

6328 

6419 

651 

1 

6602 

5 

6694 

6785 

6876 

til) 

58 

7059 

7151 

7242 

7333 

7424 

7516 

6 

7607 

7698 

7789 

781 

SI 

7972 

8063 

8154 

8245 

833 

(j 

8427 

8518 
9428 

8609 
9519 

8700 
9610 

8791 
9700 

8882 
J<91 

8973 

9882 

9064 
9973 

9155 

9246 

9337 

91 

0063 

0154 

0245 

9 

680336 

0426 

0517 

0607 

0698 

0789 

0879 

0970 

1060 

1151 

480 

1241 

1332 

1422 

1513 

1603 

1693 

1784 

1874 

1964 

2055 

1 

2145 

2235 

2326 

24 

Hi 

2506 

2596 

2686 

2777 

286 

7 

2957 

2 

3047 

3137 

3227 

33 

17 

3407 

3497 

3587 

3677 

37€ 

3857 

90 

3 

3947 

4037 

4127 

4217 

4307 

4396 

4486 

4576 

46€ 

6 

4756 

4 

4845 

4935 

5025 

51 

4 

5204 

5294 

5383 

5473 

55€ 

a 

5652 

5 

5742 

5831 

5921 

60 

10 

6100 

6189 

6279 

6368 

645 

« 

6547 

6 

6636 

€726 

6815 

<;<» 

M 

6994 

7083 

7172 

7261 

7&51 

7440 

7 

7529 

7618 

7707 

77 

16 

7886 

7975 

8064 

8153 

824 

2 

8331 

89 

8 

8420 

8509 

8598 

86 

S7 

8776 

8865 

8953 

9042 

91S 

1 

9220 

g 

9309 

9398 

9486 

96 

•5 

9664 

9753 

9841 

9930 

001 

(i 

0107 

490 

690196 

0285 

0373 

0462 

0550 

0639 

0728 

0816 

0905 

0993 

1 

1081 

1170 

1258 

1* 

17 

1435 

1524 

1612 

1700 

178 

y 

1877 

2 

1965 

2053 

2142 

2230 

2318 

2406 

2494 

2583 

2871 

2759 

3 

2847 

2935 

3023 

31 

1 

3199 

3287 

3375 

3463 

S55 

i 

3639 

88 

4 

3727 

3815 

3903 

80 

a 

4078 

4166 

4254 

4342 

443 

0 

4517 

5 

4605 

4693 

4781 

481 

58 

4956 

5044 

5131 

5219 

5307 

5394 

6 

5482 

5569 

5657 

.07- 

14 

5832 

5919 

6007 

6094 

618 

2 

6269 

7 

6356 

6444 

6531 

66 

8 

6706 

6793 

6880 

6968 

705 

5 

7142 

8 

7229 

7317 

7404 

74. 

)1 

7578 

7665 

7752 

7839 

792 

0 

8014 

9 

8100 

8188 

8275 

8» 

52 

8449 

8535 

8622 

8709 

8796 

8883 

87 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff 

1 

2     3 

4 

5 

6      7 

8 

9 

98 

9.8 

19.6    29.4 

39.2 

49.0 

58.8    68.6 

78.4 

88.2 

97 

9.7 

19.4    29.1 

38.8 

48.5 

58.2    67.9 

77.6 

87.3 

96 

9.6 

19.2    28.8 

38.4 

48.0 

57.6    67.2 

76.8 

86.4 

95 

9.5 

19.0    28.5 

38.0 

47.5 

57.0    66.5 

76.0 

85.5 

94 

9.4 

18.8    28.2 

37.6 

47.0 

56.4    65.8 

75.2 

84.6 

93 

9.3 

18.6    27.9 

37.2 

46.5 

55.8    65.1 

74.4 

83.7 

92 

9.2 

18.4    27.6 

36.8 

46.0 

55.2    64.4 

73.6 

82.8 

91 

9.1 

18.2    27.3 

36.4 

45.5 

54.6    63.7 

72.8 

81.9 

90 

9.0 

18.0    27.0 

36.0 

45.0 

54.0    63.0 

72.0 

81.0 

89 

8.9 

17.8    26.7 

35  6 

44.5 

53.4    62.3 

71.2 

80.1 

88 

8.8 

17.6    26.4 

35^2 

44.0 

52.8    61.6 

70.4 

79.2 

87 

8.7  1  17.4 

26.1 

34  .-8 

48.5 

'52.2   '60.9 

69  6 

78:3  ! 

86 

8.6   17.2 

25.8 

31.4 

43.0 

51.6    00.2 

68.8 

77.4 

LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS. 


440 


No.  500  L.  698.1                                   tN°-  5U  L-  ™Q- 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

9 

Diff. 

500 
1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

510 
1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

520 
1 
2 

d 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

530 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

8 
9 

540 
1 
2 
3 

4 

698970  !  9057 
9838  9924 

9144 

9231 

9317 

9404 

9491 

9578 

9664 

9751 

0011 
0877 
1741 
2603 
3463 
4322 
5179 
6035 
6888 

7740 
8591 
9440 

0098 
0963 
1827 
2689 
3549 
4408 
5265 
6120 
6974 

7826 
8676 
9524 

0184 
1050 
1913  i 
2775 
3635 
4494  i 
5350  i 
62G6 
7059 

7911 
8761 
9009 

0271 
1136 
1999 
2861 
3721 
4579 
5436 
6291 
7144 

7996 
8846 
9G94 

0358 
1222 
2086 
2947 
3807 
4665 
5522 
6376 
7229 

8081 
8931 
9779 

0444 
1309 
2172 
3033 
3893 
4751 
5607 
6462 
7315 

8166 
9015 
9863 

0531 
1395 
2258 
3119 
3979 
4837 
5693 
6547 
7400 

8251 
9100 
9948 

0794 
1639 
2481 
3323 
4162 
5000 
5836 

6671 
7504 
8336 
9165 
9994 

0617 
1482 
2344 
3205 
4065 
4922 
5778 
6632 
7485 

8336 
9185 

~0033~ 
0879 
1723 
2566 
3407 
4246 
5084 
5920 

6754 

7587 
8419 
9248 

86 

85 

84 
83 

82 
81 

80 

700704  ! 
1568 
2431 
3291 
4151 
5008 
5864 
6718 

7570 
8421 
9270 

0790 
1654 
2517 
3377 
4236 
5094 
5949 
6803 

7655 
8506 
9355 

710117 
0963 
1807 
2650 
3491 
4330 
5167 

6003 
6838 
7671 
8502 
9331 

0202 
1048 
1892 
2734 
3575 
4414 
5251 

6087 
6921 
7754 
8585 
9414 

0287 
1132 
1976 
2818 
3659 
4497 
5335 

6170 
7004 

7837 
8668 
9497 

0371 
1217 
2060 

2902 
3742 
4581 
5418 

6254 
7088 
7920 
8751 
9580 

0456 
1301 
2144 

2986 
3826 
4665 
5502 

6337 
7171 
8003 
8834 
9663 

0540 
1385 
2229 
3070 
3910 
4749 
5586 

6421 

7254 
8086 
8917 
9745 

0625 
1470 
2313 
3154 
3994 
4833 
5669 

6504 

7338 
8169 
9000 
9828 

0710 
1554 
2397 
S238 
4078 
4916 
5753 

6588 
7421 
8253 
9083 
9911 

0077 
0903 
1728 
2552 
3374 
4194 

5013 
5830 
6646 
7460 
8273 
9084 
9893 

720159 
0986 
1811 
2634 
3456 

4276 
5095 
5912 
6727 
7541 
8354 
9165 
9974 

0242 
1068 
1893 
2716 
3538 

4358 
5176 
5993 
G809 
7623 
8435 
9246 

0325 
1151 
1975 
2798 
3620 

4440 

5258 
6075 
6890 
7704 
8516 
9327 

0407 
1233 
2058 
2881 
3702 

4522 
5340 
6156 
6972 
7785 
8597 
9408 

0490 
1316  | 
2140 
2963  ' 
3784 

4604 
5422 
6238 
7053 
7866 
8678 
9489 

0573 
1398 
2222 
3045 
3866 

4685 
5503 
6320 
7134 
7948 
8759 
9570 

0055 
1481 
2305 
3127 
.3948 

4767 
5585 
6401 
7216 
8029 
8841 
9651 

0738 
1563 
2387 
3209 
4030 

4849 
5667 
6483 
7297 
8110 
8922 
9732 

0821 
1646 
2469 
3291 
4112 

49bl 

5748 
6564 
7379 
8191 
9003 
9813 

j  0055 
0863 
1669 

2474 

3278 
4079 
4880 
5679 

0136 
0944 
1750 

2555 
3358 
4160 
4960 
5759 

0217 
1024 
1830 

2635 
3438 
4240 
5040 
5838 

0298 
1105 
1911 

2715 
3518 
4320 
5120 
5918 

a378 
1186 
1991 

2796 
3598 
4400 
5200 
5998 

0459 
1266 
2072 

2876 
3679 
4480 
5279 
6078 

0540 
1347 
2152 

2956 
3759 
4560 
5359 
6157 

0621 
1428 
2233 

3037 
3839 
4640 
5439 
6237 

0702 
1508 
2313 

3117 
3919 
4720 
5519 
6317 

730782 
1589 

2394 
8197 
3999 
4800 
5599 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

6      7 

8 

9 

87    8.7 
66    8.6 
«5    8.5 
&4    8.4 

17.4    26.1    34.8 
17.2    25.8    34.4 
17.0    25.5    34.0 
16.8    25.2    33.6 

43.5 
43.0 
42.5 
42.0 

52.2    60.9 
51.6    60.2 
51.0    59.5 
50.4    58.8 

69.6 
68.8 
68.0 
67.2 

78.3 
77.4 
76.5 
75.6 

450 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


No.  545  L.  736.] 

[No.  584  L.  767. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

9   Diff. 

545 

736397  6476  6556 

6635 

6715 

6795 

6874 

6954 

7034  7113 

6 

7193   7272  7352 

743 

1 

7511   7590 

7670 

48 

7'829  i  7'908 

7 

7987 

8067 

8146 

8225 

8305   8384 

8463 

8543 

8622  8701 

8 

8781 

8860 

8939 

901 

8 

9097   9177 

9256 

q 

m 

9414  ,  9493 

g 

9572 

9651   9731 

981 

o 

9889   9968 

0047 

A 

•>r. 

550 

740363 

0442 

0521 

0600 

0678 

0757 

0836 

U±/vU 

0915 

0205  |  0284 
0994   1073 

1 

1152 

1230 

1309 

138 

<s 

1467 

1546 

1624 

1 

"03 

1782 

1860 

2 

1939 

2018 

2096 

217 

5 

2254 

2332 

2411 

I 

i8{) 

2568 

2647 

3 

2725 

2804 

2882 

2961 

3039 

3118 

3196 

3275 

3353 

3431 

4 

3510 

3588 

3667 

374 

5 

3823 

3902 

3980 

4 

)58 

4136 

4215 

5 

4293 

4371 

4449 

452 

8 

4606 

4684 

4762 

4 

•540 

4919 

4997 

6 

5075 

5153 

5231 

5309 

5387 

5465 

5543 

5621 

5699 

5777 

78 

7 

5855 

5933  6011 

608 

g 

6167 

6245 

6323 

I 

K)l 

6479 

6556 

8 

6634 

6712 

6790 

6868 

6945 

7023  7101 

7179 

7256 

7334 

9 

7412 

7489 

7567 

7645 

7722 

7800 

7878 

7955 

8033 

8110 

560 

8188 

8266 

8343 

8421 

8498 

8576  8653 

8731 

8808 

8885 

1 

8963 

9040 

91J8 

918 

5 

9272 

i  9350  9427 

9 

-)04 

9582 

9659 

2 

9736 

9814 

9891 

car 

Q 

Cif\AK. 

01  2^   0200 

1 

MM 

3 

750508 

0586 

0663  0740 

0817 

\}i^O    \JZ\J(J 

;  0894  ;  0971 

\J&t  4 

1048 

1125 

1202 

4 

1279 

1356 

1433  151 

0  1587 

1  16C4   1741 

1 

S18 

1895 

1972 

5 

2048 

2125 

2202  227 

9  2356 

i  2433  2509 

8 

58t> 

2663 

27'40 

77 

6 

2816 

2893 

2970  304 

7  !  3123 

:  3200  3277 

3 

553 

3430 

3506 

7 

3583 

3660 

3736  3813  3889 

i  3966  4042 

4119 

4195 

4272 

8 

4348 

4425 

4501   457 

8  4654 

!  4730  4807 

4 

388 

4960 

5036 

9 

5112 

5189 

5265 

5341   5417 

5494  5570 

5646  5722 

5799 

570 

5875 

5951 

6027 

6103 

6180 

'  6256 

6332 

6408  6484 

6560 

1 

6636 

6712 

6788 

68( 

A 

6940 

7016  7092  7 

168  i  7'244 

7320 

76 

2 

7396 

7472 

7548 

76$ 

A  77'00 

7775  i  7851   7 

927  8003 

8079 

3 

8155 

8230 

8306 

838 

2  8458 

8533  :  8609  ;  8 

685  l  8761 

8836 

4 

8912 

8988 

9063 

9139  !  9214 

9290  9S66  9441   9517 

9592 

5 

9668 

9743 

9819 

ggf 

4   QQ7O 

0045  01  21 

Q 

1  QR  l  flOCO 

0347 

6 

760422 

0498 

0573 

0649 

0724 

0799  0875 

0950   1025 

1101 

7 

1176 

1251 

1326 

14( 

Q 

1477 

1552   1627 

1 

702  1778 

8 

1928 

2003 

2078 

18 

2228 

2303  !  237'8 

2453  2529 

2604 

rw 

9 

2679 

2754  2829 

2904 

2978 

3053  81S8 

3203  3278 

3353 

(0 

580 

3428 

3503 

3578 

3K 

e 

3727 

1  3802  3877 

3952 

4027 

4101 

1 

4176 

4251 

4326  4400 

4475 

4550  4624 

4699  4774 

4848 

2 

4923 

4998  5072  51^ 

17 

5221 

5296  !  5370 

5 

445  5520 

5594 

3 

5669 

5743 

5818 

58! 

>2 

5966 

6041 

6115 

6 

190  6264 

(5338 

4 

6413 

6487 

6562 

66J 

JO 

6710 

6785  6859 

6933  7007 

7'082 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

2      3 

4 

5 

6 

7      8 

9 

83    8.3 

16.6    24.9 

33.2 

41.5 

49.8 

58.1    66.4 

74.7 

82    8.2 

16.4    24.6 

32.8 

41.0 

49.2 

57.4    65.6 

73.8 

81    8.1 

16.2    24.3 

32.4 

40.5 

48.6 

56.7    64.8 

72.9 

80    8.0 

16.0    24.0 

32.0 

40.0 

48.0 

56.0    64.0 

7'2.0 

79    7.9 

15.8    23.7 

31.6 

39.5 

47.4 

55.3    63.2 

71.1 

78    7.8 

15.6    23.4 

31.2 

39.0 

46.8 

54.6    62.4 

70.2 

77    7.7 

15.4    23.1 

30.8 

38.5 

46.2 

53.9    61.6 

69.3 

76    7.6 

15.2    22.8 

30.4 

38.0 

45.6 

53.2    60.8 

68.4 

75    7.5 

15.0    22.5 

30.0 

37.5 

45.0 

52.5    60.0 

67.5 

74    7.4 

14.8    22.2 

29.6 

37.0 

44.4 

51.8    59.2 

66.6 

LOGARITHMS   OF    NUMBERS. 


451 


No.  585  L.  767.]                                  [No.  629  L.  799. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

585 

76715G 

7230 

7304 

7379 

7453 

7527 

7601 

7675 

7749 

7823 

6 

7898 

7972 

8046 

8120 

8194 

8268 

8342 

8416 

8490  8564 

74 

7 

8638 

8712 

8786 

8860 

8934 

9008 

9082 

9156 

9230  9303 

8 

9377 

9451 

9525 

9599 

9673 

9746 

9820 

9894 

9968 

0042 

9 

770115 

0189 

0263 

0336 

0410 

0484 

0557 

0631 

0705 

0778 

590 

0852 

0926 

0999 

1073 

1146 

1220 

1293 

1367 

1440 

1514 

1    1587 

1661 

1734 

1808 

1881 

1955  2028 

2102 

2175 

2248 

2    2322 

2395 

2468 

2542 

2615 

2688 

2762 

2835 

2908 

2981 

3 

3055 

3128 

3201 

3274 

3348 

3421 

3494 

3567 

3640 

3713 

4 

3786 

3860 

3933 

4006 

4079 

4152 

4225 

4298 

4371 

4444 

73 

5 

4517 

4590 

4(563 

4736 

4809 

4882 

4955 

5028 

5100 

•5173 

6 

5246 

5319 

5392 

5465 

5538 

|  5610 

5683 

5756 

5829 

5902 

7 

5974 

6047 

6120 

6193 

6265 

6338 

6411 

6483 

6556 

6629 

8 

6701 

6774 

6846 

6919 

6992 

7064 

7137 

7209 

7282 

7354 

9 

7427 

7499 

7572 

7644 

7717 

7789 

7862 

7934 

8006 

8079 

GOO 

8151 

8224 

8296 

8368 

8441 

8513 

8585 

8658 

8730 

8802 

1 

8874 

8947 

9019 

9091 

9163 

9236 

9308 

9380 

9452 

9524 

qeq« 

Qfifi') 

9741 

9813 

9885 

9957 

yoyo 

yoOtJ 

0029 

0101 

0173 

9245 

3 

780317 

0389  1  0461 

0533 

0605 

0677 

0749 

0821 

0893 

0965 

72 

4 

1037 

1109 

1181 

1253 

1324 

1396 

1468 

1540 

1612 

1684 

5 

1755 

1827 

1899 

1971 

2042 

2114 

2186 

2258 

2329 

2401 

6 

2473 

2544 

2616 

2688 

2759 

2831 

2902 

2974 

3046 

3117 

7 

3189 

3260 

3332 

3403 

3475 

3546 

3618 

3689 

3761 

3832 

8 

3904 

3975 

4046 

4118 

4189 

4261 

4332 

4403 

4475 

4546 

9 

4617 

4689 

4760 

4831 

4902 

4974 

5045 

5116 

5187 

5259 

610 

5330 

5401 

5472 

5543 

5615 

5686 

5757 

5828 

5899 

5970 

1 

6041 

6112 

6183 

6254 

6325 

6396 

6467 

6538 

6609 

6680 

71 

2 

6751 

6822 

6893 

6964 

7035 

71^6 

7177 

7248 

7319 

7390 

3 

7460 

7531 

7602 

7673 

7744 

78i5 

7885 

7956 

8027 

8098 

4 

8168 

8239 

8310 

8381 

8451 

8522 

8593 

8663 

8734 

8804 

5 

8875 

8946 

9016 

9087 

9157 

9228 

9299 

9369 

9440 

9510 

9581 

9651 

9722 

9792 

9863 

9933 

0004 

0074 

0144 

0215 

7 

790285 

0356 

0426 

0496 

0567 

I  0637 

0707 

0778 

0848 

0918 

8 

0988 

1059 

1129 

1199 

1269 

1340 

1410 

1480 

1550 

1620 

9 

1691 

1761 

1831 

1901 

1971 

2041 

2111 

2181 

2252 

2322 

620 

2392 

2462 

2532 

2602 

2672 

2742 

2812 

2882 

2952 

3022 

70 

1 

3092 

3162 

3231 

syoi 

3371 

3441 

3511 

&581 

3651 

3721 

2 

3790 

3860 

3930 

4000 

4070 

4139 

4209 

4279 

4349 

4418 

3 

4488 

4558 

4627 

4607 

4767 

!  4836 

4906 

4976 

5045 

5115 

4 

5185 

5254 

5324 

5393 

5463 

5532 

5602 

5672 

5741 

5811 

5 

5880 

5949 

6019 

6088 

6158 

6227 

6297 

6366 

6436 

6505 

6 

6574 

6644 

6713 

6782 

6852 

6921 

6990 

7060 

7129 

7198 

7 

7268 

7337 

7406 

7475 

7545 

7614 

7683 

7752 

7821 

7890 

8 

7960 

8029 

8098 

8167 

8236 

8305 

8374 

8443 

8513 

8582 

9 

8651 

8720 

8789 

8858 

8927 

8995 

9065 

9134 

9203 

9272 

69 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

75    7.5 

15.0    22.5    30.0 

37.5 

45.0    52.5    60.0 

67.5 

74    7.4 

14.8    22.2    29.6 

37.0 

44.4    51.8    59.2 

66.6 

78    7.3 

14.6    21.9    29.2 

36.5 

43.8   61.1    58.4 

65.7 

72    7.2 

14.4    21.6    28.8 

36.0 

43.2    50.4    57.6 

64.8 

71    7.1 

14.2    21.3    28.4 

35.5 

42.6    49.7    56.8 

63.9 

70    7.0 

14.0    21.0    28.0 

35.0 

42.0    49.0    56.0 

63.0 

£9    6.9 

13.8    20.7    27.6 

34.5 

41.4    48.3    55.2 

62.1 

452 


LOGARITHMS    OF    NUMBERS. 


No.  630  L.  799.]                                  [No.  674  L.  829. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

630 

799341 

9409 

9478 

9547 

9616 

9685 

9754 

9823 

9892 

9961 

1 

800029 

0098 

01  (57 

0236 

0305 

0373 

0442 

0511 

0580  !  0648 

2 

0717 

0786 

0854 

0923 

0992 

1061 

1129 

1198   1266  )  13&5 

3 

1404 

1472 

1541 

1609 

1678 

1747 

1815 

1884   1952  2021 

4 

2089 

2158 

2226 

2295 

2363   2432 

2500 

2568  2637  i  2705 

5 

2774 

2842 

2910 

2979 

3047 

3116 

3184 

3252 

3321 

3389 

6 

3457 

£525 

3594 

3662 

3730 

3798 

3867 

3935 

4003 

4071 

4139 

4208 

4276 

4344 

4412 

4480 

4548 

4616 

4685 

4753 

8 

4821 

4889 

4957 

5025 

5093 

5161 

5229 

5297 

5365 

5433 

68 

9 

5501 

5569 

5637 

5705 

5773 

5841 

5908 

5976 

6044 

6112 

640 

806180 

6248 

6316 

6384 

6451 

6519 

6587 

6655 

6723 

6790 

1 

6858 

6926 

6994 

7061 

7129 

7197 

7264 

7332 

7400 

7467 

2 

7535 

7603 

7670 

7738 

7806 

7873 

7941 

8008 

8076 

8143 

3 

8211 

8279 

834C 

8414 

8481 

8549 

8616 

8684 

8751 

8818 

4 

8886 

8953 

9021 

9088 

9156 

9223 

9290 

9358 

9425 

9492 

5 

9560 

9627 

9694 

9762 

9829 

9896 

9964 

0031 

0098 

0165 

6 

810233 

0300 

0367 

0434 

0501 

0569 

0636 

0703 

0770 

0837 

7 

0904 

0971 

1039 

1106 

1173 

1240 

1307 

1374 

1441 

1508 

67 

8 

1575 

1642 

1709 

1776 

1843 

1910 

1977 

2044 

2111 

2178 

9 

2245 

2312 

2379 

2445 

2512 

2579 

2646 

2713 

2780 

2847 

650 

2913 

2980 

3047 

3114 

3181 

3247 

3314 

3381 

3448 

3514 

1 

3581 

3648 

3714 

3781 

3848 

3914 

3981 

4048 

4114 

4181 

2 

4248 

4314 

4381 

4447 

4514 

4581 

4647 

4714 

4780 

4847 

3 

4913 

4980 

5046 

5113 

5179 

5246 

5312 

5378 

5445 

5511 

4 

5578 

5644 

5711 

5777 

5843 

5910 

5976 

6042 

6109 

6175 

5 

6241 

6308 

6374 

6440 

6506 

6573 

6639 

6705 

6771 

6838 

6 

6904 

6970 

7036 

7102 

7169 

7235 

7301 

7367 

7433 

7499 

7565 

7031 

7698 

7764 

7830 

7896 

7962 

8028 

8094 

8160 

8 

8226 

8292 

8358 

8424 

8490 

8556 

8622 

8688 

8754 

8820 

9 

8885 

8951 

9017 

9083 

9149 

9215 

9281 

9346 

9412 

9478 

66 

660 

9544 

9610 

9676 

9741 

9807 

9873 

9939 

0004 

0070 

0136 

1 

820201 

0267 

0333 

0399 

0464 

0530 

0595 

UUl>* 

0661 

UUlU 

0727 

0792 

0858 

0924 

0989 

1055 

1120 

1186 

1251 

1317 

1382 

1448 

3 

1514 

1579 

1645 

1710 

1775 

1841 

1906 

1972 

2037 

2103 

4 

2168 

2233 

2299 

2304 

2430 

2495 

2560 

2626 

2691 

2756 

5 

2822 

2887 

2952 

3018 

3083 

3148 

3213 

3279 

3344 

3409 

6 

3474 

3539 

3605 

3670 

3735 

3800 

3865 

3930 

3996 

4061 

7 

4126 

4191 

4256 

4321 

4386 

4451 

4516 

4581 

4646 

4711 

ftK 

8 

4776 

4841 

4906 

4971 

5036 

5101 

5166 

5231 

5296 

5361 

oo 

9 

5426 

5491 

5556 

5621 

5686 

5751 

5815 

5880 

5945 

6010 

670 

6075 

6140 

6204 

6269 

6334 

6399 

6464 

6528 

6593 

6658 

1 

6723 

6787 

6852 

6917 

6981 

7046 

7111 

7175 

7240 

7305 

g 

7369 

7434 

7499 

7563 

7628 

7692 

7757 

7821 

7886 

7951 

3 

8015 

8080 

8144 

8209 

8273 

8338 

8402 

8467 

8531 

8595 

4 

8660 

8724 

8789 

8853 

8918 

8982 

9046 

9111 

9175 

9239 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

68    6.8 

13.6    20.4    27.2 

34.0 

40.8    47.6    54.4 

61.2 

67    6.7 

13.4    20.1    26.8 

3:3.5 

40.2    46.9    53.6 

60.3 

66    6.6 

13.2    19.8    26.4 

33.0 

39.6    46.2    52.8 

59.4 

65    6.5 

13.0    19.5    26.0 

32.5 

39.0    45.5    52.0 

58.5 

64    6.4 

li.8    19.2    25.6 

82.0 

38.4    44.8    51.2 

57.6 

LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS. 


453 


No.  675  L.  829.]                                  [No.  719  L.  857. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff 

675 

829304 

9368 

9432 

9497 

9561 

9625 

9690 

9754 

9818 

9882 

6 

9947 

0011 

007^ 

01  °»Q 

SV)£Q 

AQQO 

/VJOP 

04fiO 

fiKOK 

7 

830589 

UUli 

0653 

UUiO 

0717 

uioy 
0781 

0845 

0909 

0973 

1037 

U4OU 

1102 

1166 

8 

1230 

1294 

1358 

1422 

1486 

15.50 

1614 

1678 

1742 

1806 

64 

9 

1870 

1934 

1998 

2062 

2126 

2189 

2253 

2317 

2:381 

2445 

680 

2509 

2573 

2637 

2700 

2764 

2828 

2892 

2956 

3020 

3083 

1 

3147 

3211 

3275 

3338 

3402 

34GG 

3530 

3593 

3657 

3721 

2 

3784 

3848 

3912 

3975 

4039 

4103 

4166 

4230 

4294 

4357 

3 

4421 

4484 

4548 

4611 

4675 

4739 

4802 

4866 

4929 

4993 

4 

5056 

5120 

5183 

5247 

5310 

5373 

5437 

5500 

5564 

5627 

5 

5691 

5754 

5817 

5881 

5944 

6007 

6071 

6134 

6197 

6261 

6 

6324 

6387 

6451 

6514 

6577 

6641 

6704 

67'67 

6830 

6894 

7 

6957 

7020 

7083 

7146 

7210 

7273 

7336 

7399 

7462 

7525 

8 

7588 

7652 

7715 

7778 

7841 

7904 

7967 

8030 

8093 

8156 

9 

8219 

8282 

8345 

8408 

8471 

8534 

8597 

8660 

8723 

8786 

63 

690 

8849 

8912 

8975 

9038 

9101 

9164 

9227 

9289 

9352 

9415 

1 

9478 

9541 

9604 

9667 

9729 

9792 

9855 

9918 

9981 

0043 

2 

840106 

0169 

0232 

0294 

0357 

fri20 

0482 

0545 

0608 

0671 

3 

0733 

0796 

0859 

0921 

0984 

1046 

1109 

1172 

1234 

1297 

4 

1359 

1422 

1485 

1547 

1610 

1672 

1735 

1797 

1860 

1922 

5 

1985 

2047 

2110 

2172 

2235 

2297 

2360 

2422 

2484 

2547 

6 

2609 

2672 

2734 

2796 

2859 

2921 

2983 

3046 

3108 

3170 

7 

3233 

3295  3357 

3420 

3482 

3544 

3606 

3669 

3731 

3793 

8 

3855 

3918  I  3980 

4042 

4104 

4166 

4229 

4291 

4353 

4415 

9 

4477 

4539 

4601 

4664 

4726 

4788 

4850 

4912 

4974 

5036 

700 

5098 

5160 

5222 

5284 

5346 

5408 

5470 

5532 

5594 

5656 

62 

1 

5718 

5780 

5842 

5904 

5(J66 

6028 

6090 

6151 

6213 

6275 

2 

6337 

6399 

6461 

6523 

6585 

6646 

6708 

6770 

6832 

6894 

3 

6955 

7017 

7079 

7141 

7202 

7264 

7326 

7388 

7449 

7511 

4 

7573 

7634 

7696 

7758 

7819 

7881 

7943 

8004 

8066 

8128 

5 

8189 

8251 

8812 

8374 

8435 

8497 

8559 

8620 

8682 

8743 

6 

8805 

8866 

8928 

8989 

9051 

9112 

9174 

9235 

9297 

9358 

7 

9419 

9481 

9542 

9604 

9665 

9726 

9788 

9849 

9911 

9972 

8 

850033 

0095 

OJ56 

0217 

0279 

0340 

0401 

0462 

0524 

0585 

9 

0046 

0707 

0769 

oaso 

0891 

0952 

1014 

1075 

1136 

1197 

710 

1258 

1320 

1381 

1442 

1503 

1564 

1625 

1686 

1747 

1809 

1 

1870 

1931 

1992 

2053 

2114 

2175 

2236 

2297 

2^358 

2419 

2 

2480 

2541 

2602 

2663 

2724 

2785 

2846 

2907 

2968 

3029 

61 

3 

3090 

3150 

3211 

3272 

3333 

3394 

3455 

3516 

3577 

3637 

4 

3698 

3759 

3820 

3881 

3941 

4002 

4063 

4124 

4185 

4245 

5 

4306 

4367 

4428 

4488 

4549 

4610 

4670 

4731 

4792 

4852 

6 

4913 

4974 

5034 

5095 

5156 

5216 

5277 

5337 

5398 

5459 

7 

5519 

5580 

5640 

5701 

5761 

5822 

5882 

5943 

6003 

6064 

8 

6124 

6185 

6245 

6306 

6366 

6427 

6487 

6548 

6608 

6668 

9 

6729 

6789 

6850 

6910 

6970 

7031 

7091 

7152 

7212 

7272 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

65    6.5 

13.0    19.5    26.0 

32.5 

39.0    45.5    52.0 

58.5 

64    6.4 

12.8    19.2    25.6 

32.0 

38.4    44.8    51.2 

57.6 

63    6.3 

12.6    18.9    25.2 

31.5 

37.8    44.1    50  4 

56  7 

62    6.2 

12.4    18.6    24.8 

31.0 

37.2    43.4    49.6 

55  8 

61    6.1 

12.2    18.3    24.4 

30.5  ' 

36.6    42.7    48.8 

54  9 

60    6.0 

12.0    18.0    24.0 

30.0 

36.0    42.0    48.0 

54.0 

454 


LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS. 


No.  720  L.  857.1                                  [No.  764  L.  883. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

720 

857332 

7393 

7453 

7513 

7574 

7634 

7694 

7755 

7815 

7875 

1 

7935 

7995 

8056 

8116 

8176 

8236 

8297 

8357 

8417 

8477 

2 

8537 

8597 

8657 

8718 

8778 

8838 

8898 

8958 

9018 

9078 

3 

9138 

9198 

9258 

9318 

9379 

9439 

9499 

9559 

9619 

9679 

60 

QfVQQ 

qqift 

9978 

4 

9739 

y<yy 

9859 

yyio 

0038 

0098 

0158 

0218 

0278 

5 

860338 

0398 

0458 

0518 

0578 

0637 

0697 

0757 

0817 

0877 

6 

0937 

0996 

1056 

1116 

1176 

123^5 

1295 

1355 

1415 

1475 

7 

1534 

1594 

1654 

1714 

1778 

1833 

1893 

1952 

2012 

2072 

8 

2131 

2191 

2251 

2310 

2370 

2430 

2489 

2549 

2608 

2668 

9 

2728 

2787 

2847 

2906 

2966 

3025 

3085 

3114 

3204 

3263 

730 

3323 

3382 

3442 

3501 

3561 

3620 

3680 

3739 

3799 

3858 

1 

3917 

3977 

4036 

4096 

4155 

4214 

4274 

4:333 

4392 

4452 

2 

4511 

4570 

4630 

4689 

4748 

4808 

4867 

4926 

4985 

5045 

3 

5104 

5163 

5222 

5282 

5341 

5400 

5459 

5519 

5578 

5637 

4 

5696 

5755 

5814 

5874 

5933 

5992 

6051 

6110 

6169 

6228 

5 

6287 

6346 

6405 

6465 

6524 

6583 

C642 

6701 

6760 

6819 

6 

6878 

6937 

6996 

7055 

7114 

7173 

7232 

7291 

7350 

7409 

59 

7 

7467 

7526 

7585 

7644 

7703 

7762 

7821 

7880 

7939 

7998 

8 

8056 

8115 

8174 

8233 

8292 

8350 

8409 

8468 

8527 

8586 

9 

8644 

8703 

8762 

8821 

8879 

8938 

8997 

9056 

9114 

91(3 

740 

9232 

9290 

9349 

9408 

9466 

9525 

9584 

9642 

9701 

9760 

98(7 

qqo-1 

1 

9818 

jyoo 

J 

0053 

0111 

0170 

0228 

0287 

0345 

2 

870404 

0462 

0521 

0579 

0638 

0696 

0755 

0813 

0872 

0930 

3 

0989 

1047 

1106 

1164 

1223 

1281 

1339 

1398 

1456 

1515 

4 

1573 

1631 

1690 

1748 

1806 

1865 

1923 

1981 

2040 

2068 

5 

2156 

2215 

2273 

2331 

2389 

2448 

2506 

2564 

2622 

2681 

6 

2739 

2797 

2855 

2913 

2972 

3030 

3088 

8146 

3204 

3262 

3321 

3379 

3437 

3495 

3553 

3611 

3669 

3727 

3785 

3844 

8 

3902 

3960 

4018 

4076 

4134 

4192 

4250 

4308 

4366 

4424 

58 

9 

4482 

4540 

4598 

4656 

4714 

4772 

4830 

4888 

4945 

5003 

750 

5061 

5119 

5177 

5235 

5293 

5351 

5409 

5466 

5524 

5582 

1 

5640 

5698 

5756 

5813 

5871 

S  5929 

5987 

6045 

6102 

6160 

2 

6218 

6276 

6333 

6391 

6449 

6507 

6564 

6622 

6680 

6737 

3 

6795 

6853 

6910 

6968 

7026 

7083 

7141 

7199 

7256 

7314 

4 

7371 

7429 

7487 

7544 

7602 

7659 

7717 

7774 

7832 

7889 

5 

7947 

8004 

8062 

8119 

8177 

8234 

8292 

8349 

8407 

8464 

6 

8522 

8579 

8637 

8694 

8752 

8809 

8866 

8924 

8981 

9039 

9096 

urru 

9153 

9211 

9268 

9325 

QQAQ 

9383 

9440 

9497 

9555 

9612 

yooy 

9(84 

9841 

yoyo 

0 

0013 

0070 

0127 

0185 

9 

880242 

0299 

0356 

0413 

0471 

0528 

0585 

0642 

0699 

0756 

760 

0814 

0871 

0928 

0985 

1042 

1099 

1156 

1213 

1271 

1328 

1 

1385 

1442 

1499 

1556 

1613 

1670 

1727 

1784 

1841 

1898 

2 

1955 

2012 

2069 

2126 

2183 

2240 

2297 

2354 

2411 

2468 

57 

3 

2525 

2581 

2638 

2695 

2752 

2809 

2866 

2923 

2980 

3037 

4 

3093 

3150 

3207 

3264 

3321 

3377 

3434 

3491 

3548 

3605 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

59    5.9 

11.8    17.7    23.6 

29.5 

35.4    41.3    47.2 

53.1 

58    5.8 

11.6    17.4    23.2 

29.0 

34.8    40.6    46.4 

52.2 

57    5.7 

11.4    17.1    22-.S 

28.5 

34.2    39.9    45.6 

51.3 

56    5.6 

11.2    16.8    22.4 

28.0 

33.6    39.2    44.8 

50.4 

LOGARITHMS  OF  LUMBERS. 


455 


No.  765  L.  883.]                                   [No.  809  L.  908. 

j 

Diff 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

765 

883661 

3718 

3775 

3832 

3888 

3945 

4002 

4059 

4115 

4172 

6 

4229 

4285 

4342 

4399 

4455 

4512 

4569 

4625 

4682 

4739 

7 

4?95 

4852 

4909 

4965 

5022 

5078 

5135 

5192 

5248 

5305 

8 

5361 

5418 

5474 

5531 

5587 

5644 

5700 

5757 

5813 

5870 

9 

5926 

5983 

6039 

6096 

6152 

6209 

6265 

6321 

6378 

6434 

770 

6491 

6547 

6604 

6660 

6716 

6773 

6829 

6885 

6942 

6998 

1 

7054 

7111 

7167 

7223 

7280 

7336 

7392 

7449 

7505 

7561 

2 

7617 

7674 

7730 

7786 

7842 

7898 

7955 

8011 

8067 

8123 

3 

8179 

8236 

8292 

8348 

8404 

8460 

8516 

8573 

8629 

8685 

4 

8741 

8797 

8853 

8909 

8965 

9021 

9077 

9134 

9190 

9246 

5 

9302 

9358 

9414 

9470 

9526 

9582 

9638 

9694 

9750 

9806 

56 

OttAO 

QQ1  vi 

QQ74 

. 

UoU^ 

yuio 

yy  f'* 

0030 

0086 

0141 

0197 

0253 

0309 

0365 

*7 

890421 

0477 

0533 

0589 

0(545 

0700 

0756 

0812 

0868 

0924 

8 

0980 

1035 

1091 

1147 

1203 

1259 

1314 

1370 

1426 

1482 

9 

1537 

1593 

1649 

1705 

1760 

1816 

1872 

1928 

1983 

2039 

780 

2095 

2150 

2206 

2262 

2317 

2373 

2429 

2484 

2540 

2595 

1 

2651 

2707 

2762 

2818 

2873 

2929 

2985 

3040 

3096 

3151 

2 

3207 

3262 

3318 

3373 

3429 

3484 

3540 

3595 

3651 

3706 

3 

3762 

3817 

3873 

3928 

3984 

4039 

4094 

4150 

4205 

4261 

4 

4316 

4371 

4427 

4482 

4538 

4593 

4648 

4704 

4759 

4814 

5 

4870 

4925 

4980 

5036 

5091 

5146 

5201 

5257 

5312 

5367 

6 

5423 

5478 

5533 

5588 

5644 

5699 

5754 

5809 

5864 

5920 

7 

5975 

6030 

6085 

6140 

6195 

6251 

6306 

6361 

6416 

6471 

8 

6526 

6581 

6636 

6692 

6747 

6802 

6857 

6912 

6967 

7022 

9 

7077 

•7132 

7187 

7242 

7297 

7352 

7407 

7462 

7517 

7572 

55 

790 

7627 

7682 

7737 

7792 

7847 

7902 

7957 

8012 

8067 

8122 

1 

8176 

8231 

8286 

8341 

8396 

8451 

8506 

8561 

8615 

8670 

2 

8725 

8780 

8835 

8890 

8944 

8999 

9054 

9109 

9164 

9218 

3 

9273 

QOO1 

9328 

QOr'K 

9383 
Qtion 

9437 

OQWP\ 

9492 

9547 

9602 

9656 

9711 

9766 

4 

yo^i 

*7Oii3 

jyou 

yyoo 

0039 

0094 

0149 

0203 

0258 

0312 

5 

900367 

0422 

0476 

053F 

0586 

0640 

0695 

0749 

0804 

0859 

6 

0913 

0968 

1022 

1077 

1131 

1186 

1240 

1295 

1349 

1404 

\  7 

1458 

1513 

1567 

1622 

1676 

1731 

1785 

1840 

1894 

1948 

8 

2003 

2057 

2112 

2166 

2221 

2275 

2329 

2384 

2438 

2492 

9 

2547 

2601 

2655 

2710 

2764 

2818 

2873 

2927 

2981 

3036 

800 

3090 

3144 

3199 

3253 

3307 

3361 

3416 

3470 

3524 

3578 

1 

3633 

3687 

3741 

3795 

3849 

3904 

3958 

4012 

4066 

4120 

2 

4174 

4229 

4283 

4337 

4391 

4445 

4499 

4553 

4607 

4661 

3 

4716 

4770 

4824 

4878 

4932 

4986 

5040 

5094 

5148 

5202 

54 

4 

5256 

5310 

5364 

5418 

5472 

5526 

5580 

5634 

5688 

5742 

5 

5796 

5850 

5904 

5958 

6012 

6066 

6119 

6173 

6227 

6281 

6 

6335 

6389 

6443 

6497 

6551 

6604 

6658 

6712 

6766 

6820 

6874 

6927 

6981 

7035 

7089 

7143 

7196 

7250 

7304 

7358 

8 

7411 

7405 

7519 

7573 

7626 

7680 

7734 

7787 

7841 

7895 

9 

7949 

8002 

8056 

8110 

8163 

8217 

8270 

8324 

8378 

8431 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

6      7 

8 

9 

57    5.7 

11.4    17.1    22.8 

28.5 

34.2    39.9 

45.6 

51.3 

56    5.6 

11.2    16.8    22.4 

28.0 

33.6    39.2. 

44.8 

50.4 

55    5.5 

11.0    16.5    22.0 

27.5 

33.0    38.5 

44.0 

49.5 

54    5.4 

10.8    16.2    21.6 

27.0 

32.4    37.8 

43.2 

48.6 

456 


LOGARITHMS   OF   HUMBtittS. 


No.  810  L.  908.]                                 |_No.  854  L.  931. 

DiflF 

• 
810 

8914 

U1H. 

908485 

8539 

8592 

8646 

8699 

8753 

8807 

8860 

8967 

1 

9021 

9074 

9128 

9181 

9235 

9289 

9342 

9396 

9449 

9503 

2 

9556 

9610 

9663 

9716 

9770 

9823 

9877 

9930 

9984 

0037 

3 

910091 

0144 

0197 

0251 

0304 

0358 

0411 

0464 

0518 

0571 

4 

0624 

0678 

0731 

0784 

0838 

0891 

0944 

0998 

1051 

1104 

5 

1158 

1211 

1264 

1317 

1371 

1424 

1477 

1530 

1584 

1637 

6 

1690 

1743 

1797 

1850 

1903 

1956 

2009 

2063 

2116 

2169 

7 

•  2222 

2275 

2328 

2381 

2435 

2488 

2541 

2594 

2647 

2700 

8 

2753 

2806 

2859 

2913 

2966 

3019 

3072 

3125 

3178 

3231 

9 

3284 

3337 

3390 

3443 

3496 

3549 

3602 

3655 

3708 

3761 

53 

820 

3814 

3867 

3920 

3973 

4026 

4079 

4132 

4184 

4237 

4290 

1 

4343 

4396 

4449 

4502 

4355 

4608 

4660 

4713  4766 

4819 

2 

4872 

4925 

4977 

5030 

5083 

5136 

5189 

5241  5294 

5347 

3 

5400 

5453 

5505 

5558 

5611  I  5664 

5716 

5769 

5822 

5875 

4 

5927 

5980 

6033 

6085 

6138  i  6191 

6243 

6296 

6349 

6401 

5 

6454 

6507 

6559 

6612 

6664  ;  6717 

6770 

(.822 

6875 

6927 

6 

6980. 

7033 

7085 

7138 

7190   7243 

7295 

7348 

7400 

7453 

7 

7506 

7558 

7611 

7663 

7716   7768 

7820 

7873 

7925 

7978 

8 

8030 

8083 

8135 

8188 

8240  |i  8293 

8345 

8397 

8450 

8502 

9 

8555 

8607 

8659 

8712 

8764 

i  8816 

8869 

8921 

8973 

9026 

830- 

9078 

9130 

9183 

9235 

9287 

9340 

9392 

9444 

9496 

9549 

•4 

9601 

9653 

9706 

9758 

9810 

9862 

9914 

9967 

2 

0541 

0593 

920123 

0176 

0228 

0280 

0332 

0384 

0436 

0489 

3 

0645 

0697 

0749 

0801 

0853 

0906 

0958 

1010 

1062 

1114 

4 

1166 

1218 

1270 

1322 

1374 

1426 

1478 

1530 

1582' 

1634 

52 

5 

1686 

1738 

1790 

1842 

1894 

1946 

1998 

2050 

2102 

2154 

6 

2206 

2258 

2310 

2362 

2414 

2466 

2518 

2570 

2622 

2674 

7 

2725 

2777 

2829 

2881 

29J33 

2985 

3037 

3089 

3140 

3192 

8 

3244 

3296 

3348 

3399 

3451 

3503 

3555 

3607 

3658 

3710 

9 

3762 

3814 

3865 

3917 

3969 

4021 

4072 

4124 

4176 

4228 

840 

4279 

4331 

4383 

4434 

4486 

4538 

4589 

4641 

4693 

4744 

1 

4796 

4848 

4899 

4951 

5003 

5054 

5*06 

5157 

5209 

5261 

2 

5312 

5364 

5415 

5467 

5518 

5570 

5621 

5673 

5725 

5776 

3 

5828 

5879 

5931 

5982 

6034 

6085 

6137 

6188 

6240 

6291 

4 

6342 

6394 

6445 

6497 

6548 

6600 

6651 

67'02 

6754 

£805 

5 

6857 

6908 

6959 

7011 

7062 

7114 

7165 

7216 

7268 

7319 

6 

7370 

7422 

7473 

7524 

7576 

7627 

7678 

7730 

7781  1  7832 

7 

7883 

7935 

7986 

8037 

8088 

8140 

8191 

8242 

8293 

8345 

8 

8396 

8447 

8498 

8549 

8601 

8652 

8703 

8754  8805 

£857 

9 

8908 

8959 

9010 

9061 

9112 

9163 

9215 

9266 

9317 

9368 

850 

9419 
9930 

9470 
9981 

9521 

9572 

9623 

9674 

9725 

9776 

9827 

9879 

51 

0032 

0083 

0134 

0185 

0236 

0287 

0338 

0389 

0 

930440 

0491 

0542 

0592 

0643 

0694 

0745 

0796 

0847 

0898 

3 

0949 

1000 

1051 

1102 

1153 

1204 

1254 

1305 

1356 

1407 

4 

1458 

1509 

1560 

1610 

1661 

1712 

1763 

1814 

1865 

1915 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

6      7 

8 

9 

53    5.3 

10.6    15.9    21.2 

26.5 

31.8    37.1 

42.4 

47.7 

52    5.2 

10.4    15.6    20  8 

20.0 

31.2    36.4 

41.6 

46.8 

51    5.1 

10.2    15.3    20.4 

25.5 

30.6    35.7 

40.8 

45.9 

50    5.0 

10.0    15.0    20.0 

25.0 

30.0    35.0 

40.0 

45.0 

LOGARITHMS   OF   NUMBERS. 


457 


No.  855  L.  931.1                                   [No.  899  L.  954. 

9 

T~)iff 

N. 

LJ  in. 

855 

931966 

2017 

2068 

2118 

2169 

2220 

2271 

2322 

2372 

2423 

6 

2474 

2524 

2575 

2626 

2677  |  2727 

2778 

282-9 

2879 

2930 

7 

2981 

3031 

3082 

3133 

3183  !  3234 

3285 

3335 

3386 

3437 

8 

3487 

3538 

3589 

3639 

3690 

;  3740 

3791 

3841 

3892 

3943 

9 

3993 

4044 

4094 

4145 

4195 

4246 

4296 

4347 

4397 

4448 

860 

4498 

4549 

4599 

4650 

4700 

4751 

4801 

4852 

4902 

4953 

1 

5003 

5054 

5104 

5154 

5205 

5255 

5306 

5356 

5406 

5457 

2 

5507 

5558 

5608 

5658 

5709 

5759 

5809 

5860 

5910 

5960 

3 

6011 

6061 

6111 

6162 

6212 

6262 

6313 

6363 

6413 

6463 

4 

6514 

6564 

6614 

6665 

6715 

6765 

6815 

6865 

6916 

6966 

5 

7016 

7066 

7116 

7167 

7217 

7267 

7317 

7367 

7418 

7468 

6 

7518 

7568 

7618 

7668 

7718 

7769 

7819 

7869 

7919 

7969 

7 

8019 

8069 

8119 

8169 

8219 

8269 

8320 

8370 

8420 

8470 

50 

8 

8520 

8570 

8620 

8670 

8720 

8770 

8820 

8870 

8920 

8970 

9 

9020 

9070 

9120 

9170 

9220 

9270 

9320 

9369 

9419 

9469 

870 

9519 

9569 

9619 

9669 

9719 

9769 

9819 

9869 

9918 

9968 

1 

940018 

0068 

0118 

0168 

0218 

0267 

0317 

0367 

0417 

0467 

2 

0516 

0566 

0616 

0666 

0716 

0765 

0815 

0865 

0915 

0964 

3 

1014 

1064 

1114 

1163 

1213 

1263 

1313 

1362 

1412 

1462 

4 

1561 

1611 

1660 

1710 

1760 

1809 

1859 

1909 

1958 

5 

2008 

2058 

2107 

2157 

2207 

2256 

2306 

2355 

2405 

2455 

6 

2504 

2t>54 

2603 

2653 

2702 

2752 

2801 

2851 

2901 

2950 

7 

3000 

3049 

3099 

3148 

3198 

3247 

3297 

3346 

3396 

3445 

8 

3495 

3544 

3593 

3643 

3692 

3742 

3791 

3841 

3890 

3939 

9 

3989 

4038 

4088 

4137 

4186 

4236 

4285 

4335 

4384 

4433 

880 

4483 

4532 

4581 

4631 

4680 

4729 

4779 

4828 

4877 

4927 

1 

4976 

5025 

5074 

5124 

5173 

5222 

5272 

5321 

5370 

5419 

2 

5469 

5518 

5567 

5616 

5665 

5715 

5764 

5813 

5862 

5912 

3 

5961 

6010 

6059 

6108 

6157 

6207 

6256 

6305 

6354 

6403 

4 

6452 

6501 

6551 

6600 

6649 

6698 

6747 

6796 

6845 

6894 

5 

6943 

6992 

7041 

7090 

7139 

7189 

7238 

7287 

7336 

7385 

6 

7434 

7483 

7532 

7581 

7630 

7679 

7728 

7777 

7826 

7875 

49 

7 

7924 

7973 

8022 

8070 

8119 

8168 

8217 

8266 

8315 

8364 

8 

8413 

8462 

8511 

8560 

8608 

8657 

8706 

8755 

8804 

8853 

9 

8902 

8951 

8999 

9048 

9097 

9146 

9195 

9244 

9292 

9341 

890 

9390 

9439 

9488 

9536 

9585 

9634 

9683 

9731 

9780 

9829 

9878 

9926 

9975 

0024 

0073 

0121 

0170 

0219 

0267 

0316 

2 

950365 

0414 

0462 

0511 

0560 

0608 

0657 

0706 

0754 

0803 

3 

0851 

0900 

0949 

0997 

1046 

1095 

1143 

1192 

1240 

1289 

4 

1338 

1386 

1435 

1483 

1532 

1580 

1629 

1677 

1726 

1775 

5 

1823 

1872 

1920 

1969 

2017 

2066 

2114 

2163 

2211 

2260 

6 

2308 

2356 

2405 

2453 

2502 

2550 

2599 

2647 

2696 

2744 

7 

2792 

2841 

2889 

2938 

2986 

3034 

3083 

3131 

3180 

3228 

8 

3276 

3325 

3373 

3421 

3470   3518 

3566 

3615 

3663 

3711 

9 

3760 

3808 

3856 

3905 

3953   4001 

4049 

4098 

4146 

4194 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

51    5.1 

10.2    15.8    20.4 

25.5 

30.6    35.7    40.8 

45.9 

50    5.0 

10.0    15.0    20.0 

25.0 

30.0    &5.0    40.0 

45.0 

49    4.9 

9.8    14.7    19.6 

24.5 

29.4    34.3    39.2 

44.1 

48    4.8 

9.6    14.4    19.2 

24.0 

28.8    33.6    38.4 

43.2 

458 


LOGARITHMS   OF  NUMBERS. 


No  900  L.  954.1                                   [No.  944  L.  975. 

N. 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

900 

954243 

4291 

4339 

4387 

4435 

4484 

4532 

4580 

4628 

4677 

1 

4725 

4773 

4821 

4869 

4918 

4966 

5014  5062 

5110 

5158 

2 

5207 

5255 

5303 

5351 

5399 

5447 

5495 

5543 

5592 

5640 

3 

5688 

5736 

5784 

5832 

5880 

5928 

5976 

6024 

6072 

6120 

4 

6168 

6216 

6265 

6313 

6361 

6409 

6457 

6505 

6553 

6601 

5 

6649 

6697 

6745 

6793 

6840 

6888 

6936 

6984 

7032 

7080 

48 

6 

7128 

7176 

7224 

7272 

7320 

7368 

7416 

7464 

7512 

7559 

7 

7607 

7655 

7703 

7751 

7799 

7847 

7894 

7942 

7990 

8038 

8 

8086 

8134 

8181 

8229 

8277 

8325 

8373 

8421 

8468 

8516 

9 

8564 

8612 

8659 

8707 

8755 

8803 

8850 

8898 

8946 

8994 

910 

9041 

9089 

9137 

9185 

9232 

9280 

9328 

9375 

9423 

9471 

1 

9518 

9566 

9614 

9661 

9709 

9757 

9804 

9852 

9900 

9947 

2 

9995 

0042 

0090 

0138 

0185 

0233 

0280 

0328 

0876 

0423 

3 

1)60471 

0518 

0566 

0613 

0661 

0709 

0756 

0804 

0851 

0899 

4 

0946 

0994 

1041 

1089 

1136 

1184 

1231 

1279 

1326 

1374 

5 

1421 

1469 

1516 

1563 

1611 

1658 

1706 

1753 

1801 

1848 

6 

1895 

1943 

1990 

2038 

2085 

2132 

2180 

2227 

2275 

2822 

7 

2369 

2417 

2464 

2511 

2559 

2606 

2653 

2701 

2748 

2795 

8 

2843 

2890 

2937 

2985 

3032 

3079 

3126 

3174 

3221 

3268 

9 

3316 

3363 

3410 

3457 

3504 

3552 

3599 

3646 

3693 

3741 

920 

3788 

3835 

3882 

3929 

3977 

4024 

4071 

4118 

4165 

4212 

1 

4260 

4307 

4354 

4401 

4448 

4495 

4542 

4590 

4637 

4684 

2 

4731 

4778 

4825 

4872 

4919 

4966 

5013 

5061   5108 

5155 

3 

5202 

5249 

5296 

5343 

5390 

5437 

5484 

5531 

5578 

5625 

4 

5672 

5719 

5766 

5813 

5860 

5907 

5954 

6001 

6048 

6095 

47 

5 

6142 

6189 

6236 

6283 

6329 

6376 

6423 

6470 

6517 

6564 

6 

6611 

6658 

6705 

6752 

6799 

6845 

6892 

6939 

6986 

7033 

7 

7080 

7127 

7173 

7220 

7267 

7314 

7361 

7408 

7454 

7501 

8 

7548 

7595 

7642 

7'688 

7735 

7782 

7829 

787'5 

7922 

7969 

9 

8016 

8062 

8109 

8156 

8203 

8249 

8296 

8343 

8390 

8436 

930 

8483 

8530 

8576 

8623 

8670 

8716 

8763 

8810 

8856 

8903 

1 

8950 

8996 

9043 

9090 

9136 

9183 

9229 

927'6 

9323 

mm 

2 

9416 

9463 

9509 

9556 

9602 

9649 

9695 

9742 

9789 

9835 

3 

9882 

9928 

9975 

nnoi 

OOfiS 

0114 

0161 

0207  ;  f'^-i 

0300 

4 

970347 

0393 

0440 

UU/vl 

0486 

UUOo 

0533 

0579 

0626 

0672 

0719 

0765 

5 

0812 

0858 

0904 

0951 

0997 

1044 

1090 

1137 

1183 

1229 

6 

1276 

1322 

1369 

1415 

1461 

1508 

1554   1601 

1647 

1693 

7 

1740 

1786 

1832 

1879 

1925 

1971 

2018 

2064 

2110 

2157 

8 

2203 

2249 

2295 

2342 

2388 

2434 

2481 

2527 

2573 

2619 

9 

2666 

2712 

2758 

2804 

2851 

2897 

2943 

2989 

3035 

3082 

940 

3128 

3174 

3220 

3266 

3313 

3359 

3405 

3451 

3497 

3543 

1 

3590 

3636 

3682 

3728 

3774 

3820 

3866 

3913 

3959 

4005 

2 

4051 

4097 

4143 

4189 

4235 

4281 

4327 

4374 

4420 

4466 

3 

4512 

4558 

4604 

4650 

4696 

4742 

4788 

4834 

4880 

4926 

4 

4972 

5018 

5064 

5110 

5156 

5202 

5248 

5294 

5340 

5386 

46 

PROPORTIONAL  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

47    4.7 

9.4    14.1    18.8 

23.5 

28.2    32.9    37.6 

42.3 

46    4.6 

9.2    13.8    18.4 

23.0 

27.6    32.2    36.8 

41.4 

LOGARITHMS  OF   KUMBERS. 


459 


^0.  M5  L.  975.]                                  [No.  989  L.  995. 

Diff 

. 

0 

945 

975432 

5478 

5524 

5570 

5616 

5662 

5707 

5753 

5799 

5845 

6 

5891 

£937 

5983 

6029 

6075 

6121 

6167 

6212 

6258 

6J304 

7 

6350 

6396 

6442 

6488 

6533 

6579 

6625 

6671 

6717 

6763 

8 

6808 

6854 

6900 

6946 

6992 

7037 

7083 

7129 

7175 

7220 

9 

7266 

7312 

7358 

7403 

7449 

7495 

7541 

7586 

7632 

7678 

950 

7724 

7769 

7815 

7861 

7906 

7952 

7998 

8043 

8089 

8135 

1 

8181 

8226 

8272 

8317 

8363 

8409 

8454 

8500 

8546 

8591 

2 

8637  :  8683 

8728 

8774 

8819 

8865 

8911 

8956 

9002 

9047 

3 

9093  9138 

9184 

9230 

9275 

9321 

9366 

9412 

9457 

9503 

4 

9548  9594 

9639 

9685 

9730 

9776 

9821 

9867 

9912 

9958 

5 

980003 

0049 

0094 

0140 

0185 

0231 

0276 

0322 

0367 

0412 

6 

(1458 

0503 

0549 

0594 

0640 

0685 

0730 

0776 

0821 

0867 

0912 

0957 

1003  1048 

1093 

1139 

1184 

1229 

1275 

1320 

8 

1366  1411 

1456 

1501 

1547 

1592 

1637 

1683 

1728 

1773 

9 

1819 

1864 

1909 

1954 

2000 

2045 

2090 

2135 

2181 

2226 

960 

2271 

2316 

2362 

2407 

2452 

2497 

2543 

2588 

2633 

2678 

1 

2723  2769 

2814 

2859 

2904 

2949 

2994 

3040 

3085 

3130 

2 

3175  3220 

3265 

3310 

3356 

3401 

3446 

3491 

3536 

3581 

3 

3626  1  3671 

3716 

3762 

3807  , 

3852 

3897 

3942 

3987 

4032 

4 

4077  4122 

4167 

4212 

4257 

4302 

4347 

4392 

4437 

4482 

Aff 

5 

4527  ;  4572 

4617 

4662 

4707 

4752 

4797 

4842 

4887 

4932 

4O 

6 

4977 

5022 

5067 

5112 

5157 

5202 

5247 

5292 

5*37 

5382 

7 

5426 

5471 

5516 

5561 

5<i06 

5651 

5696 

5741 

5786 

5830 

8 

5875 

5920 

5965 

6010 

6055 

6100 

6144 

6189 

6234 

6279 

9 

6324 

6369 

6413 

6458 

6503 

6548 

6593 

6637 

6682 

6727 

970 

6772 

6817 

6861 

6906 

6951 

6996 

7040 

7085 

7130 

7175 

1 

7219 

7'264 

7309 

7353  i  7398 

7443 

7488 

7532 

7577 

7622 

2 

7666 

7711 

7756 

7800  7845 

7890 

7934 

7979 

8024 

8068 

8113 

8157 

8202 

8247 

8291 

8336 

8381 

8425 

8470 

8514 

4 

8559 

8604 

8648 

8693 

8737 

8782 

8826 

8871 

8916 

8960 

5 

9005 

9049 

9094 

9138 

9183 

9227 

9272 

9316 

9361 

9405 

6 

9450 
9895 

9494 
9939 

9539 

9983 

9583 

9628 

9672 

9717 

9761 

9806 

9850 

• 

0028 

0072 

0117 

0161 

0206 

0250 

0294 

8 

990339 

0383 

0428 

0472 

0516 

0561 

0605 

0650 

0694 

0738 

9 

0783 

0827 

0871 

0916 

0960 

1004 

1049 

1093 

1137 

1182 

980 

1226 

1270 

1315 

1359 

1403 

1448 

1492 

1536 

1580 

1625 

1 

1669 

1713 

1758 

1802 

1816 

1890 

1935 

1979 

2023 

2067 

2 

2111 

2156 

2200 

2244 

2288 

2333 

2377 

2421 

2465 

2509 

3 

2554  2598 

2642 

2686 

2730 

2774 

2819 

2863 

2907 

2951 

4 

2995  3039 

3083 

3127 

'3172 

3216 

3260 

3304 

3348 

3392 

5 

3436  3480 

3524 

a568 

3613 

3657 

3701 

3745 

3789 

3833 

6 

3877  3921 

3965 

4009 

4053 

4097 

4141 

4185 

4229 

4273 

7 

4317  4361 

4405 

4449 

4493 

4537 

4581 

4625 

4669 

4713 

44 

8 

4757  4801 

4845 

4889 

49*3 

4977 

5021 

5065 

5108 

5152 

9 

5196  5240 

5284 

5328 

5372 

5416 

5460 

5504 

5547 

5591 

PROPORTIONAL,  PARTS. 

Diff.   1 

234 

5 

678 

9 

46    4.6 

9.2    13.8    18.4 

23.0 

27.6    32.2    36.8 

41.4 

45    4.5 

9.0    13.5    18.0 

22.5 

27.0    31.5    36.0 

40.5 

44    4.4 

8.8    13.2    17.6 

22.0 

26.4    30.8    35.2 

39.6 

43    4.3 

8.6    12.9    17.2 

21.5 

25.8    30.1    34.4 

38.7 

460 


LOGARITHMS  OP   HUMBERS. 


No.  990  L.  99. 

>.]                                                                                      [No.  999  L.  999. 

N.         0 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5        6 

7 

8 

9 

Diff. 

990     995635 

5679 

5723 

5767 

5811 

5854     5898 

5942 

5986 

6030 

1         6074 

6117 

6161 

6205 

6249 

6293     6337 

6380 

6424 

6468 

44 

2        6512 

6555 

6599 

6643 

6687 

6731     6774 

6818 

6862 

6906 

3         6949 

6993 

7037 

7080 

7124 

7168     7212 

7255 

7299 

7343 

4         7386 

7430 

7474 

7517 

7561 

7605     7648 

7692 

7736 

7779 

5         7823 

7867 

7910 

7954 

7998 

8041      8085 

8129 

8172 

8216 

6        8259 

8303 

8347 

8390 

8434 

8477     8521 

8564 

8608 

8652 

7         8695 

8739 

8782 

8826 

8869 

8913     8956 

9000 

9043 

9087 

8         9131 

9174 

9218 

9261 

9305 

9348      9392 

9435 

9479 

9522 

9         9565 

9609 

9652 

9696 

9739 

9783     9826 

9870 

9913 

9957 

CONSTANT  NUMBERS  AND  THEIR  LOGARITHMS. 

Symbol. 

Number. 

Logarithm. 

JT 

3.141  592653590 

0.497  149  872  694 

27T 

6.283  185  307  180 

0.798179868358 

3lT 

9 

.42477 

79607 

)9 

0.97 

4271  1 

27414 

4ir 

12 

.566370614359 

1.099209864022 

5ir 

15 

.707  96 

3  267  9. 

)0 

1.1S 

61198 

77  030 

0V 

18 

.84955 

5  921  5, 

59 

1.27 

5301  1 

23  078 

7ir 

21  .991  148  575  119 

1.342247912708 

STT 

25 

.13274 

1  228  7] 

8 

1.40 

0  239  8 

59  68fi 

9ir 

28 

.274333882308 

1.451  392382133 

fcr 

0.523598775598 

T.  718  998  622  310 

i 

0.785398163397 
1.570796326795 

T.  895  089  88  1  366 
0.196119877030 

4 

.187790204786 

0.622  088  609  302 

772 

9 

869  604  401  089 

0.9942997 

45  388 

ffS 

31 

006  276  680  293 

1.491449618082 

!/«• 

1 

772  453  850  906 

0.248  574  936  347 

v; 

1 

464  591  887  562 

0.165716624231 

1/7T 

0 

31830 

9  886  184 

T.  502  850  127  306 

180/7T 

57 

29577 

9  513  Oi 

!5 

1.75 

81226 

32409 

!/*'_ 

0 

101321  183642 

T-005  700  254  612 

I/   4/7T 
lOgg  7T 

0.564  189583548 
1.144729885849 

T.  751  425  063  653 
0.058703021240 

arcl" 

0.017453292520 

2".  241  877367591 

sin  1° 

0.017452406417 

¥.241  855318418 

arc  V 

0 

00029 

)  888  2C 

9 

T.46 

J7261 

17207 

sin  1' 

0 

000  291 

)8882C 

5 

X.46 

3  726  1 

11  082 

arc  1" 

0.000004848137 

IT-  685  574  866  824 

sin  1" 

0.000  004  848  137 

•B-.685  574  866  822 

e 

2 

718  281  828  459 

0.434  294  481  903 

Jtf 

0 

43429 

1481  9C 

3 

T.63 

77843 

11  301 

l/|f 

2.302  585  092  994 

0.362  215  688  699 

1/2 

1 

414313562373 

0.150514997832 

V3 

1 

732  050  807  569 

0.238560627360 

f] 

2 

236  067  977  477 

0.349  485  002  168 

TRIGONOMETRIC  FORMULA. 


TRIGONOMETRICAL    FUNCTIONS. 

Right-angled  Triangles. 

Let  A  (Fig.  1)  =  angle  BAC  =  arc  BF,  and  let  the  radius  AF  =  AB 
AH=  1. 
We  then  have 

H 

sin  .4  =  BG 

cos  A  -AC 

tan  A          =  DF 
cot  A  -  HG 

sec  A          =  AD 
cosec  A      -  AG 
versin  A      -  CF  =  BE 
covers  A     =  BK  =  HL 
exsec  A      =  BD 
coexsec  A  =  BG 
chord  A      =  BF 
chord  3  ^4  =  BI  =  2BC 


Fio.  1. 


In  the  right-angled  triangle  ABC  (Fig.  1) 
Let  AB  =  c,  ^4(7  =  6,  and  BC  =  a. 
We  then  have : 


1.  sin  A 

2.  cos  .4 

3.  tan  A 

4.  cot  A 

5.  sec  ^4 


=      _      =  Cos  B 
c 


=     —      =  sin  5 


—      =  cosec  B 
o 


6.  cosec  A     =      —      =  sec  5 

a 

7.  vers  -4       = =  covers  B 

8.  exsec  ^4     =  °  7~  =  coexsec  ^ 


11.  o  =  c  sin  A  =  b  tan  ,<4 

12.  6  =ccos^4  =  a  cot  ^4 

sin  ^4  "~  cos  A 

14.  a  =  c  cos  B  —  b  cot  B 

15.  6  =  c  sin  #  =  a  tan  J? 

16.  c 

17.  a  =  V^c  +  6)  (c  —  6) 

18.  6  =  V"(c^f"a)  (c  -  a) 

19.  c  =  Va2  +  6» 

20.  C  =  90-  =  A  +  B 


a 

cos 


6 

sin 


aft 

21.  area  =  — 


403 


TRIGONOMETRICAL    FUNCTIONS. 


Plane 

/ 

/ 

I./ 

GIVEN. 

BOUGHT. 

22 

A,B,  a 

C,6,c 

C  = 

23 

A,a,b 

5,  C,  c 

sin  I 

24 

C,a,  6 

MU+5 

^(^ 

25 

KU-*> 

tan  } 

26 

A,  B 

1- 

27 

c 

c  =  ( 

28 

area 

^  = 

29 

a,  6,  c 

^ 

Letj 

30 

cos) 

81 

sin  ^ 

32 

area 

fc 

33 

**«* 

area 

K  = 

FIG.  2. 


FORMULAE. 


C=180»-U  +  J9),         6  =  ^-^-.sinP, 


r=180°-U+B), 


c  =  -—4  .  sin  0. 
sin  A 


+  B)  =  90°  -  ^  C 
£(A-B)=a-b 


a  +6 

.4  -  B), 


T  =  y^  a  b  sin  a 


s(s_a 


vers  -4 


bc 


Vs  (s  -a)  (s-  6)  (s  -  c) 
a2  sin  5 .  sin  C 


TABLE  84. 
SINES,  COSINES,  SECANTS,  AND  COSECANTS. 


0° 

1° 

2° 

3° 

4° 

/ 

Sine  [Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  Cosin 

~o 

.00000  One. 

.01745 

.99985 

.08490 

.99939 

.05234 

99863 

.06976 

99756 

60 

1 

.00029  One. 

.01774 

.99984 

.03519 

.99938 

.05263 

99861  ! 

.07005 

99754 

59 

2 

.00058  One. 

.01803 

.99984 

.03548 

.99937 

.05292 

99860 

.07034 

.99752 

58 

3 

.00087  One. 

.01832 

.99983 

.03577 

.99936 

.05321 

99858' 

.07063 

.99750 

57 

4 

.00116  One. 

.01862 

.99983 

.03606 

.99935 

.05:350 

99857 

.07092 

.99748 

56 

5 

.00145  One. 

.01891 

.99982 

.03635 

.99934 

.05379 

99855 

.07121 

.99746 

55 

6 

.00175  One. 

.01920 

.99982 

.03664 

.99933 

.05408 

.99854 

.07150 

.99744 

54 

7 

.00204  One. 

.01949 

.99981 

.03693 

.99932 

.05437 

.99852 

.07179 

.99742 

53 

8 

.00233  One. 

.01978 

.  99980  j  .03723 

.99931 

.05466 

.99851 

.07208 

.99740 

52 

9 

.00262  One. 

.02007 

.99980  1  .03758 

.99930 

.05495 

.99849 

.07237 

.99738 

51 

10 

.00291  .  One. 

.02036 

.99979 

.03781 

.99929 

.05524 

.99847 

.07266 

.99730 

50 

11 

.00320  '.99999 

.02065 

.99979 

.03810 

.99927 

.05553 

.99846 

.07295 

.99734 

49 

12 

.00349  .99999;  .02094  .99978  .03839  .9992(5 

.05582 

.99844 

.07324 

.99731 

48 

13 

.00378  .99999  !  .02123  .99977 

.038(58 

.99925 

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.99842 

.07353 

.99729 

47 

14 

.00407  .99999  .02152 

.99977 

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.99841! 

.07382 

.99727 

46 

15 

.00436  .99999  .02181 

.99976 

.03926 

.99923 

.05669 

.99839! 

.07411 

.99725 

45 

16 

.00465  .99999  i  .02211 

.99976 

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.07440 

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44 

17 

.00495  .99999  .02240 

.99975 

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43 

18 

.00524  .99999  .022691  .99974 

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42 

19 

.00553  .99998  .02298  99974  1.04042 

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41 

20 

.00582:.  99998 

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.99917  .05814 

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40 

21 

.00611  .99998 

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.  99916  !  1.05844 

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.99712 

39 

22 

.00640  .99998  .02385 

.99972  .04129 

.99915 

.05873 

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38 

23 

.00669  .99998  .02414 

.9997l|!.04159 

.99913 

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.99826  .('7643 

.99708 

37 

24 

.00698  .99998  .02443 

.99970  1.04188 

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25 

.00727'.  99997  jl  .02472 

.99969  .04217 

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.99703 

35 

26 

.  00756  .  99997  ,  j  .  02501  1  .  99969 

i  .04246 

.99910 

i  .05989 

.99821 

.07730 

.99701 

34 

27 

.  00785  ;  .  99997  i  i  .  02530  .  99968 

.04275 

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.06018 

.99819 

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33 

28 

.  0081  4  .  99997  j  I  .  02560  .  99967 

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32 

29 

.00844  .99996  j!.  02589 

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i  .04333 

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31 

30 

.  00873  i.  99996 

.02618 

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30 

31 

.00902  '.99996 

.02647 

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29 

32 

.00931  .99996 

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.99902  .06163 

.99810 

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28 

33 

.00960  .99995 

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.99808 

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27 

34 

.00989  .99995 

.02734 

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.99900  |  .06221 

.99806 

.07962 

.99683 

26 

35 

.01018  .99995 

.02763 

.99962 

.04507 

.99898  .06250 

.99804 

.07991 

.99680 

25 

36 

.01047  .99995 

.02792 

.999(51 

.04536 

.99897  1  .06279 

.99803 

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24 

37 

.01076  '.99994 

.02821 

.99960 

.04565 

.99896 

.06308 

.99801 

.08049 

.99676 

23 

38 

.01105  .99994 

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.04594 

.99894 

.06337 

.99799 

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22 

39 

.01134  .99994s  .02879 

.99959 

.04623 

.99993  i  1.08866 

.99797 

.08107 

.99671 

21 

40 

.01164  ,.99993 

.02908 

.99958 

.04653 

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20 

41 

.01193  .99993 

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19 

42 

.01222  .99993 

.0296? 

.99956 

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.08194 

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18 

43 

.01251  .99992 

.02996 

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44 

.01280  .99992 

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.04769 

.99886 

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16 

45 

.01309  .99991 

.03054 

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.04798 

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.08281 

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15 

46 

.01338  .99991 

.03083 

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.04827 

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.06569 

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.08310 

.99654 

14 

47 

.01367  .99991 

.03112 

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.04856 

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.0(5598 

.99782 

.081339 

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13 

48 

.01396  .99990 

.03141 

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.04885 

.99881 

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.083681.99649 

12 

49 

.01425  .99990 

.03170 

.99950 

.04914 

.99879  !  .06656 

.99778 

.08397 

.99647 

11 

60 

.01454  .99989 

.03199 

.99949  i.  04943 

.99878  .06685 

.99776 

.08426 

.99644 

10 

51 

.01483  '.99989 

.03228 

.99948  II  .04972 

.99876!  .06714 

.99774 

.08455 

.99642 

9 

52 

.01513  .99989 

.03257 

.99947 

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.  99875  i!  .067431.99772 

.08484 

.99639 

8 

53 

.01542  .99988 

.03286 

.99946 

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.99873  1.067731.  99770 

.08513 

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7 

54 

01571  ,.99988 

.03316 

.99945  j.05059 

.99872 

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.997(58 

.08542 

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6 

55 

01600  .99987 

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.  99944  '1.  05088 

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.06831 

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.08571 

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5 

56 

.01629  ,.99987 

.03374 

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.998(59 

.068601.99764 

.08600 

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4 

57 

.01658  .99986 

.03403 

.99942!  .05146 

.99867 

.06889 

.997(52 

.08629 

.99627 

3 

58 

.01687  9998(5 

.03432 

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.99866  i  .06918 

.99700 

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2 

59 

.01716  .99985 

.03461 

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.9986411.069471.99758 

.08687 

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1 

(50 

.01745  .99985 

.03490 

.99939  .05234 

.998(53 

.06976  ,99756, 

.08716 

.99019 

0 

/ 

Cosin  |  Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosiu  Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

/ 

89° 

88°   11   87° 

86° 

85° 

463 


464 


SINES   AND    COSINES. 


5° 

6° 

7°    i|    8-       9° 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosia 

LillO 

Cosin 

/ 

0 

.08716 

.99619 

.10453 

.99452 

.12187 

.yj«55 

.13917 

.S»9027 

.15643 

.98769 

fifi 

1 

.08745 

.99617 

.10482 

.99449 

.12216 

.99251 

.13946 

.99023 

.15672 

.  98764  !  59 

2 

.08774 

.99614 

.10511 

.99446 

.12245 

.99248 

.13975 

.99019 

.15701 

.98760  58 

3 

.08803 

.99612 

.10540 

.99443 

.12874 

.99244 

.14004 

.99015 

.15730 

.98755  57 

4 

.08831 

.99609 

.10569 

.99440 

.12302 

.99240 

.14033 

.99011 

.157'5C 

.98751  [  56 

5 

.08860 

.99607 

.10597 

.99437 

.12331 

.99237 

.140G1 

.99006 

.15787 

.98746  55 

6 

.08889 

.99604 

.10626 

.99434 

.12360  .99233 

.14090 

.99002 

.15816 

.98741  54 

7 

.08918 

99602 

.10655 

.99431 

.12389  .992:50 

.14119 

.98998 

.15845 

.98737  53 

8 

.08947 

.99599 

.10684 

.99423 

.12418  .99226 

.14148 

.98994 

.15873 

.98732  52 

9 

.08976 

.99596 

.10713  .99424 

.12447  .99222 

.14177 

.98990 

.15902 

.98728  51 

10 

.09005 

.99594 

.10742  .99421 

.12476  .99219 

.14205 

.98986 

.15931 

.98723!  50 

11 

.09034 

.99591 

.10771 

.99418 

.12504 

.99215 

.14234 

.98982 

.15959 

.98718149 

12 

.09063 

.99588 

.10800 

.99415 

.12533 

.99211 

.14263 

.98978 

.15988 

.98714  48 

13 

.09092 

.99586 

.10829 

.99412 

.12562 

.99208 

.14292 

.98973 

.16017 

.98709  47 

14 

.09121 

.99583 

.  10858 

.99409 

.12591 

.99204 

.14320 

.98969 

.16046 

.98704!  46 

15 

.09150 

.99580 

.10887 

.99406 

.12620 

.99200 

.14349 

.98965 

.16074 

.98700  45 

16 

.09179 

.99578 

.10916 

.99402 

.12649 

.99197 

.14378 

.98961 

.16103 

.98695  44 

17 

.09208 

.99575 

.10945 

.99399 

.12678 

.99193 

.14407 

.98957 

.16132 

.98690  43 

18 

.09237 

.99572 

.10973 

.99.396 

.12706 

.99189 

.14436 

.98953 

.16160 

.98686  42 

19 

.09266 

.99570 

.11002 

.99393| 

.12735 

.99180! 

.14464 

.98948 

.16189 

.986811  41 

20 

.09295 

.99567 

.11031 

.99390 

.12764 

.9918:2 

.14493 

.98944  .16218 

.98676 

40 

21 

.09324 

.99564 

.11060 

.99386 

.12793 

.99178 

.14522 

.98940  .16246 

.98671 

39 

22 

.09353 

.99562 

.11089 

.99383 

.12822 

.99175 

.14551 

.98936  .16275 

.98667  38 

23 

.09382 

.99559 

.11118 

.99380 

.12851 

.99171 

.14580 

.98931 

.16304 

.98662!  37 

24 

.09411 

.99556 

.11147 

.99377 

.12880 

.99167 

.14608 

.98927 

.16333 

.98657!  36 

25 

.09440 

.99553 

.11176 

.99374 

.12908 

.99163 

.14637 

.98923 

.16361 

.98652  35 

26 

.09469- 

.99551 

.11205 

.99370 

.12937 

.99160 

.14666 

.98919 

.16390 

.98648:  34 

27 

.09498 

.99548 

.11234 

.99367 

.12966 

.99156! 

.14695 

.98914 

1.16419 

.98643'  33 

28 

.09527 

.99545 

.11263 

.99364 

.12995 

.99152 

.14723 

.98910 

i  .16447 

.98638  32 

29 

.09556 

.99542 

.11291 

.99300 

.13024 

.99148 

.14752 

.98906 

1.16476 

.98633  31 

30 

.09585 

.99540 

.11320 

.99357 

.13053 

.99144 

.14781 

.98902 

.16505 

.98629 

30 

81 

.09614 

.99537 

.11349 

.99354 

.13081 

.99141 

.14810 

.98897 

!.  16533 

.98624 

29 

32 

.09642 

.99534 

.11378 

.99351  ' 

.13110 

.99137 

.14838 

.98893 

!.  16562 

.98619  28 

33 

.09671 

.99531 

.11407 

.99347 

.13139 

.99133 

.14867 

.98889 

|.  16591 

.98614  27 

34 

.09700 

.99528 

.11436 

.99344; 

.13168 

.99129 

.14896 

.98884 

i.  16620 

.98609  26 

35 

.09729 

.99526 

.11465 

.  99341  ' 

.13197 

.99125 

.14925 

.98880 

.16648 

.98604  25 

36 

.09758 

.99523 

.11494 

.99337 

.13226 

.99122 

.14954 

.98876 

1.16677 

.98600  24 

37 

.09787 

.99520 

.11523 

.99334 

.13254 

.99118 

.14982 

.98871 

.  16706  i.  98595 

23 

38 

.09816 

.99517 

.11552 

.99331 

.13283 

.99114 

.15011 

.98867 

.16734 

.98590 

22 

39 

.09845 

.99514 

.11580 

.9fl327 

.13312 

.99110 

.15040 

.98863 

.16763 

.98585 

21 

40 

.09874 

.99511 

.11609 

.99324 

.13341 

.99106 

.16069 

.98858 

.16792 

.98580 

20 

41 

.09903 

.99508 

.11638 

.99320 

.1.3370 

.99102 

.15097 

.98854 

.16820 

.98575 

19 

42 

.09932 

.99500 

.11667 

.993171 

.13399 

.99098 

.15126 

.98849 

.16849 

.9&570 

18 

43 

.09961 

.99503 

.11696 

.99314 

.13427 

.99094 

.15155 

.98845 

•  .  16878 

.98565 

17 

44 

.09990 

.99500 

.11785 

.99310 

.13456 

.99091 

.15184 

.98841 

.16906 

.98561 

16 

45 

.10019 

.99497 

.11754 

•  99307  1 

.13485 

.99087 

.15212 

.98836 

1  .16935 

.98556 

15 

46 

.10048 

.99494 

.11783 

.99303 

.13514 

.99083 

.15241 

.98832  i.  16964 

.98551 

14 

47 

.10077 

.99491 

.11812 

.99300) 

.13543 

.99079! 

.15270 

.98827  1  .16992 

.98546 

13 

48 

.10106 

.99488 

.11840 

.99297 

.13572 

.99075 

.15299 

.98823 

.17021 

.98541 

12 

49 

.10135 

.99485 

.11869 

.99293 

.13600 

.99071 

.15327  .98818  .17050 

.98536 

11 

50 

.10164 

.99482 

.11898 

.93290 

.13029 

.99067 

.1C356  .C8814 

.17078 

.98531 

10 

51 

.10192 

.99479 

.11927 

.99286 

.13658 

.99063 

.15385 

.98809 

.  17107  !.  98526 

9 

52 

.10221 

.99476 

.11956 

.992&3 

.13687 

.99059 

.  15414  i.  98805 

.17136 

.98521 

8 

53 

.10250 

.99473 

.11985 

.99279 

.13716 

.99055 

.15442  .98800 

.17164 

.98516 

7 

54 

.10279 

.99470 

.12014 

.99276 

.13744 

.99051 

.15471 

.98796 

.17193 

.98511 

6 

55 

.10308 

.99467 

.12043 

.99272 

.13773 

.99047 

.15500 

.98791 

17222 

.98506 

5 

56 

.10337 

.99464 

.12071 

.99269 

.13802 

.99043 

.15529 

.98787 

.'  17250 

.98501 

4 

57 

10366 

.99461 

.12100 

.99265 

.1:3831 

.99039 

.15557 

.98782 

.17279 

.98496 

3 

58 

.10395 

.99458 

j.  12129 

.99262 

.18880 

.99035 

.15586 

.98778 

.17308 

.98491 

2 

59 

.10424 

.99455 

i  .12158 

.99258 

.13889 

.990.31 

.15615 

.98773 

.17336 

.98486 

1 

60 

.10453 

.99452 

.12187 

.99255 

.13917 

.99027 

.15643 

.98769 

.173651.98481 

0 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

i 

/ 

84* 

83" 

82° 

81° 

80° 

SINES   AND   COSINES. 


465 


^ 

10° 

11°    i 

12° 

13° 

14° 

Sine  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  Cosin  i 

Sine  |  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

~0 

.17365  .98481 

.19081 

.98163 

720791 

:97815 

.22495 

.97437 

.24192 

.97030 

60  : 

1 

.17393  .98476 

.19109 

.98157 

.20820  .97809 

.22523 

.974:30 

.24220 

.97023 

59 

2 

.17422  .98471 

.19138 

.98152 

.20848:.  97803 

.22552 

.97424 

.24349 

.97015  58 

3 

.17451  .98466 

.19107 

.98146 

.20877 

.97797 

.22580 

.97417 

.24277 

.97008  57 

4 

.17479  .98461 

.19195 

.98140 

.20905 

.97791 

.22608 

.97411 

.24305 

.97001  56 

5 

.17508  .98455 

.19224 

[98185 

.209:33 

.97784 

.22637 

.97404 

.24:333 

.96994 

55 

6 

.17537  .98450 

.19252 

.98129 

.20962 

.97778 

.22665 

-07398 

.24362 

.96987 

54 

7 

.17565  .98445 

.19281 

.98124 

.20990 

.97772 

.22693 

.97391 

.24390 

.96980 

53 

8 

.17594  .98440 

.19309 

.98118 

.21019 

.97766 

22722 

.97384 

.24418 

.96973 

52 

9 

.17623  .98435 

.19*38 

.98112 

.21047 

.97760 

.22750 

.97378 

.24446 

.96966 

51 

10 

.17651  .98430 

.19:366 

.98107 

.21076 

.  97754  j 

.22778 

.97371 

.24474 

.96959 

50 

11 

.17680 

.98425 

.19395 

.98101 

.21104 

.97748 

.22807 

.97365 

.24503 

.96952 

49 

12 

.17708 

.98420 

.19423 

.98096 

.21132 

.97742 

.22*35 

.97:358 

.24531 

.96945 

48 

13 

.17737 

.98414 

.19452 

.98090 

.21161 

.97735 

.22863 

.97351 

.24559 

.96937 

47 

14 

.17766 

.98409 

.19481 

.98084 

.21189 

.97729 

.22892 

.97345 

.24587 

.96930 

46 

15 

.17794 

.98404 

.19509 

.98079 

.21218 

.97723 

.22920 

.97338  i  .24615 

.96923 

45 

16 

.17823 

.98399 

.19538 

.98073 

.21246 

.97717; 

.22948 

.97331-  .24644 

.96916 

44 

17 

.17852 

.98394 

.19566 

.98067 

.21275 

.97711' 

22977 

.97325!  .24672 

.96909 

43 

18 

.17880 

.98389 

.19595 

.98061 

.21303 

.97705 

!  23005 

.97318  .24700 

.96902 

42 

19 

.17909 

.9*383 

.19623 

.98056 

.21331 

.97698 

.230:33 

.97311  !  .24728 

.96894 

41 

20 

.17937 

.98378 

.19652 

.98050 

.21360 

.97692 

.23062 

.97304  .24750 

.96887 

40 

21 

.17966 

.98373 

.19680 

.98044 

.21388 

.97686 

.23090 

.  97298  il  .24784 

.96880 

39 

22 

.17995 

.98368 

.19709 

.98039 

.21417 

.97680 

.23118 

.97:291   .24813 

.96873 

38  I 

23 

.18023 

.9*362 

.19737 

.98033: 

.21415 

.97673 

.23146 

.  97284  i 

.24841 

.96866  37  • 

24 

.18052 

.98357 

.19766 

98027; 

.21474 

.976(57 

.23175 

'97878 

.24869 

.90858  36 

25 

.18081 

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.19794 

.98021 

.21502 

.97661 

.23203 

.972711  .24897 

.968511  35 

26 

.18109 

.98:347 

.  19823 

.98016; 

.21530 

.97655 

.23231 

.97264 

.24925 

.96844!  34 

27 

.18138 

.9*341 

.19851 

.98010 

.21559 

.97648 

.23260 

.97257 

.24954 

.968371  33 

28 

.18166 

.9*336 

.19880 

.98004 

.21587 

.97642! 

.23288 

.97251 

.24982 

.96829!  32 

29 

.  18195 

.9*331 

.19908 

.97998 

.21616 

.97636 

.23316 

.97244 

.25010 

.96822  31 

30 

.18224 

.98325 

.19937 

.97992 

.21644 

.97630 

.23345 

.97237 

.25038 

.968151  30 

31 

.18252 

.98320 

.19965 

.97987 

.21672 

.97623 

.23373 

.97230 

.25066 

.96807  29 

32 

.18281 

.9*315 

.19994 

.97981 

.21701 

.97617 

.23401 

.97223 

.25094 

.96800!  28 

33 

.18309 

.98510 

.20022 

.97975 

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.97611 

.23429 

.97217 

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.  96793  !  27 

34 

.18338  .98304 

.20051 

97969!  .21758 

.97604 

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.97210  .25151 

.96786!  26 

35 

.18367 

.98299 

.20079 

97963  .21786 

.97598 

.23486 

.97203  .25179 

.96778?  25 

36 

.18395 

.98294  .20108 

.97958: 

.21814 

.97592 

.23514 

.971961  .25207 

.96771  24 

37 

.18424 

.98288  .J4U136 

.97952 

.21843 

.97585 

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.971891!  .25235 

.96764  23 

38 

.184521.98283  .20165 

.97946 

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.97579' 

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.97182  :  .25263 

.967'56!  22 

39 

.18481  .9827711.20193 

.97940' 

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.97573 

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.97176:  .25291 

.96749  21 

40 

.18509 

.98272  .20222 

.97934  .21928 

.  97566  j 

.23627 

.  97169  i  .25320 

.96742 

20 

41 

.18538 

.98267 

.20250 

.97928  !  .21956 

.97560 

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.97162  .25348 

.96734 

19 

42 

.185671.98261 

.20279 

.97922 

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.97553 

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.97155  .253761.967271  18 

43 

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44 

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.97541; 

.23740 

.97141!  .254321.96712  16 

45 

.18652 

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.97905 

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.97534 

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.97134!!  .25460  .96705  15 

46 

.18681 

.98240 

.20393 

.97899 

.22098 

.97528 

.23797 

.97127!  .25488  .96697  14 

47 

.18710 

.98234 

.20421 

.97893 

.22126  .97521 

.23825 

.97120  .25516  .96690  13 

48 

.18738 

.98229 

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.97887 

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.97515 

.28853 

.  97113  .  25545  .  96682  12  ! 

49 

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.98223 

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50 

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.98218 

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.  22212  j.  97502 

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51 

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.  97869  ! 

.22240  .97496^ 

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52 

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.20563  .97863 

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53 

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54 

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55 

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.98190  .20649  .97845 

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56 

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.22382  .97463 

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57 

.18995  .98179!!  .207061.97833! 

.22410  .97457 

.241081.97051 

.25798  .96615  3 

58 

.19024!.  98174i  .20734  .97827: 

.224:38  .97450 

.241361.97044 

.25826  .96608:  2 

59 

.  19052  !  .  98168  1  .  20763  .  97821  i  .  22467 

.97444 

.24164  .97037 

.25854  .96600:  1 

60 

.19081  .98163 

i  .20791 

.  97815  1  .22495 

.97437  .24192 

.97030 

.25882  .96593:  0 

Cosin 

Sine  Cosin 

Sine  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin  Sine 

( 

79°   II   78°   !    77° 

76° 

75° 

466 


SINES   AND    COSINES. 


15° 

16° 

17° 

18° 

19° 

Sine  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin  Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

0 

.25882 

.96593 

.27564 

.96126 

.29237 

.95630  .30902 

.95106 

.32557 

.94552 

60 

1 

.25910 

.96585 

.27592 

.96118 

.29265 

.95622  .30929 

.95C37 

.32584 

.94542 

59 

2 

.25938  .96578 

.27620 

.96110  .29293 

.95613  .30957 

.95088 

.32612 

.94533  58 

3 

.25966  .96570 

.27648 

.96102  j  .29321 

.95605  .30985 

.95079 

.32639 

.94523!  57 

4 

.25994 

.96562 

.27676 

.96094  L  29348 

.95596  .31012 

.95070 

.32667 

.94514 

56 

5 

.26022 

.96555 

.27704 

.96086 

.29376 

.95588;  .31040 

.95061 

.32694 

.94504 

55 

6 

.26050 

.96547 

.27731 

.96078  .29404 

.95579!  .31068 

.95052 

.32722 

.94495  54 

7 

.26079  .96540 

.27759 

•96070  .29432 

.955711  .31095 

.95043 

.32749 

.94485  53 

8 

.26107  .96532 

.27787 

.96062  .29460 

.95562 

.31123 

.95033 

.32777 

.94476 

52 

9 

.26135  .96524 

.27815 

.96054  ;  .29487 

.95554 

.31151 

.95024 

'.32804 

.94466 

51 

10 

.26163  .96517 

.27843 

.96046;;.  29515 

.95545 

.31178 

.95015 

.32832 

.94457 

50 

11 

.26191 

.96509 

.27871 

.96037 

.29543 

.95536 

!  .31206 

.95006 

'.32859!.  94447 

49 

12 

.26219 

.96502 

.27899 

.96029 

.29571 

.95528'  .31233 

.94997 

.32887  .84438 

48 

13 

.26247 

.96494 

.27927 

.96021 

.29599 

.  9551  9  i;.  31261 

.94988 

.32914  .94428 

47 

14 

.26275 

.  9648(5  1 

.27955 

.96013 

.29626 

.95511  i  .31289 

.94979 

.329421.94418 

46 

15 

.26303 

.96479 

.27983 

.96005 

.29654 

.95502!  .31316  '.94970 

.32969  .94409 

45 

16 

.26331 

.96471 

.28011  .95997 

.29682 

.95493 

.31344  .94961 

.329971.94399 

44 

17 

.26359 

.96463 

.28039 

.95989 

.29710 

.95485 

.31372 

.94952 

.330241.94390 

43 

18 

.26387 

.96456 

.28067 

.95981 

.29737 

.95476  i!.  31399 

.94943 

.330511.94380 

42 

19 

.26415 

.96448 

.28095 

.95972 

.29765 

.95467  1  .31427 

.94933 

I  .33079 

.94370 

41 

20 

.26443 

.96440 

.28123 

.95964 

.29793 

.95459!  .31454 

.94924 

.33106 

.94361 

40 

21 

.26471 

.96433 

.28150 

.95956 

.29821 

.95450 

.31482 

.94915 

.33134 

.94351 

39 

22 

.26500 

.96425 

.28178 

.95948 

I  .29849 

.95441 

.31510 

.94906 

.33161 

.94342 

38 

23 

.26528 

.96417 

.28206 

.95940 

.29876 

.95433 

.31537 

.94897 

i  .33189 

.94332 

37 

24 

.26556 

.96410 

.28234 

.95931 

i  .29904 

.  95424  j|  .31565 

.94888 

.33216 

.94322 

36 

25 

.26584 

.96402 

.28262 

.95923 

.29932 

.95415  .31593 

.94878 

.33244 

.94313 

35 

26 

.26612 

.96394 

.28290 

.95915 

.29960 

.95407  .31620 

.94869 

.33271 

.94303 

34 

27 

.26640 

.96386| 

.28318 

.95907 

.29987 

.95398 

.31648 

.94860 

.33298 

.94293 

33 

28 

.26668 

.96379 

.28346 

.95898 

.30015 

.95389 

.31675 

.94851 

.33326 

.94284 

32 

29 

.26696 

.96371 

.28374 

.95890 

.30043 

.95:380 

.31702 

.94842 

.33353 

.94274 

31 

30 

.26724 

.96363 

.28402 

.95882 

.30071 

.95372 

.31730 

.94832 

.33381 

.94264 

30 

31 

.26752 

.96355 

.28429 

.95874 

.30098 

.95363 

.31758 

.94823 

.33408 

.94254 

29 

32 

.26780 

.96347 

.28457 

.95865 

.30126 

.95354  I  .317'86 

.94814 

.33436 

.94245 

28 

33 

.26808 

.  96340  ; 

.28485 

.95857 

.30154 

.95345  !  .31813 

.94805 

-33463 

.94235 

27 

34 

.26836 

.96332; 

.28513 

.95849 

.30182 

.95337 

.31841 

.94795 

.33490 

.94225 

26 

35 

.26864 

.96324: 

.28541 

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.95328 

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.33518 

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25 

36 

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.28569 

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24 

37 

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.94768 

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.9419b 

23 

38 

.26948 

.96301 

.28625 

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.95301 

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.94758 

.33600 

.94186 

22 

39 

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.96293 

.28652 

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.31979 

.94749 

.33627 

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21 

40 

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.96285 

.28680 

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.95284 

.32006 

.94740 

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.94167 

20 

41 

.27032 

.96277 

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.30376 

.95275 

.32034 

.94730 

.33682 

.94157 

19 

42 

.27060 

.96269 

.28736 

.95782 

.30403 

.95266 

.32061 

.94721 

.33710 

.94147 

18 

43 

.27088 

.96261 

.28764 

.95774 

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.95257 

.32089 

.94712 

.33737 

.94137 

17 

44 

.27116 

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.95248 

.32116 

.94702 

i  .33764 

.94127 

16 

45 

.27144 

.96246 

.95757 

.30486  .95240 

.32144 

.94693 

I  .33792 

.94118 

15 

46 

.27172 

.96238 

28847 

.95749 

.305141.95231 

.32171 

.94684 

i  .33819 

.94108 

14 

47 

.27200 

.96230 

!  28875 

.95740 

.30542 

.95222 

.32199 

.94674 

.33846 

.94098 

13 

48 

.27228 

.96222 

.28903 

.95732 

.30570 

.95213 

.32227 

.94665 

i  .33874 

.94088 

12 

49 

.27256 

.96214 

.28931 

.95724 

.305971.95204 

.32254 

.94656 

33901  .94078 

11 

50 

.27284 

.96206 

.28959 

.95715 

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.82282 

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10 

51 

.27312 

.96198 

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.  95186  1  .32309 

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.£3956 

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9 

52 

.27340 

.96190 

.29015 

.95698 

.30680 

.95177 

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8 

53 

.27368 

.96182 

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.94618 

.34011  .94039 

7 

54 

.27396 

.  96174  i 

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.30736 

.95159 

.32392 

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.340381.94029 

6 

55 

.27424 

.96160  \ 

.29098 

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.30763 

.95150 

.32419 

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5 

56 

.27452 

.96158 

.29126 

.95664 

.30791 

.95142 

.32447 

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.34093  .94009 

4 

57 

.27480 

.96150 

.29154 

.95656 

.30819 

.95133 

.32474 

93580 

.34120  .93999 

3 

58 

.27508 

.96142 

.29182 

.95647 

.30846 

.95124 

.32502 

94571 

.341471.93989 

2 

59 

.27536 

.96134; 

.29209 

.95639 

.30874 

.95115 

.32529 

94561 

.34175 

.93979 

1 

60 

.27564 

.96126 

.29237 

.95630 

.30902 

.95106: 

.32557 

94552 

.34202 

.93969 

0 

/ 

Cosin 

Sine" 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

f 

74° 

73° 

72° 

71° 

70° 

SINES    AND    COSINES. 


467 


20°   | 

21° 

22° 

23° 

24° 

~  I 

' 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  Cosin 

Sine  S  Cosin 

Sine  |  Cosin 

Sine  Cosin 

~0 

34202 

.93969! 

.35837! 

.93358 

.374611792718 

739073 

92050 

.40674;.  91355 

60 

1 

34229  .93959 

.35864 

.93348 

.  37488  !.  92707 

.39100 

92039 

.407001.91343 

59 

2 

.34257  .93949 

.35891 

.93337 

.37515  .92697 

.39127 

92028 

.40727  .91331 

53 

3 

.34284 

.93939 

.35918| 

.93327 

.37542  .92686 

.39153 

92016 

.40753 

.91319 

57 

4 

.34311 

.93929 

.35945 

.93316 

.37569 

.92675j 

.39180 

92005 

.40780  .91307 

5G 

5 

.34339 

.93919 

.35973 

.93306 

.37595 

.92664 

.39207 

91994 

.40806  .91295 

55 

6 

.34366 

.93909 

.36000 

.93295 

.37622 

.92653 

.39234 

91982 

.40833!.  91283 

54 

7 

.34393 

.93899 

.360271 

.93285 

.37649 

.92642 

.39260 

.91971 

.40860 

.91272 

53 

8 

.34421 

.93889 

.360541 

.93274 

.37676 

.92631 

.39287 

.91959 

.40886 

.91260 

52 

9 

.34448 

.93879 

.36081 

.93264 

.37703 

.92620 

.39314 

.91948 

.40913 

.91248 

51 

10 

.34475 

.93869 

.36108 

.93253 

.37730 

.92609 

.39341 

.91936 

.40939 

.91236 

50 

11 

.34503 

.93859 

.36135 

.93243 

.37757  .92598 

.39367 

.91925 

.40966 

.91224 

49 

12 

.34530 

.93849 

.36162 

.98382 

.37784 

.92587 

.39394 

.91914 

.40992 

.91212 

48 

13 

.34557 

.93839 

.36190 

.93222 

.37811 

.92576 

.39421 

.91902 

.41019 

.91200 

47 

14 

.34584 

.93829 

.36217 

.93211 

.37838 

.92565 

.39448 

.91891 

.41045 

.91188 

46 

15 

.34612 

.93819 

.36244 

.93201 

.37865  .92554 

.39474 

.91879 

.41072 

.91176 

46 

16 

.34639 

.93809 

.36271 

.93190 

.378921.92543 

.39501 

.91868 

.41098 

.91164 

44 

17 

.34666 

.93799 

.36298 

.93180 

.379191.92532 

.39528 

.91856 

.41125 

.91152  43 

18 

.34694 

.93789 

.36325 

.93169 

.37946 

.92521 

.39555 

.91845 

.41151 

.91140  42 

19 

.34721 

.93779 

.36352 

.93159 

.37973 

.92510 

.39581 

.91833 

.41178 

.91128 

41 

20 

.34748 

.93769 

.36379 

.93148 

.37999  .92499 

.39608 

.91822 

.41204 

.91116 

40 

i  21 

.34775 

.93759 

.36406 

.93137 

.38026  .92488 

.39635 

.91810 

.41231 

.91104 

39 

1  22 

.34803 

.93748 

.36434 

.93127 

.380531.92477 

.39661 

.91799 

.41257 

.91092 

38 

23 

.34830 

.93738 

.36461 

.93116 

.38080  .92466 

.39688 

.91787 

.41284 

.91080 

37 

24 

.34857 

.93728 

.36488 

.93106 

.38107 

.92455 

.39715 

.91775 

.41310 

.91068 

36 

25 

.34884 

.93718 

.36515 

.93095 

.38134 

.92444 

.39741 

.91764 

.41337 

.91056 

35 

!  26 

.34912 

.93708  1.36542 

.93084 

.38161 

.92432 

.39768 

.91752 

.41363 

.91044 

34 

27 

.34939 

.  93698  !  .36569 

.93074 

.38188 

.92421 

.39795 

.91741 

.41390 

.91032 

33 

28 

.34966 

.93688  .36596 

.93063 

.38215 

.92410 

.39822 

.91729 

.41416 

.91020 

32 

29 

.34993 

.93677  .36623 

.93052 

.88241 

.92399 

.39848 

.91718 

.41443 

.91008 

31 

30 

.35021 

.93667 

.36650J.93042 

.38268 

.92388 

.39875 

.01706 

.41469 

.90996 

30 

31 

.35048 

.93657 

.36677 

.93031 

.38295 

.92377 

.39902 

.91694 

.41496 

.90984 

29 

32 

.35075 

.93647  1  .36704 

.93020 

.88828 

.92366 

.39928 

.91688 

.41522 

.90972 

28 

33 

.35102 

.93637  .36731 

.93010 

.38349 

.92355 

.39955 

.91671 

.41549 

.90960 

27 

34 

.35130 

.93626  .36758 

.92999 

.38376  .92343 

.39982 

.91660 

.41575 

.90948 

26 

35 

.35157 

.93616 

.36785 

.92988  .384031.92332 

.40008 

.91648 

.41602 

.90936 

25 

36 

.35184 

.93606 

.36812 

.92978  '  .38-130 

.92321 

.40035 

.91636 

.41628 

.90924 

24 

i  37 

.35211 

.93596 

.36839 

.92967  .38456 

.92310 

.40062 

.91625 

.41655 

.90911 

23 

38 
39 

.35239 
.35266 

.93585 
.93575 

.36867 
.36894 

.9.2956  .38483  .92299 
.92945  .38510  .92287 

.40088 
.40115 

.91613 
.91601 

.41681 
.41707 

.90899 

.90887 

22 

21 

!  40 

.35293 

.93565 

.36921 

.92935,  .38537 

.92276 

.40141 

.91590 

.41734 

.90875 

20 

41 

.35320 

.9&5551 

.36948 

.92924  .38564 

.92265 

.40168 

.91578 

.41760 

.90863 

19 

42 

.35347 

.93544 

.369751.92913 

.38391  .92254 

.40195 

.91566 

.41787  .90851 

18 

43 

.35375 

.93534 

.37002 

.92902 

.38G17 

.92243 

.40221 

.91555 

.41813  .90839 

17 

44 

.35402 

.37029 

.92892 

.38644 

.92231 

.40248 

.91543 

.41840  .90826 

16 

45 

.35429 

!  93514 

.37056 

.92881 

.38671 

.92220 

.40275 

.91531 

.418661.90814 

15 

46 

.35456 

.93503 

.37083 

.92870 

.38098 

.92209 

.40301 

.91519 

.41892  .90802 

14 

47 

.35484 

.93493 

.37110 

.92859 

.38725 

.92193 

.40328 

.91508 

.41919 

.90790 

13 

48 

.35511 

.93483 

.37137 

.92849 

.38752 

.92186 

.40355 

.91496 

.41945 

.90778 

12 

49 

35538 

.93472 

.37164 

.92838 

.3877-8  i.  92175 

.40381 

.91484 

.41972 

.90766 

11 

50 

!  35565 

.93462 

.37191 

.92827 

.38805  .92164 

.40408  .91472 

.41998 

.90753 

10 

51 

.35592  .93452 

.37218 

.92816 

.38832 

.92152 

.40434  .91461 

.42024 

.90741 

9 

52 

.356191.93441 

.37245 

.92805 

.  38859  :.  92141 

.40461  !  .91449 

.42051 

.90729 

8 

53 

.35647 

.93431 

.37272 

.92794 

.38886  .92130 

.40488  .91437 

.42077 

.90717 

7 

54 

.35674 

.93420 

.37299 

.92784  .  38912  ;.  92119 

.40514  .91425 

.42104 

.90704 

6 

55 

.35701 

.93410 

.37320 

.92773  .  38939  j.  92107 

.40541  .91414  .42130 

.90692 

5  ! 

56 

.35728  .93400 

.37353 

.  92762  .  38966  .  92096  .  40567  .  91402  !  .42156 

.90680 

4 

57 

.35755 

.93389 

.37380 

.92751  .38993  .92085  .40594  .91390  i  .42183 

90668 

3 

58 

.35782 

.93379 

.37407 

.  92740  .  39020  .  92073  !  .  40621  .  91378 

.422091.90655 

2 

59 

.35810 

.93368 

.37434 

.927291  .39046  .92062  .40647  .91366 

.42235 

.90643 

1  i 

60 

.35837 

.93358 

.37461 

.92718 

.35*073  .92050  ;  .40674  .91355 

.42262 

.90631 

0 

f 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin  Sine  Cosin  Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

69° 

68° 

67°       66° 

65° 

4G8 


SINES   AND    COSINES. 


25° 

26° 

27° 

28° 

29° 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  |  Cosin 

0 

.42262 

.90631 

743837 

.89879 

.45399 

.89101 

.46947 

.88295 

.48481 

.87462 

60 

1 

.42288 

.90618 

.43863 

.89867 

.45425 

.89087 

.46973 

.88281 

.48506 

.87448 

59 

2 

.42315 

.90006 

.43889 

.89854 

.45451 

.89074 

.46999 

.88267 

.48532 

.87434 

53 

3 

.42341 

.90594 

.43916 

.89841 

.45477 

.89061 

.47024 

.88254 

.48557 

.87420 

57 

4 

.42367 

.90582 

.43942 

.89828 

.45503 

.89048 

.47050 

.88240 

.48583 

.87406 

5G 

5 

.42394 

.90569 

.43968 

.89816 

.45520 

.89035 

.47076 

.88226 

.48608 

.87391 

55 

6 

.42420 

.90557 

.43994 

.89803 

.45554 

.89021 

.47101 

.88213 

.4863-4 

.87377 

54 

7 

.42446 

.90545 

.44020 

.89790 

.45580 

.89008 

.47127 

.88199 

.48659  .87363 

53 

8 

.4.2473 

.S0533 

.44046 

.89777 

.45606 

.88995 

.47153 

.88185 

.48684 

.87349 

52 

9 

.42499 

.90520 

.44072 

.89764 

.45632 

.88981 

.47178 

.88172 

.48710 

.87335 

51 

10 

.42525 

.90507 

.44098 

.89752 

.45658 

.88968 

.47204 

.88158 

.48735 

.87321 

50 

11 

.42552 

.90495 

.44124 

.89739 

.45684 

.88955 

.47229 

.88144 

.48761 

.87306 

49 

12 

.42578 

.90483 

.44151 

.89726 

.45710 

.88942 

.47255 

.88130 

.48786 

.87292 

48 

13 

.42604 

.90470 

.44177 

.89713 

.45736 

.88928 

.472811.88117 

.48811 

.87278 

47 

14 

.42631 

.90458 

.44203 

.89700 

.45762 

.88915 

.47300  1  .88103 

.48837 

.87264 

46 

15 

.42657 

.90446 

.44229 

.89687 

.45787 

.88902 

.47332 

.88089 

.48862 

.87250 

45 

16 

.42683 

.90433 

.44255 

.89674 

.45813 

.88888 

.47358 

.88075 

.48888 

.87235 

44 

17 

.42709 

.90421 

.44281 

.89662 

.45839 

.88875 

.47383 

.88062 

.48913 

.87221 

43 

18 

.42736 

.90408 

.44307 

.89649 

.45865 

.88862 

.47409 

,88048 

.48938 

.87207 

42 

19 

.42762 

.90396 

.44333 

.89636 

.45891 

.88848 

.474341.88034 

.48964 

.87193 

41 

20 

.42788 

.90383 

.44359 

.89623 

.45917 

.88835 

.47460  .88020 

.48989 

.87178 

40 

21 

.42815 

.90371 

.44385 

.89610 

.45942 

.88822 

.474861.88006 

.49014 

.87164 

39 

22 

.42841 

.90358 

.44411 

.89597 

.45963 

.88808 

.47511  j.  87993 

.49040 

.87150 

38 

23 

.42867 

.90346 

.44437 

.89584 

.45994 

.88795 

.47537  .87979 

.49065 

.87136 

37 

24 

.42894 

.90334 

.44464 

.89571 

.46020 

.88782 

.47562  I.C7965 

.49090 

.87121 

36 

25 

.42920 

.90321 

.41490 

.89558 

.46046 

.88768 

.475881.87951 

.49116 

.87107 

35 

26 

.42940 

.90309 

.44516 

.89515 

.46072 

.88755 

.47614 

.87937 

.49141 

.87093 

34 

27 

.42972 

.90296 

.41542  .89532 

.46097 

.88741 

.47639 

.87923 

.49166 

.87079 

33 

28 

.42999 

.90284 

.445681.89519 

.40123 

.88728 

.47665 

.87909  ! 

.49192 

.87064 

32 

29 

.43025 

.9)271 

.445941.89500 

.46149 

.88715 

.47690 

.87896 

.49217 

.87050 

31 

30 

.43051 

.90259 

.44620 

.89493 

.46175 

.88701 

.47716 

.87882 

.49242 

.87036 

30 

31 

.43077 

.90246 

.44646 

.89480 

.46201 

.88688 

.47741 

.87868 

.49268 

.87021 

29 

32 

.43104 

.90233 

.44872 

.80467 

.46226 

.88674 

.47767 

.87854 

.49293 

.87007 

28 

33 

.43130 

.90221 

.44698 

.89454 

.46252 

.88661 

.47793 

.87840 

.49318 

.86993 

27 

34 

.43156 

.90203 

.44724 

.89441 

.40278 

.88647 

.47818 

.87826 

.49344 

.86978 

26 

35 

.43182 

.90196 

.44750 

.89428 

.46304 

.88634 

.478441.87812 

.49369 

.86964 

25 

36 

.43209 

.90183 

.44776 

.89415 

.46330 

.88620 

.47869  .87798 

.49394 

.86949 

24 

37 

.43235 

.90171 

.44802 

.80402 

.46355 

.88607 

.47895 

.87784 

.49419 

.86935 

23 

38 

.43261 

.90158 

.44828 

.89389 

.46381 

.88593 

.47920 

.87770 

.49445 

.86921 

22 

39 

.43287 

.90146 

.44854 

.80376 

.46407 

.88580 

.47946  .87756 

.49470 

.86906 

21 

40 

.43313 

.90133 

.44880 

.89363 

.46433 

.88566 

.47971  .87743 

.49495 

.86892 

20 

41 

.43340 

.90120 

.44906 

.89350 

.46458 

.88553 

.47997  .87729 

.49521 

.86878 

19 

42 

.43366 

.90103 

.44932 

.80337 

.46484 

.88539 

.48022;.  87715 

.49546 

.86863 

18 

43 

.43392 

.90005 

.44953 

.80324 

.46510 

.88526 

.  48048  i.  87701 

.49571 

.86849 

17 

44 

.43418 

.90032 

.44934  .89311 

.46536 

.88512 

.48073  '.87687 

.49596 

.86834 

16 

45 

.43445 

.90070 

.45010  !  .89298 

.46561 

.88499 

.48099  '.87673 

.49622 

.86820 

15 

46 

.43471 

.90057 

.45036 

.80285 

.46587 

SS4S5 

.481241.87659 

.49647 

.86805 

14 

47 

.43497 

.90045 

.4.5062 

.89272 

.466131.884721 

.48150  .87645 

.49672 

.86791 

13 

48 

.43523 

.90032 

.45038 

.89259 

.46639 

.88458 

.48175  .87631 

.49697 

.86777 

12 

49 

.43549 

.90019 

.45114 

.89245 

.46664 

.88445 

.  48201  i.  87617 

.49723 

.86762 

11 

50 

.43575 

.90007 

.45140 

.89232 

.46690 

.88431 

.48226 

.87603 

.49748 

.86748 

10 

51 

.43602 

.89994 

.45166 

.89219 

.46716 

.88417 

.48252 

.87589 

.49773 

.86733 

9 

52 

.43628 

.89981 

.4519:2 

.89203 

.46742 

.88404 

.48277 

.87575 

.49798 

.86719 

8 

53 

.43654 

.89968 

.45218 

.89193 

.46767 

.883901 

.48303 

.87561 

.49824 

.86704 

7 

54 

.43680 

.89956 

.45243 

.89180 

.46793 

.88377 

.48328 

.87516 

.49849 

.86690 

6 

55 

.43706 

.89943 

.45269 

.89167 

.46819 

.883631 

.48354 

.87532 

.49874 

.86675 

5 

56 

.43733 

.89930 

.45295 

.89153 

.46844 

.88349 

.48379 

.87518 

.49899 

.86661 

4 

57 

.43759 

.89918 

.45321 

.89140 

.46870 

.883361 

.48405 

.875041 

.49924 

.86646 

3 

58 

.43785 

.89905 

.45347 

.89127 

.46896 

.48430 

.87490 

.49950 

.86632 

2 

59 

.43811 

.89892 

.45373 

.89114 

.46921 

!  88308 

.48456 

.87476 

.49975 

.86617 

1 

60 

.43837 

.89879 

.45399 

.89101 

.46947 

.88295 

.48481 

.87462 

.50000 

.86603 

_0 

f 

Cosiu 

Sine 

Cosin 

"Sine" 

1  Cosin 

"Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

t 

64° 

63° 

62° 

61° 

60° 

Atff)   COSINES. 


409 


30° 

31° 

32° 

33° 

34° 

1 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  |  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

~o 

"50000 

86603 

.51504 

85717 

.52992  .84805, 

754464  |.  83807 

.55919 

.82904 

60 

1 

.50025 

86588 

.51529 

85702 

.53017  .84789 

.54488  .83851 

.55943 

.82887  59 

2 

50050 

86573 

.51554 

83687 

.53041  .84774 

.54513  .83835 

.55908 

.82871  58 

3 

.50076 

86559 

.51579 

85672 

.53066  .84759 

.54537  .83819 

.55992 

.82855  57 

4 

.50101 

86544 

.51604 

85657 

.53091  .84743 

.5456  I1.  83804 

.56016 

.82839  6(5 

5 

.50126 

86530 

.51628 

85042 

.53115  .84728 

.54586  '.83788 

.56040 

.82822  55 

6 

.50151 

86515 

.51653 

8.-)627 

.53140 

.84712 

.54610!.  83772 

.56064 

.82806  54 

7 

.50176 

86501 

.51678 

85612 

.53164 

.84097: 

.54635 

.83750 

.56088 

.82790  53 

8 

.50201 

86486 

.51703 

85597 

.53189 

.84681 

.54659 

.83740 

.50112 

.82773  52 

9 

.50227 

86471 

.51728 

85582 

.53214 

.84600 

.540831.83724 

.56136 

.82757 

51 

10 

.50252 

86457 

.51753 

.85567 

.53238 

.84050; 

.54708 

.83708 

.56160 

.82741 

50 

11 

.50277 

86442 

.51778 

.85551 

.53263 

.840351 

.54732 

.83092 

.56184 

.82724 

40 

12 

.50302 

86427 

.51803 

.85530 

.52283 

.81019 

.54756 

.83070 

.50208 

.82708 

4t3 

13 

.50327 

86413 

.51828 

.85521 

.53312 

.84004 

.54781 

.83000 

.50232 

.82(502 

47 

14 

.50352 

86398 

.51852 

.85506 

.53337 

.84588 

.54805 

.83645 

.50230 

.82675 

46 

15 

.50377 

.86384 

.51877 

.85491 

.63361 

.84573 

.54829 

.83029 

.50280 

.83659 

45 

16 

.50403 

.80309 

.51902 

.85476 

.53380 

.84557 

.54854 

.83613 

.50305 

.82043 

44 

17 

.50428 

.HI;.T)| 

.51927 

.85401 

.5:3411 

.8-1542 

.54878 

.83597 

.50329 

.82020 

43 

18 

.50453 

.86340 

.51952 

.85446 

.53435 

.84526 

.54902 

.83581 

.50353 

.82610 

42 

19 

.50478 

.8(5325 

.51977 

.85431 

.53400 

.84511 

154927 

.83565 

.56377 

.82593  41 

20 

.50503 

.86310 

.52002 

.85416 

.68484 

.84495 

.54951 

.83549 

.56401 

.82577 

40 

21 

.50528 

.86295 

.52026 

.85401 

.53509 

.84480 

.54975 

.  83533  ' 

.56425 

.82561 

39 

22 

.50553 

.86281 

.52051 

.85385 

.53334 

.84464 

.54999 

.83517 

.56449 

.82544 

38 

23 

.50578 

.86266 

.52076 

.85370 

.53558 

.84448 

.53024 

.83501 

.56473 

.82528 

37 

24 

.50603 

.86251 

.52101 

.85355 

.53583 

.84433 

.55048 

.83485 

.56497 

.82511 

35 

25 

.50628 

.86237 

.52126 

.85340 

.53007 

.84417 

.55072 

.83469 

.56521 

.82495 

35 

26 

.50654 

.86222 

.52151 

.85325 

.53032 

.84402 

.55097 

.83453 

.50545 

.82478 

34 

27 

.50679 

.86207 

.52175 

.83310 

.53050 

.84386 

.55121 

.83437 

.56509 

.82462  33 

28 

.50704 

.86192 

.52200 

.85294 

.53081 

.84370 

.55145 

.834211 

.56593 

.82446  32 

29 

.50729 

.86178 

.52225 

.85279 

.53705 

.84355 

.55169 

.83405: 

.56617 

.82429 

31 

30 

.50754 

.86163 

.52250 

.85264 

.53730 

.  84339  ! 

.55194 

.83389  i 

.56641 

.82413 

30 

31 

.50779 

.86148 

.52275 

.85249 

.53754 

.84324: 

.55218 

.83373 

.56665 

.82396 

29 

32 

.50804 

.86133 

.52299 

.85234 

.53779 

.84308 

.55242 

.  8:3356  : 

.56689 

.82380 

28 

33 

.50829 

.86119 

.52324 

.85218 

.53804 

.84292 

.C5266 

.83340 

.56713 

.82363 

27 

34 

.50854 

.86104 

.52349 

.85203 

.53828 

.84277 

.55291 

.83324' 

.56736 

.82347 

26 

35 

.50879 

.86089 

.52374 

.85188 

.53853 

.84261 

.55315 

.83308; 

.56760 

.82330 

23 

36 

.50904 

.86074 

.52399 

.85173 

.53877 

.84245 

.55339 

.83292! 

.56784 

.82314 

24 

37 

.50929 

.86059 

.52423 

.85157 

.53902 

.84230 

.55363 

.83276' 

.56808 

.82297 

23 

38 

.50954 

.86045 

.52448 

.85142 

.53920 

.84214 

.55388 

.83260 

.56832 

.82281 

22 

39 

.50979 

.86030 

.52473 

.85127 

.53951 

.84198 

.55412 

.83244 

.50856 

.82204 

21 

40 

.51004 

86015 

.52498 

.85112 

.53975 

.84182 

.55436 

.83228 

.56880 

.82248 

20 

41 

.51029 

.86000 

.52522 

.85096 

.54000 

.84167 

.55460 

.83212 

.56904 

.82231 

19 

42 

.51054 

.85983 

.52547 

.85081 

.54024 

.84151 

.  55484  S.  83195 

.56928 

.82214 

18 

43 

.51079 

.85970 

.52572 

.85066 

.54049 

.84135 

.55509 

.83179 

.56952 

.82198 

17 

44 

.51104 

.85950 

.52597 

.85051 

.54073 

.84120 

.55533 

.83163 

.56976 

.82181 

16 

45 

.51129 

.8)941 

.52621 

.83035 

.54097 

.84104 

.53557 

.83147 

.57000 

.82105 

15 

46 

.51154 

.85930 

.52646 

.83020 

.54122 

.84088 

.55581 

.83131 

.57024 

.82148 

14 

47 

.51179 

.85911 

.58671 

.85005 

.54140 

.84072 

.55605 

.83115 

.57047 

.82132 

13 

48 

.51204 

.8.5896 

.52696 

.84989 

.54171 

.84037 

.55030 

.83098 

.57071 

.82115 

12 

49 

.51229 

.85881 

.52720 

.84974 

.54195 

.84041 

.55654 

.83082 

.57095 

.82098 

11 

50 

.51254 

.85866 

.52745 

.84959 

.54220 

.84025 

.53678 

.83000 

.57119 

.82082 

10 

51 

.51279 

.85851 

.52770 

.84943 

.54244 

.84009 

.55702 

.83050 

.57143 

.82065 

9 

52 

.5130-1 

.85830 

.52794 

.841)28 

.54209 

.H3994 

.55720 

.83034 

.57107 

.82048 

8 

53 

.51329 

.85821 

.52819 

.84913 

.54293 

.83978 

.55750 

.83017 

.57191 

.82032 

7 

54 

.51354 

.85806 

.52844 

.84897 

.54317 

.88902 

.55775 

.83001 

.57215 

.82015 

6 

55 

.51379 

.85792 

.52869 

.84882 

.54342 

.83946 

.55799 

.82985 

.57238 

.81999 

5 

56 

.51404 

.85777 

.52893 

.84806 

.54366 

.83930 

.55823 

.82909 

.57262 

.81982 

4 

57 

.51429 

.85762 

.52918 

.84851 

.54391 

.83915 

.55847 

.82953 

.57286 

.81905 

3 

58 

.51454 

.85747 

.52943 

.84836 

.54415 

.83899 

.55871 

.82930 

.57310 

.81949 

2 

59 

.51479 

.85732 

.52967 

.84820 

.644401.83888 

.55895 

.82920 

.57334 

.81932 

1 

60 

.51504 

.85717 

.52992 

.84805 

.54464 

.a3867 

.55919 

.82904 

.57358 

.81915 

0 

/ 

Cosin 

~Sine~ 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

"Sine' 

r 

59° 

58° 

57° 

56° 

55° 

470 


SINES   AND   COSINES. 


35° 

36° 

37° 

38° 

39° 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

0 

.57358 

781915 

.58779 

.80902 

.60182 

.79864 

.61566 

.78801 

.62932 

.77715 

eo 

1 

.57381 

.81899 

.58802 

.80885 

.60205 

.79846 

.61589 

.78783 

.62955 

.77696 

59 

2 

.57405 

.81882 

.58826 

.80867 

.60228 

.79829 

.61612 

.78765 

.62977 

.77678 

58 

3 

.57429 

.81865 

.58849 

.80850 

.60251 

.79811 

.61635 

.787471 

.63000 

.77660 

57 

4 

.57453 

.81848 

.58873 

.80833 

.60274  .79793 

.61658 

.78729 

.63022 

.77641 

56 

5 

.57477 

.81832 

.58896 

.80816 

.602981.79776 

.61681 

.78711 

.63045 

.77623 

55 

6 

.57501 

.81815 

.58920 

.80799 

.60321 

.79758 

.61704 

.78694 

.63068 

.77605 

54 

7 

.57524 

.81798 

.58943 

.80782 

.60344 

.79741 

.61726 

.78076 

.63090 

.77586 

53 

8 

.57548 

.81782 

.58967 

.80765 

.60367 

.79723 

.61749 

.78658 

.63113 

.77568 

52 

9 

.57572 

.81765 

.58990 

.80748 

.60390 

.79706 

.61772 

.78640 

.63135 

.77550 

51 

10 

.57596 

.81748 

.59014 

.80730 

.60414 

.79688 

.61795 

.78622 

.63158 

.77531 

50 

11 

.57619 

.81731 

.59037 

.80713 

.60437 

.79671 

.61818 

.78604 

.63180 

.77513 

40 

12 

.57643 

.81714 

.59061 

.80696 

.60460 

.79653 

.61841 

.78586 

.63203 

.77494 

48 

13 

.57667 

.81698 

.59084 

.80679 

.60483 

.79635 

.61864 

.78568 

.63225  .77476 

47 

14 

.57691 

.81681 

.59108 

.80662 

.60506 

.79618 

.61887 

.78550 

.63248  .77458 

46 

15 

.57715 

.81664 

.59131 

.80644 

.60529 

.79600 

.61909 

.63271  .77439 

45 

16 

.57738 

.81647 

.59154 

.80627 

.60553 

.79583 

.  61932  i.  78514 

.63293  .77421 

44 

17 

.57762 

.81631 

.59178 

.80610 

.60576 

.79505 

.61955  .78496 

.63310  .77402 

43 

18 

.57786 

.81614 

.59201 

.80593 

.60599 

.79547 

.61978  .78478! 

.63338  .77384 

42 

19 

.57810 

.81597 

.  59225 

.80576 

.60622 

.79530 

.62001  .78460 

.68361!.  77366 

41 

20 

.57833 

.81580 

!  59248 

.80558 

.60645 

.79512 

.62024 

.7'8442 

.63383  .77347 

40 

21 

.57857 

.81563 

.59272 

.80541 

.60668 

.79494 

!  .62040  .78424 

.63406 

.77329 

39 

22 

.57881 

.81546 

.59295 

.80524 

.60691 

.79477 

|  .62009  .78405; 

.613428  .77310 

38 

23 

.57904 

.81530 

.59318 

.80507 

.60714 

.79459 

l  .62092  .78387 

.634511.77292 

37 

24 

.57928 

.81513 

.59342 

.80489 

.607381.79441 

.  621  1  5  .  78369  .  63473  .  77273 

36 

25 

.57952 

.81496 

.59365 

.80472 

.60761 

.79424 

1  .  621  38  .  78351  .  63496  :  .  77255 

35 

26 

.57976 

.81479 

.59389 

.80455 

.60784 

.  79406  .62160  .  78333  .  63518  .  77236 

34 

27 

.57999 

.81462 

.59412 

.804:38 

.60807 

.79388  !  .62183!.  783151 

.635401.77218 

33 

28 

.58023 

.81445 

.59436 

.80420 

.60830 

.79371 

.62200  .78297; 

.63563  .77199 

32 

29 

.58047 

.81428 

.59459  .80403 

60853 

.79353 

.82229  .78279 

.63585  .77181 

31 

30 

.58070 

.81412 

.594821.80386 

.60876 

.79335  1  .62251 

.78261 

.63608  .77162 

30 

31 

.58094 

.81395 

.59506  .80368 

.60899  .793181!.  62274 

.78243 

.63630 

.77144 

29 

32 

.58118 

.81378 

.59529 

.80351 

.60922  .79300  ..622971.78225 

.63653!.  77125 

28 

33 

.58141 

.81361 

.59552 

!  80334 

.  60945  .  7  9282  .  62320  !  .  7  8206  .  63675  .  77107 

27 

34 

.58165 

.81344 

.59576  .80316 

.60968 

.  79264  1  .  62342  .  78188  .  63698  .  77088 

26 

35 

.58189 

.81327 

.595991.80299 

.60991 

.79247  .62365  .78170! 

.63720  .77070 

25 

36 

.58212  .81310 

.59622  .80282 

.61015 

.79229  .62388  .78152  .63742!.  7  7051 

24 

37 

.58236  .81293 

.  59646  i.  80264 

.61038 

.79211  1.62411 

.78134;  .63765  .77033 

23 

38 

.58260  .81276 

.59(569 

.80247 

.61061 

.79193|!  .62433  .78116'  .637871.77014 

22 

39 

.58283 

.81259 

.59093  .80230 

.61084 

.  79176  p  .624561.78098 

.638101.76996 

21 

40 

.58307 

.81242 

.59716  .80212 

.61107 

.  79158  .  62479  .  78079  .  63832  .  76977 

20 

41 

.58330 

.81225 

.597391.80195 

.61130 

.791401  .62502 

.78061'  .63854  .76959 

19 

42 

.58354  .81208 

.  59703  |.  801  78 

.61153  !  .79122  .62524  .78043 

.63877  .76940 

18 

43 

.58378 

.81191 

.59786  .80160 

.61176!.  79105 

i  .62547  .78025 

.63899  .76921  17 

44 

.58401 

.81174 

.59809  .80143 

.61199 

.79C87 

.625701.78007;  .63922  .76903 

16 

45 

.58425 

.81157 

.59832  .80125 

.61222  .79069 

.  62592  1  .  77988  .  63944  .  76884 

15 

46 

.58449 

.81140 

.59856  .80108 

.612451.79051 

.62615;.  77  970  .63966.76866 

14 

47 

.58472 

.81123 

.59879 

.80091 

.61268  .79033 

.  62638  !.  77952 

.63989  .76847 

13 

48 

.58496 

.81106 

.59902 

.80073 

.61291  .79016 

1  .62600  .77934 

.64011  .76828 

12 

49 

.58519 

.81089 

59926 

.80056 

.61314  .78998 

.62683  .77916 

.64033  .76810 

11 

50 

.58543 

.81072 

159949 

.80038 

.61337 

.78980 

.62706  .77897 

.64056 

.76791 

10 

51 

.58567 

.81055 

.59972 

.80021 

.61360 

.78962 

.62728 

.77879 

.64078 

.76772 

9 

52 

.58590 

.81038 

.59995 

80003, 

.61383[.78944 

.62751 

.77861 

.64100 

.76754 

8 

53 

.58614 

.81021 

.60019 

.79986 

.61406 

.78926 

.62774 

.77843' 

.64123 

.76735 

7 

54 

.58637 

.81004 

.60042 

.79968 

.61429 

.78908 

.62796 

.77824 

.64145 

.70717  6 

55 

.58661 

.80987 

.60065 

.79951 

.61451 

.78891 

.62819 

.77806 

.64167  .76698!  5 

56 

.58684 

.80970 

.60089 

.79934 

.61474 

.78873 

.62842 

.77788 

.64190 

.76679  4 

5i 

.58708 

.80953 

.60112 

.79916 

.61497 

.78855 

.62864 

.77769 

.64212  .76661  3 

58 

.58731 

.80936 

.60135  .79899 

.61520 

.78837 

.62887 

.77751 

.64234  .76642  2 

59 

.58755 

.80919 

.60158  .79881, 

.61543 

.78819 

.62909 

.77733 

.64256  .76623 

1 

60 

.58779 

.80902 

.60182 

.79864 

.61566 

.78801 

.62932 

.77715 

.64279 

.76604 

0 

/ 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin  Sine 

/ 

54° 

53°   1 

52° 

51° 

50° 

SINES  AND   COSINES. 


471 


40° 

41° 

42° 

43° 

44° 

' 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine  |  Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

/ 

~0 

.64279 

.76604 

.65606 

.75471 

.66913 

.74314 

.68200 

.73135 

769466 

.71934 

60 

1 

.64301 

.76586 

.65628 

.75452 

.66935 

.74295 

.68221 

.73116 

.69487 

.71914 

59 

2 

.64323 

.76567 

.65650 

.75433 

.66956 

.74276 

.68242 

.73096 

.69508 

.71891 

58 

3 

.64346 

.76548 

.65672 

.75414 

.66978 

.74256 

.68264 

.73076 

.69529 

.71873 

57 

4 

.64368 

.76530 

.65694 

.75305 

.60399 

.74237 

.68285 

.73056 

.69549 

.71853 

56 

5 

.64390 

.76511 

.65716 

.75375 

.67021 

.74217 

.68306 

.73036 

.69570 

.71833 

55 

6 

.64412 

.76492 

.65738 

.73336 

.67043 

.74198 

.68327 

.73016 

.60591 

.71813 

54 

7 

.644:i5 

.76473 

.65759 

.75337 

.67064 

.74178 

.68349 

.72996 

.69612 

.71792 

53 

8 

.64457 

.76455 

.65781 

.75318 

.67086 

.74159 

.68370 

.72976 

.60633 

.71772 

52 

9 

.64479 

.76436 

.65803 

.75209 

.67107 

.74139 

.68391 

.72057 

.69654 

.71752 

51 

10 

.64501 

.76417 

.65825 

.75280 

.67129 

.74120 

.68412 

.72937 

.69675 

.71732 

50 

11 

.64524 

.76398 

.65847 

.75261 

.67151 

.74100 

.68434 

.72917 

.69696 

.71711 

49 

12 

.64546  .76330 

.65:»J 

.75241 

.67172 

.74080 

.68455 

.72807 

.69717 

.71691 

48 

13 

.64568 

.76361 

.65891 

.75222 

.67191 

.74061 

.68476 

.72877 

.69737 

.71671 

47 

14 

.64590 

76342 

.65913 

.75203 

.67215 

.74041 

.68497 

.72857 

.697'58 

.71650 

46 

15 

.64612 

.WW3 

.65935 

.75184 

.67237 

.74022 

.68518 

.7-2837 

.69779 

.716:30 

45 

16 

.64635 

.76304 

.65956 

.75165 

.67258 

.74002 

.68539 

.72817 

.69800 

.71610 

44 

17 

.64657  .76286! 

.65078 

.75146 

.67280 

.73983 

.68561 

.72797 

.60821 

.71590 

43 

18 

.64679 

.76267 

.66000 

.75126 

.67301 

.73903 

.68582 

.72777 

.60842 

.71569 

42 

19 

.61701 

.76248 

.(.GOi-2 

.75107 

.67323 

.73944 

.68603 

.72757 

.60862 

.71549 

41 

20 

.64723 

.76229:  .66044 

75088 

.67344 

.73924 

.68624 

.72737 

.69883 

.71529 

40 

21 

.64746 

.76210'  .66066 

75039 

.67366 

.73904 

.68645 

.72717 

.69904 

.71508 

39 

22 

.647681.76192  .66033 

75050 

.67387 

.73885 

.68666 

.72697 

.69925 

.71488 

38 

23 

.64790  .76173  j  .66103 

75030 

.67409 

.738G5 

.68688 

.72677 

.69946 

.71468 

37 

24 

.64812 

.76154  .66131 

75011 

.67430 

.73846 

.68709 

.72657 

.69966 

.71447 

36 

25 

.64834 

.76135 

.66153 

74333 

.67452 

.73826 

.68730 

.72637 

.69987 

.71427 

35 

26 

.64856  .76116' 

.66175 

74973 

.67473 

.73806 

.68751 

.72617 

.70008 

.71407 

34 

27 

.64878  .76097 

.66197 

74953 

.67495 

.73787 

.68772 

.72597 

.70029 

.71386 

33 

28 

.649011.76078 

.66218 

74934 

.67516 

.73767 

.68793 

.72577 

.70049 

.71366 

32 

29 

.64923  .76059 

.66240 

74915 

.67538 

.73747 

.68814 

.72557 

.70070 

.71345 

31 

30 

.64945 

.76041 

.66262 

74896 

.67559 

.73728 

.68835 

.72537 

.70091 

.71325 

30 

31 

.64967 

.76022 

.66284 

74876 

.67580 

.73708 

.68857 

.72517 

.70112 

.71305 

29 

32 

.64989 

.  76003  ' 

.66:306 

74857 

.67602 

.73683 

.68878 

.72497 

70132 

.71284 

28 

33 

.65011 

.75984 

.66327 

748.38 

.67623 

.73669 

.68899 

.72477 

.70153 

.71264 

27 

34 

.65033 

.75965 

.66349 

74818 

.67645 

.73649 

.68920 

.72457 

.70174 

.71243 

26 

35 

.65055 

.75946 

.66371 

74799 

.67666 

.736S9 

.68941 

.72437! 

.70195 

.71223 

35 

36 

.65077 

.75927! 

.66393 

74780  ! 

.67688 

.73610 

.68962 

.72417! 

.70215 

.71203 

24 

37 

.65100 

.75908| 

.66414 

74760; 

.67709 

.73590 

.68983 

.723971 

.70236  .71182 

23 

38 

.65122 

.75889 

.66436 

74741 

.67730 

73570 

.69004 

.72377 

.70257 

.71162 

22 

39 

.65144 

.75870 

.66458 

74722  i 

.67752 

.73551 

.69025 

.72357 

,70277 

.71141 

21 

40 

.65166 

.75851 

.66480 

74703 

.67773 

73531 

.69046 

.72337 

.70298 

.71121 

20 

41 

.65188 

.75832 

.66501 

74683 

.67795 

.73511 

.69067 

.72317 

.70319 

.71100 

19 

42 

.65210 

.75813; 

.66523 

74664 

.67816 

.73491 

.69088 

.72297 

.70339 

.71080 

18 

43 

.65232 

.75794 

.66545 

74644  ' 

.67837 

.73472 

.69109 

.72277 

.70360 

.71059 

17 

44 

.65254 

.75775; 

.66566 

74625 

.67859 

.73452 

.69130 

.72257 

.70381 

.71039 

16 

45 

.65276 

.75756 

.66588 

74606 

.67880 

.73432 

.69151 

.72236 

.70401 

.71019 

15 

46 

.65298 

.75738 

.66610  .74586 

.67901 

.73413 

.69172 

.72216 

.70422 

.70998 

14 

47 

.65320  .75719 

.66632  .745671 

.67923 

.73393 

.69193 

.72196 

.70443 

.70978 

13 

48 

.65342  .75700 

.666531.74548! 

.67944 

.73373 

.69214 

.72176 

.70463 

.70957 

12 

49 

.65364 

.75680 

.66675 

.74528 

.67965 

.73353 

.69235 

.72156 

.70484 

.70937 

11 

50 

.65386 

.75661 

.66697 

.74509! 

.67987 

.73333 

.69256 

.72136 

.70505 

.70916 

10 

51 

.65408 

.75642 

.66718 

.74489' 

.68008 

.73314 

.69277 

.72116 

.70525 

.70896 

9 

52 

.65430 

.75623 

.66740 

.74470 

.68029 

.73294 

.69298 

.72095 

.705461.70875!  8 

53 
54 

.65452 
.65474 

.75604 
.75585 

.66762  .74451 
.66783  '.74431 

.68051 
.68072 

.73274 
.732.54 

.69319 
.69340 

.72075 
.72055 

.70567;.  708551  7 
.705871.70834:  6 

55 

.65496 

.75566 

.66805  .74412 

.68093 

.73234 

.69361 

.72035 

.  70608  j.  708131  5 

56 

.65518 

.75547 

.66827  .74392 

.68115 

.73215 

.69382 

.72015 

.706281.70793  4 

57 

.65540 

.75528 

.66848  .74373 

.68136 

.73195 

.69403 

.71995 

.70649  .70772 

3 

58 

.65562 

.75509 

.66870  .74353 

.68157 

.73175 

.69424 

.71074 

.70670  .70752 

2 

59 

.65584 

.75490 

.66891;.  74334  ' 

.68179 

.73155 

.69445 

.71954 

.70690  .70731 

1 

60 

.65606 

.75471 

.66913  .74314 

.68200 

.73135 

.69466 

.71934 

.  7071  lj.  70711 

0 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin  Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin 

Sine 

Cosin  Sine 

/ 

t 

49° 

48° 

47° 

46° 

45° 

472 


SECANTS  AND   COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

r 

0° 

1° 

2° 

3° 

4° 

5° 

t 

0 

1-0000000 

1-0001523 

1-0006095 

1-0013723 

1-0024419 

1-0038198 

60 

1 

1-0000000 

1-0001674 

1-0006198 

1-0013877 

1  0024623 

1-0038454 

9 

2 

1-0000002 

1  -0001627 

1  -0006300 

1-0014030 

1  0024829 

1-0038711 

58 

3 

1-0000004 

1-0001679 

1-0006404 

1-0014185 

1  0025035 

10038969 

57 

4 

1-0000007 

1-0001733 

1-0006509 

1-0014341 

1  -0025241 

10039227 

56 

5 

1-0000011 

1-0001788 

1-0006614 

1-0014497 

1-0025449 

1-0039486 

55 

6 

1-00000]  5 

1-0001843 

1-0006721 

1-0014655 

1-0025658 

1-0039747 

54 

7 

1-0000021 

1-0001900 

1-0006828 

1-0014813 

1  -0025867 

1-0040008 

53 

8 

1-0000027 

1-0001957 

1-0006936 

1-0014972 

1-0026078 

1-0040270 

52 

9 

1-0000034 

1-0002015 

1-0007045 

1-0015132 

1-0026289 

1-0040533 

61 

10 

1-0000042 

1-0002073 

1-0007154 

I  '0015293 

1-0026501 

1-0040796 

50 

11 

1-0000051 

1-0002133 

1-0007265 

1-0015454 

1-0026714 

1-0041061 

49 

12 

1-0000061 

1-0002194 

1-0007376 

1-0015617 

1-0026928 

1-0041326 

48 

13 

1-0000072 

1-0002255 

1-0007489 

1-0015780 

1-0027142 

1-0041592 

47 

14 

1-0000083 

1-0002317 

1-0007602 

1-0015944 

1-0027358 

1-0041859 

46 

15 

1-0000095 

1-0002380 

1-0007716 

1-0016109 

1-0027674 

1-0042127 

45 

16 

1-0000108 

1-0002444 

1  '0007830 

1-0016275 

1-0027791 

1-0042396 

44 

17 

1-0000122 

1-0002509 

1-0007946 

1-0016442 

1-0028009 

1-0042666 

43 

18 

1-0000137 

1-0002575 

1-0008063 

1-0016609 

1-0028228 

1-0042937 

42 

19 

1-0000153 

1-0002641 

1-0008180 

1-0016778 

1-0028448 

1-0043208 

41 

20 

1-0000169 

1-0002708 

1-0008298 

1-0016947 

1-0028669 

1-0043480 

40 

21 

1-0000187 

1-0002776 

1-0008417 

1-0017117 

1-0028890 

1-0043753 

39 

22 

1-0000205 

1-0002845 

1-0008537 

1-0017288 

1-0029112 

1-0044028 

38 

23 

1-0000224 

1-0002915 

1-0008658 

1-0017460 

1-0029336 

1-0044302 

37 

24 

1-0000244 

1-0002986 

1-0008779 

1-0017633 

1-0029560 

1-0044578 

36 

25 

1-0000264 

1-0003058 

1-0008902 

1-0017806 

1-0029785 

1-0044855 

35 

26 

1-0000286 

1-0003130 

1-0009025 

1-0017981 

1-0030010 

1-0045132 

34 

27 

1-0000308 

1-0003203 

1-0009149 

1-0018156 

1-0030237 

1-0045411 

33 

1-0000332 

1-0003277 

1-0009274 

1-0018332 

1-0030464 

1-0045690 

32 

29 

1-0000356 

1-0003352 

1-0009400 

1-0018509 

1-0030693 

1-0045970 

31 

30 

1-0000381 

1-0003428 

1-0009527 

1-0018687 

1-0030922 

1-0046251 

30 

31 

1-0000407 

1-0003505 

1-0009654 

1-0018866 

1-0031152 

1-0046533 

29 

32 

1-0000433 

1-0003582 

1-0009783 

1-0019045 

1-0031383 

1-004S815 

28 

33 

1-0000461 

1-0003660 

1-0009912 

1-0019225 

1-0031615 

1-0047099 

27 

34 

1-0000489 

1-0003739 

1-0010042 

1-0019407 

1-0031847 

1-0047383 

26 

35 

1-0000518 

1-0003820 

1-0010173 

1-0019589 

1-0032081 

1-0047669 

25 

36 

1-0000548 

1  0003900 

1-0010305 

1-0019772 

1-0032315 

1-0047955 

24 

37 

1-0000579 

1-0003982 

1-0010438 

1-0019956 

1-0032551 

1-0048242 

23 

38 

1-0000611 

1-0004065 

1-0010571 

1-0020140 

1-0032787 

1-0048530 

22 

39 

1-0000644 

1-0004148 

1-0010705 

1-0020326 

1-0033024 

1-0048819 

21 

40 

1-0000677 

1-0004232 

1-0010841 

1-0020512 

1-0033261 

1-0049108 

20 

41 

1-0000711 

1-0004317 

1-0010977 

1-0020699 

1-0033500 

1-0049399 

19 

42 

1-0000746 

1-0004403 

1-0011114 

1-0020887 

1-0033740 

1-0049690 

18 

43 

1-00007S2 

1-00044SK) 

1-0011251 

1-0021076 

1-0033980 

1-0049982 

17 

44 

1-0000819 

1-0004578 

1-0011390 

1-0021266 

1-0034221 

1-0050275 

18 

45 

1-0000857 

1-0004066 

1-0011529 

1-0021457 

1-0034463 

1-0050569 

15 

46 

1-0000895 

1-0004756 

1-0011670 

1-0021648 

1-0034706 

1-0050864 

14 

47 

1-0000935 

1-0004846 

1-0011811 

1-0021841 

1-0034950 

1-0051160 

13 

48 

1-0000975 

1-0004937 

1-0011953 

1-0022034 

1-0035195 

1-0051456 

12 

49 

1-0001016 

1-0005029 

1-0012096 

1-0022228 

1-0035440 

1-0051754 

11 

50 

1-0001058 

1-0005121 

1-0012239 

1-0022423 

1-0035687 

1-0052052 

10 

51 

1-0001101 

1-0005215 

1-0012384 

1-0022619 

1-0035934 

1-0052351 

9 

52 

1-0001144 

1-0005309 

1-0012529 

1-0022815 

1-0036182 

1-0052651 

8 

63 

1-0001189 

1-0005405 

1  -0012670 

1-0023013 

1-0036431 

1-0052952 

^ 

54 

1-0001234 

1-0005501 

1-0012S23 

1  -0023211 

1-0036681 

1-0053254 

( 

55 

1-0001280 

1-0005598 

1-0012971 

1-0023410 

1-0036932 

1-0053557 

5 

56 

1-0001327 

1-0005696 

1-0013120 

1-0023610 

1-0037183 

1-0053860 

4 

57 

1-0001375 

1-0005794 

1-0013269 

1-0023811 

1-0037436 

1-0054164 

j 

58 

1-000142:$ 

1-0005894 

1-0013420 

1-0024013 

1-0037689 

1-0054470 

< 

59 

1-0001473 

1-0005994 

1-0013671 

1-0024216 

1-0037943 

1-0054776 

] 

60 

1-0001523 

1-0006095 

1-0013723 

1-0024419 

1-0038193 

1-0055083 

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t 

89° 

88° 

87° 

86° 

85° 

84° 

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COSECANTS. 

SECANTS  AND  COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

/ 

6° 

T 

8° 

9° 

10' 

11* 

0 

1-0075098 

1-0098276 

1-0124651 

1-0154268 

1-0187167 

60 

1-0055083 

1-0075159 

1-0098689 

1-0125118 

1-0154787 

1-0187743 

59 

1  '0055391 

1-0075820 

1-0099103 

1-0125586 

1-0155310 

1-0188321 

58 

1  -0055099 

1-0076182 

1-0099518 

1-0126055 

1-0155833 

1-0188899 

57 

1  '0056009 

1-0076545 

1-0099934 

1-0126524 

1-0156357 

1-0189478 

56 

1  -0056319 
1-0050631 

1-0076903 

1-0100351 

1-0126993 

1-0156882 

1-019005J 

55 

1-0077273 

1-0100769 

1-0127466 

1-0157408 

1-0190640 

54 

1  '0056943 

1-0077639 

1-0101187 

1-0127939 

1-0157934 

1-0191222 

63 

1-0057256 
"i  'nn^7^7A 

1-0078005 

1-0101607 

1-0128412 

1-0158462 

1-0191805 

52 

10 

1  UUOf  DfU 

1-0057885 
1-0058200 

1-0078372 
1-0078741 

1-0102027 
1-0102449 

1-0  1*8830 
1  -01  29361 

1-0158991 
1-0159520 

1-0192389 
1-0192973 

51 
50 

11 

1  "0058517 

1-0079110 

1-0102871 

1-0129837 

1-0160050 

1-0193559 

49 

12 

1  '0058834 

1-0079480 

1-0103291 

1-0130314 

1-0160582 

1-0194146 

43 

13 

1*0059153 

1-0079851 

1-0103718 

1-0130791 

10161114 

1-0194734 

41 

II 

1"00.'>9472 

1-0080222 

1-0104143 

1-0131270 

1-0161647 

1-0195322 

46 

15 

1-0059792 

1-0080595 

1-0  104568 

1-0131750 

1-0162181 

10195912 

45 

1C 

1  '0000113 

1-0080968 

1-0104995 

1-0132230 

1-0162716 

1-0196502 

44 

17 

1  -0000435 

1-0081343 

1-0105422 

1-0132711 

1-0163252 

1-0197093 

4-3 

18 

1-0000757 

1-0081718 

1-0105851 

1-0133194 

1-0163789 

1-01976S6 

43 

19 

1-0001081 

1-008-2094 

1-0106280 

1-0133677 

1-0164327 

1-0198279 

41 

80 

1-0061405 

1-0082471 

1-0106710 

1-0134161 

1-0161865 

1-0198873 

40 

21 

1-0061731 

1-008-2849 

1-0107141 

1-0134646 

10165405 

1-0199468 

39 

22 

1-0002057 

1-0083228 

1-0107573 

1-0135132 

1-0165946 

1-0200064 

38 

23 

1  -006-2384 

1-0083607 

1-010800S 

1-0135618 

1-0160487 

1-0200661 

37 

24 

1-OOC2712 

1-0083988 

1-0108440 

1-0136106 

1-0167029 

1-0201259 

36 

25 

1-0003040 

1-0084369 

1-0108875 

1-0136595 

1-0167573 

1-0201858 

35 

26 

1-0063370 

1-0084752 

1-0109310 

1-0137084 

1-0168117 

1-0202457 

31 

27 

1-0063701 

1-0085135 

1-0109747 

1-0137574 

1-0168662 

1-0203058 

33 

28 

1-0064032 

1-0085519 

1-0110184 

1-0138066 

1-0169208 

1-0  203660 

32 

29 

1-0004364 

1-0085904 

1-0110622 

1-0138558 

1-0169755 

1-0204202 

31 

30 

1-0064697 

1-0086290 

1-0111061 

1-0139051 

1-0170303 

1-0204866 

30 

31 

1-OOC5031 

1-0086676 

1-0111501 

1-0139545 

1-0170851 

1-0205470 

29 

32 

1-OOC53C6 

1-0087064 

1-0111942 

1-0140040 

1-0171401 

1-0206075 

28 

33 

1-0065702 

1-0087453 

1-0112384 

1-0140536 

1-0171952 

1-0206682 

27 

34 

1-0066039 

1-0087842 

1-0112827 

1-0141032 

1-0172503 

1-0207289 

26 

35 

1-0000376 

1-0088232 

1-0113270 

1-0141530 

1-0173056 

1-0207897 

25 

36 

1-0066714 

1-0088623 

1-01137J5 

1-0142029 

1-0173609 

1-0208505 

24 

37 

1  -0067054 

1-00*9015 

l-011410'O 

1-0142523 

1-0174163 

1-02091  1C 

23 

S3 

1  -0007394 

1-0089408 

1-0114606 

1-01430-28 

1-0174719 

1-0209727 

22 

39 

1-0007735 

1-0089802 

1  'Oil  5034 

1-0143530 

1-0175275 

1-0210339 

21 

40 

1"006S077 

1-0090196 

1-0115502 

1-0144032 

1-0175832 

1-0210952 

20' 

41 

1-0068419 

1-0090592 

1-0115951 

1-0144535 

1-0176390 

1-0211506 

19 

43 

1  "006S763 

1-0090088 

1-0116100 

1-1145039 

1-0176949 

1-0212180 

18 

43 

1  "0069108 

1-0001386 

1-0116851 

1-0145544 

1<0177509 

1-0212796 

17 

44 

1  "0069453 
1  'nrWiOYQa 

1-0091784 

1-0117303 

1-0146050 

1-0178069 

1-0213413 

16 

45 

JL  woy/yy 

1-0092183 

1-0117755 

1-0146556 

1-0178681 

1-0214030 

15 

M 

1V0070146 
1  '0070494 

1-0092583 

1-0118209 

1-0147004 

1-0179194 

1-0214649 

14 

47 

1  "0070843 

1-00921)84 

1-0118663 

1-0147572 

1-0179757 

1-0215268 

13 

43 

1  "007  1193 

1-0093386 

1-0119118 

1-0148082 

1-0180321 

1-0215888 

12 

49 

1  '0071544 

1-0093788 

1-0119575 

1-0148592 

1-0180887 

1-0216510 

11 

50 

1-0094192 

1-0120032 

1-0149103 

1-0181453 

1-0217132 

10 

51 

1-0071895 
1-0072248 

1-0094596 

1-0120489 

1-0149616 

1-0182020 

1-0217755 

52 

1-0072(301 

1-0095(.01 

1-0120948 

1-0150129 

1-0182.')88 

1-0418379 

03 

1-007  21)55 

1-0095408 

1-0121408 

1-0150643 

1-0183158 

1-0219004 

54 

1  -0073310 

1-0095815 

1-0121809 

1-0151153 

1-0183723 

1-0219630 

55 

1-0073666 

1-0090223 

1-0122330 

1-0151673 

1-0184293 

1-0220-/57 

56 

1-0074023 

1-0096631 

1-0122793 

1-0152190 

1-0184870 

1-0220865 

57 

1-00743SO 

1-0097041 

1-01  23256 

1-0152708 

1-0185443 

1-0221514 

58 

1-0074739 

1-0097452 

1  -01  23720 

1-0133226 

10186017 

1-0222144 

59 

1-0075098 

1-0097863 

1-0124185 

1-0153746 

1-0  1805'.)  I 

1-0222774 

00 

1-0098276 

1-0124651 

1-0154266 

1-0187167 

1-0223106 

/ 

83° 

82° 

81° 

80° 

79° 

78° 

COSECANTS. 

474 


SECANTS   AND   COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

/ 

12° 

13° 

14° 

15° 

16° 

17' 

f 

1-0223406 

1-0263041 

1-0306136 

1-0352762 

1-0402994 

1-0*5«918 

60 

0 

1-0224039 

1-0263731 

1-0306884 

1-0353569 

1-0103863 

1-0*57848 

59 

i 

1-0224672 

1-0264421 

1-0307633 

1-0354378 

1-0404732 

1-0458780 

58 

2 

1-0225307 

1-0265113 

1-0308383 

1-0305187 

1-0405602 

1-0459712 

57 

3 

1-0225942 

1-0265806 

1-0309134 

1-0355998 

1-0400473 

1-0460616 

56 

4 
5 

1-0226578 

1-0266499 

1-0309886 

1-0356809 

1-0407346 

1-0461581 

55 

1-0227216 

1-0267194 

1-0310639 

1-0357621 

1-0408219 

1-0462516 

51 

6 

1-0227854 

1-0267889 

1-0311393 

1-0358435 

1-0409094 

1-0463453 

53 

g 

1-0228493 

1-0268586 

1-0312147 

1-0359249 

1-0409969 

1-0164391 

52 

g 

1-0229133 

1-0269283 

1-0312903 

1-0360065 

1-0410845 

1-0465330 

51 

10 

1-0229774 

1-0269902 

1-0313600 

1-0360881 

1-0411723 

1-0466270 

60 

LI 

1-0230416 

a-027068l 

1-0314413 

1-0361699 

1-0412601 

1-0467211 

49 

1.2 

1-023105!) 

1-0271381 

1-0315177 

1-0362517 

1-0413481 

1-046.S153 

48 

1.3 

1-0231703 

1-0272082 

1-0315936 

1-0363337 

1-0414362 

1-046:'096 

47 

L4 

10232348 

1-0272785 

1-0316097 

1-0364157 

1-0415243 

1-0470040 

46 

16 

1-0232994 

1-0273488 

1-0317459 

1-0364979 

1-0416126 

1-0470986 

45 

16 

1-0233641 

1-0274192 

1-0318222 

1-0365801 

1-0417009 

1-0471932 

44 

17 

1-0234288 

1-0274897 

1-0318985 

1-0366625 

1-0417894 

1-0472879 

43 

18 

1-0234937 

1-0275603 

1-0319750 

1-0367449 

1-0418780 

1-0473828 

42 

19 

1-0235587 

1-0276310 

1-0320516 

1-0368275 

1-0419667 

1-0474777 

41 

20 

1-0236237 

1-0277018 

1-0321282 

1-0369101 

1-0420554 

1-0475728 

40 

21 

1-0236889 

1-0277727 

1-0322050 

1-0369929 

1-0421443 

1-0476679 

39 

22 

1-0237541 

1-0278437 

1-0322818 

1-0370757 

1-0422333 

1-0477632 

38 

23 

1-0238195 

1-0279148 

1-0323588 

1-0371587 

1-0423224 

1-0478586 

37 

24 

1-0238849 

1-0279860 

1-0324359 

1-0372417 

1-0424116 

1-0479540 

36 

25 

1-0239504 

1-0280513 

1-0325130 

1-0373249 

1-0425009 

1-0480496 

35 

26 

1-0240161 

1-0281287 

1-0325903 

1-0374082 

1-0425903 

1-0481453 

34 

27 

1-0240818 

1-0282002 

1-0326676 

1-0.174915 

1-0426798 

1-0482411 

33 

28 

1-0241476 

1-0282717 

1-0327451 

1-0375750 

1-0427694 

1-0483370 

32 

29 

1-0242135 

1-0283434 

1-032S227 

1-0376585 

1-0428591 

1-0484330 

31 

30 

1-0242795 

1-0284152 

1-0329003 

1-0377422 

1-0429489 

1-0485291 

30 

31 

1-0243456 

1-0284871 

1-0329781 

1-0378260 

1-0430388 

1-0486253 

29 

32 

1-0244118 

1-0285590 

1-0330559 

1-0379098 

1-0431289 

1-0487217 

28 

33 

1-0244781 

1-0286311 

1-0331339 

1-0379938 

1-0432190 

1-0488181 

27 

34 

1-0245445 

1-0287033 

1-0332119 

1-0380779 

1-0433092 

1-0489146 

26 

35 

1-0246110 

1-0287755 

1-0332901 

1-0381621 

1-0433995 

1-0490113 

25 

36 

1-0246776 

1-0288479 

1-0333683 

1-0382463 

1-0434900 

1-0491080 

24 

37 

1-0247442 

1-0289203 

1-0334467 

1-0383307 

1-0435805 

1-0492049 

23 

38 

1-0248110 

I  -0289929 

1-0335251 

1-0384152 

1-0436712 

1-0493019 

22 

39 

1-0248779 

1-0290655 

1-0336037 

1-0384998 

1-0437619 

1-0493989 

21 

40 

1-0249448 

l-02913!i3 

1-0330823 

1-0385844 

1-0438528 

1-0494961 

20 

41 

1-0250119 

1-0292111 

1-0337611 

1-0386692 

1-0439437 

1-0495934 

19 

42 

1-0250790 

1-0292840 

1-0338399 

1-0387541 

1-0440348 

1-0496908 

18 

43 

1-0251463 

1-0293571 

1-0339168 

1-0388391 

1-0441259 

1-0497883 

17 

44 

1-0252136 

1-0294302 

1-0339979 

1-0389242 

1-0442172 

1-0498859 

16 

45 

1-0252811 

1-0295034 

1-0340770 

1-0390094 

1-0443086 

1-0499836 

15 

46 

1-0253486 

1-0295768 

1-0341563 

1-0390947 

1-0444001 

1-0500815 

14 

47 

1-0254162 

1-0296502 

1-0342356 

1-0391800 

1-0444917 

1-0501794 

13 

48 

AQ 

1-0254839 

1-0297237 

1-0343151 

1-0392655 

1-0445833 

1-0502774 

12 

•i 
eft 

1-0255518 

1-0397973 

1-0343946 

1-0393511 

1-0446751 

1-0503756 

11 

DO 

1-0256197 

1-0298711 

1-0344743 

1-0394368 

1-0447670 

1-0504738 

10 

51 
52 

1-0256877 

1-0299449 

1-0345540 

1-0395226 

1-0448590 

1-0503722 

9 

53 

1-0257558 

1-0300188 

1-0346338 

1-0396085 

1-0449511 

1-0306706 

8 

54 

1-0258240 

i  -0300923 

1-0347138 

1-0396945 

1-0450433 

1-0507692 

7 

5«i 

1-0358923 

1-0301669 

1-03*7938 

1-0397806 

1-0451357 

1-0508679 

6 

1-0259607 

1-0302411 

1-0348740 

1-0398669 

1-0452281 

1-0509667 

6 

56 
67 

1-0260292 

1-0303154 

1-0349542 

1-0399532 

1-0453206 

1-0510656 

58 

1-0260978 

1-0303898 

1-0350346 

1-0400396 

1-0454132 

1-0511646 

H 

1-0261665 

1-0304643 

1-0351150 

1-0401261 

1-0455060 

1-0512637 

60 

1-0262352 

1-0305389 

1:0351955 

1-0402127 

1-0455988 

1-0513B29 

1-0263041 

1-0306136 

1-0352762 

1-0402994 

1-0456918 

1-0514622 

9 

77° 

76° 

75° 

74° 

73° 

72° 

/ 

COSECANTS. 

SECANTS   AND    COSECANTS. 


475 


SECANTS. 

i 

18' 

19° 

2<r 

21° 

22° 

23° 

i 

0 

1-0514622 

1-0576207 

1-0641778 

1-0711450 

1-0785347 

1-0863604 

GO 

1 

1-0515617 

1-0577267 

1-0642905 

1-071-2647 

1-0786616 

1-0864946 

59 

2 

1-O.U6613 

1-0578323 

1-0041033 

1-0713844 

1-0787885 

1-0866289 

58 

3 

1-0517608 

1-0579390 

1-0645163 

1-0715013 

1-0789156 

1-0867634 

57 

4 

1-0518600 

1-0580453 

1-0646294 

1-0716241 

1-0790427 

1-0868979 

56 

5 

1-0519605 

1-0581517 

1-0647425 

1-0717445 

1-0791700 

1-0870326 

55 

6 

1-0520604 

1-0582583 

l-0648.i58 

1-0718647 

1-0792975 

1-0871675 

54 

7 

1-0521605 

1-0583649 

1-0649G93 

1-0719351 

1-0794250 

1-0873024 

53 

8 

1-0522607 

1-0584717 

1-0(00838 

1-0721056 

1-0795527 

1-0874375 

52 

9 

1-0523610 

1-0585786 

1-0651964 

1-0722262 

1-0796805 

1-0875727 

51 

10 

1-0524614 

1-0386855 

1-0653102 

1-0723469 

1-0798084 

1-0377080 

50 

11 

1-0525619 

1-0587926 

1-0654240 

1-0724678 

1-0799364 

1-0878435 

49 

12 

1-0526625 

1-0588999 

1-0655380 

1-0725887 

1-0800646 

1-0879791 

48 

13 

1-0:>27633 

1-0590072 

1-0656521 

1-0727098 

1-0801928 

1-0881148 

47 

14 

l-0528(»4l 

1-0591146 

1-0657663 

T0728310 

1-0803212 

1-0882506 

46 

15 

1-0529651 

1-0592221 

1-0658807 

1-0729523 

1-0804497 

1-0883866 

45 

16 

1-0530661 

1-0593298 

1-0659951 

1-0730737 

10805784 

1-0885226 

44 

17 

1-0331673 

1-0594376 

1-0661097 

1-0731953 

1-0807071 

1-0886589 

43 

18 

1-0532685 

1-0595454 

1-0662245 

1-0733170 

•10808360 

10887952 

4-2 

19 

1-0533699 

1-0596*4 

1-0663391 

1-0734388 

1-0809650 

1-08S9317 

41 

20 

1-0534714 

1-0597615 

1-0664540 

1-0735607 

1-0810942 

1-0890682 

40 

21 

1-0535730 

1-0598697 

1-0665690 

1-0736827 

1-0819234 

1-0892050 

39 

22 

1-0536747 

1-0599781 

1-0666842 

1-0738048 

1-0813528 

1-0893418 

38 

23 

1-0537765 

1-060  08f  !5 

1-0667994 

1'0739S71 

1-0814823 

1-0894788 

37 

24 

1-0538785 

1-0601951 

1-0669148 

1-0740495 

1-0816119 

1-0856159 

36 

25 

1-0539805 

1-0603037 

1-0670302 

1-0741720 

1-0817417 

1-0897531 

35 

26 

1-0540826 

1-0604125 

1-0671458 

1-0742946 

1-0818715 

1-0898904 

34 

27 

1-0541849 

1-0605214 

1-0672615 

1-0744173 

1-0820015 

1-0900279 

33 

28 

1-0542873 

1-0606304 

1-0673774 

1-0745403 

1-0821316 

1-0901655 

32 

29 

1-0543897 

1-0607395 

1-0674933 

1-0746631 

1-0822618 

1-0903032 

31 

30 

1-0544923 

1-0608487 

1-0676094 

1-0747862 

1-0823923 

1-0904411 

30 

31 

1-0545950 

1-0609580 

1-0677255 

1-0749095 

1-0825227 

1-0905791 

29 

32 

1-0546978 

1-0610675 

1-0678418 

1-0750328 

1-0826533 

1-0907172 

28 

33 

1-0548007 

1-0611770 

1-0679582 

1-0751563 

1-0827840 

1-0908554 

27 

34 

1-0549037 

1-0612867 

1-0680747 

1-0752798 

1-0829149 

1-0909938 

26 

35 

1-05500G8 

1-0613965 

l-(Ki81914 

1-0754025 

1-0830458 

1-0911323 

25 

36 

1-0551101 

1-0615064 

1-0683081 

1-0755273 

1-0831769 

1-0912709 

24 

37 

1-0552134 

1-0616164 

1-0684250 

1-0756512 

1-0833081 

1-0914097 

23 

38 

1-0553169 

1-0617265 

1-0685420 

1-0757753 

1-0834395 

1-0915485 

22 

39 

1-0554204 

1-0618367 

1-0686591 

1-0758995 

1-0835709 

1  -0916876 

21 

10 

1-0555241 

1-0619471 

1-0687763 

1-0760237 

10837025 

1-0918267 

20 

41 

10556279 

1-0620575 

1-0688936 

1-0761481 

1-0838342 

1-0919659 

19 

42 

1-0557318 

1-0621681 

1-0690110 

1-0762727 

1-0839661 

1-0921053 

18 

43 

1-0558358 

1-0622788 

1-0691286 

1-0763973 

1-0840980 

1-0922448 

17 

44 

1-0559399 

1-0623896 

1-0692463 

1-0765221 

1-0842301 

1-0923845 

16 

45 

1-0560441 

1-0625005 

1-0693641 

1-0766470 

1-0843623 

1-0925243 

15 

46 

1-0561485 

1-0626115 

1-0694820 

1-0767720 

1-0844947 

1-0926642 

14 

47 

1-0562529. 

1-0627227 

1-0696000 

1-0768971 

1-0846271 

1-0928042 

13 

48 

1-0563575 

1-0628339 

1-0697182 

1-0770224 

1-0847597 

1-0929444 

12 

49 

1-0564621 

1-0629453 

1-0698364 

1-0771477 

1-0848924 

1-0930846 

11 

50 

I  -0565669 

1-0630568 

1-0699548 

1-0772732 

1-0850252 

1-0932251 

10 

51 

1-0566718 

1-0631684 

1-0700733 

1-0773988 

1-0851582 

1-0933656 

9 

52 

1-0567768 

1-0632801 

1-0701919 

1-0775246 

1-0852913 

1-0935063 

8 

53 

1-0568819 

1-0633919 

1-0703105 

1-0776504 

1-0854245 

1-0936471 

7 

54 

1-0569871 

1-0635038 

1-0704295 

1-0777764 

1-0855578 

1-0937880 

6 

55 

1-0570924 

1-0636158 

1-0705484 

1-0779025 

1-0856912 

1-0939291 

5 

56 

1-0571978 

1-0637280 

1-0706675 

1-0780287 

1-0858248 

1-0940702 

4 

0^ 

1-0573034 

1-OG384-J3 

1-0707867 

1-0781550 

1-0859585 

1-0942116 

3 

58 

1-0574090 

1-0639527 

1-0709060 

1-0782815 

1-081  i0924 

1-0943530 

2 

59 

1-0575148 

1-0640652 

1-0710254 

1-0784080 

1-0862263 

1-0944946 

1 

60 

1-0576207 

1-0641778 

1-0711450 

1-0785347 

1-0863604 

1-0946363 

0 

/ 

71° 

70° 

69° 

68° 

67° 

66° 

/ 

COSECANTS. 

SECANTS   AHJ)   COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

t 

24° 

25° 

26° 

27' 

28° 

29° 

/ 

1-0946363 

1-1033779 

1-1126019 

1-1223262 

1-1325701 

1-1433541 

60 

1-0917781 

1-1035277 

1-1127599 

1-1224927 

1-1327453 

1  -1435385 

69 

1-0949201 

1-1036773 

1-1129179 

1-1226092 

1-1329207 

1-1437231 

53 

1-0950622 

1-103827J 

1-1130761 

1-J228209 

1-1330962 

1-1439078 

57 

1-0952044 

1-1039777 

1-1132345 

1-1229928 

1-1332719 

1-1440927 

56 

1-0953167 

1-1041279 

1-1133929 

1-1231598 

1-1334478 

1-1442778 

5? 

Q 

1-0954893 

1-1042783 

1-1135516 

1-1233269 

1-1336238 

1-1444630 

54 

•J 

1-0956318 

1-1044289 

1*1137103 

1-1234942 

1-1337999 

1-1446484 

53 

O 

1-0957746 

1-1045795 

1-1138<>92 

1-1  236616 

1-1339762 

1-1448339 

52 

1-0959174 

1-1047303 

1-1140282 

1-1238292 

1-1341527 

1-1450196 

51 

10 

J-  0900004 

1-1048813 

1-1141874 

1-1239969 

1-1343293 

1-1402055 

60 

II 

1-0962036 

1-1050324 

1-1143467 

1-1241648 

1-1345060 

1-1453915 

49 

12 

1-0963468 

M051836 

1-1145062 

1-1243328 

1-1316829 

1-1455776 

48 

13 

1-0964902 

1-1053349 

1-1146608 

1-1240010 

1-1348600 

1-1457639 

47 

14 

1-0966337 

1-1054864 

1-1148255 

1-1246693 

1  1350372 

1-1459504 

46 

15 

1-0907774 

1-1056380 

1-1149854 

1-1248377 

1-1352146 

1-1461371 

45 

16 

1-0969212 

1-1057898 

1-1151454 

1-1250063 

1-1353921 

1-1463238 

44 

17 

1-0970651 

1-1059417 

1-1153056 

1-1251750 

1-1355697 

1-1465108 

43 

18 

1-0972091 

M060937 

1-1154659 

1-1253439 

1-1357476 

1-1466979 

42 

19 

1-0973533 

1-1062453 

1-1156263 

1-1255130 

1-1359255 

1-1468852 

41 

20 

1-0974976 

1-1063981 

1-1157869 

1-1256821 

1-1361036 

1-1470726 

40 

21 

1-0976420 

1-1065506 

1-1159476 

1-1258514 

1-1362819 

1-1472602 

39 

on 

1-0977866 

1-1067031 

1-1161084 

1-1  260209 

1-1364603 

1-1474479 

33 

IP 
M 

1-0979313 

1-1068558 

1-1162694 

l-126iy05 

1  -13<W389 

1-1476358 

37 

SO 

21 

1-0980761 

1-1070087 

1-1164306 

1-1203603 

1-1368176 

1-1478239 

36 

U 

10982211 

1-1071616 

1-1165919 

1-1265302 

1-1369965 

1-1480121 

35 

26 

1-0983662 

1-1073147 

1-1167533 

1-1267003 

1-1371755 

1-1482005 

34 

97 

1-0985114 

1-1074680 

1-1169148 

1-1268705 

1-1373547 

1-1433890 

33 

*l 

28 

1-0986568 

1-107621  1 

1-11707G6 

1-1270408 

1-1375341 

1-H85777 

32 

29 

1-0988023 

1-1077749 

1-1172384 

1-1272113 

1-1377135 

1-1487665 

31 

£0 

1-0989479 

1-1079285 

1-1174004 

1-1273819 

1-1378932 

1-1489555 

30 

M 

1-0990336 

1-1080823 

M175625 

1-1275527 

J-1380730 

1-1491447 

29 

ol 
32 

1-0992395 

1-1082363 

1-1177248 

1-1277237 

1-1382529 

1-1493340 

23 

33 

1-0993805 

1-1083903 

1-1178872 

1-1278948 

1-1384330 

1-1495235 

27 

34 

1-0995317 

1-1085445 

1-1180498 

1-1280660 

1-1386133 

1-1497132 

26 

35 

1-0996779 

1-1086989 

1-1182124 

1-1282374 

1-1387937 

1-1499030 

25 

36 

1-0998243 

1-1088533 

1-1183753 

1-1284089 

1-1389742 

1-1500930 

24 

37 

1-0999709 

1-1090079 

1-11853&3 

1-1285806 

1-1391550 

1-1502831 

23 

88 

1-1001175 

1-1091627 

1-1187014 

1-1287524 

1-1393358 

1-1504734 

22 

39 

M002644 

1-1093176 

1-1188647 

1-1289244 

l-13y0169 

1-1000638 

21 

M 

1-1004113 

1-1094726 

1-1190281 

M290965 

1-13'J6980 

1-1508544 

£0 

41 

1-1005584 

1-1096277 

M191916 

1-1292687 

1-1398794 

1-1510452 

19 

42 

1-1007056 

1-1097830 

1-1193553 

1-1294412 

1-1400608 

1-1512361 

18 

43 

1-1008529 

1-1099385 

1-1195191 

1-12C6137 

1-1402425 

1-1514272 

17 

44 

1-1010004 

1-1100940 

1-1196831 

1-1297864 

1-H04213 

1-1516185 

16 

45 

1-1011480 

1-1102493 

1-1198172 

1-1299593 

1-1406062 

1-1518099 

15 

46 

1-1012957 

1-1104056 

1-1200115 

1-1301323 

1-1407883 

1-1520015 

14 

47 

1-1014436 

1-1105616 

1-1201759 

1-1303035 

1-1409706 

1-1521932 

13 

48 

1-1015916 

1-1107177 

1-1203405 

1-1304788 

1-1411530 

1-1023801 

12 

49 

1-1017397 

1-1108740 

M  20505  I 

1-1306522 

1-1413356 

1-1525772 

11 

50 

1-1018879 

1-11103J4 

1-12(W700 

1-1308258 

1-1415183 

1-1527694 

10 

51 

1-1020363 

1-1111869 

1-1208350 

1-1309996 

1-1417012 

1-1529618 

52 

1-1021849 

1-1113436 

1-1210001 

1-1311735 

1-1418842 

1-1531543 

53 

1-1023335 

1-1115004 

1-1211653 

1-1313475 

l-li20674 

1  -15334  70 

M 

1-1024823 

1-1116573 

M213308 

1-1315217 

1-1422507 

1-1535399 

65 

M026313 

1-1118144 

1-1214903 

1-1316961 

1-1424342 

1-1537329 

56 

1-1027803 

1-1119716 

M216C20 

1-1318706 

1-1426179 

1-1539261 

67 

1-1029295 

M121290 

1-1218278 

1-1320452 

1-1428017 

1-1541195 

58 

1-1030789 

1-1122865 

l-lil9938 

1-1322200 

1-142-J857 

1-1543130 

59 

1-1032283 

1-1124442 

1-1221600 

1-1323950 

1-1431698 

1-1545067 

€0 

1-1033779 

M12G019 

M22320* 

1-1325701 

1-1433541 

I  -1547005 

0 

/ 

65° 

64° 

83° 

62° 

61° 

60° 

i 

COSECANTS. 

SECANTS   AND   COSECANTS. 


477 


SECANTS. 

* 

30° 

31° 

32° 

*     33° 

34° 

35° 

i 

1-15*7005 

1-1666334 

1-1791784 

1-1923633 

1-2062179 

1-2207746 

60 

1-1518945 

1-1668374 

1-1793928 

1-1920886 

1-2061547 

1-2210233 

59 

M35U8S7 

1-1670416 

1-1796074 

1-1928142 

1-2066917 

1-2212723 

53 

1-1552830 

1-1672409 

1-1798222 

1-1930399 

1-2069288 

1-2215215 

57 

1-1501773 

1  1674504 

1-1SC0372 

1-1932658 

1-2071662 

1-2217708 

50 

1-1556722 

1-1676551 

1-1802523 

1-1934918 

1-2074037 

1-2220204 

55 

1-1558670 

1-1678599 

1-1804676 

1-1937181 

1-2076115 

1-2222702 

54 

M5t»6»a 

1-1680649 

1-1806831 

1-1939446 

1-2078794 

1-2225202 

53 

1-106-'0:2 

1-1682701 

1-1808983 

1-1911712 

1-2081175 

1-2227703 

52 

1-15645-J5 

1-1684755 

1-1811146 

1-1913980 

1-2083559 

1-2230207 

51 

M56C480 

1-1686810 

1-1813307 

1-1916251 

1-2085944 

1-2232713 

'M 

M568436 

1-1688867 

1-1815169 

1-1948523 

1-2088331 

1-2235222 

49 

1-1570394 

1-1690926 

1-1817633 

1-1950796 

1-2090720 

1-2237732 

48 

1-1572351 

1-1692986 

1-1819798 

1-1953072 

1-2093112 

1-2240244 

47 

1-1574315 

1-1695048 

1-1821966 

1-1955350 

1-2095505 

1-2212758 

46 

1-1576278 

1-1697112 

1-1824135 

1-1957629 

1-2097900 

1-2215274 

45 

1 

1-1578243 

1-1699178 

1-1826306 

1-1959911 

1-2100297 

1-2247793 

44 

1-1580209 

1-1701245 

1-1828479 

1-1962194 

1-2102696 

1-2250313 

43 

M58il77 

1-1703314 

1-1830654 

1-1961179 

1-2100097 

1-2252836 

42 

1-1084146 

1-1705385 

1-1832830 

1-1966767 

1-2107500 

1-2255361 

41 

• 

1-1586118 

1-1707457 

1-1830008 

1-1969056 

1-2109905 

1-2257887 

40 

21 

1-1588091 

M709531 

1-1837188 

1-1971346 

1-2112312 

1  '2260416 

39 

• 

1-1590065 

1-1711607 

1-1839370 

1-1973639 

1-2111721 

1-2262947 

38 

23 

1-1592041 

1-1713685 

1-1841554 

1-1975934 

1-2117132 

l-2i65480 

37 

M 

1-15U1019 

1-1715764 

1-1843739 

1-1978230 

1-2119515 

1-2268015 

33 

25 

1-1595999 

1-1717845 

1-1845927 

1-1980029 

1-2121960 

1-2270553 

33 

26 

1-1597980 

1-1719928 

M818116 

1-1982823 

1-2121377 

1-2273091 

34 

27 

1-1599963 

1-1722013 

1-1850307 

1-1985131 

1-2126795 

1-2275633 

33 

23 

1-1601947 

M724099 

1-1852500 

1-1987135 

1-2129216 

1-2278176 

32 

29 

M6031rt3 

1-1726187 

1-1854694 

1-1989741 

1-2131639 

1-2280723 

31 

BO 

1-1605921 

1-1728277 

1-1856890 

1-1992049 

1-21340G4 

1-2283269 

30 

31 

1-1007911 

1-1730368 

1-1859089 

1-1991359 

1-2136191 

1-2285819 

29 

22 

1-1601)902 

1-1732462 

1-1861289 

1-1090671 

1-2138920 

1-22*8371 

28 

33 

1-1611891 

1-1731557 

1-1863490 

1-1998"85 

1-2141351 

1-2290924 

27 

M 

1-1613889 

M73GC53 

1-1865694 

1-2001300 

1-2143784 

1-2293180 

26 

35 

1-1615885 

1-1738752 

1-J867900 

1-2003618 

1-2146218 

1-2296039 

23 

30 

1-1617883 

1-1740852 

1-1870107 

1-2095937 

1-211865? 

1-2298599 

21 

37 

1-1619882 

1-1712954 

1-1872316 

1-2008258 

1-2151094 

1-2301161 

23 

3d 

1-1621883 

1-1745058 

1-1874527 

1-2010582 

1-2153535 

1-2303725 

22 

39 

1-1623886 

1-1747163 

1-1876740 

1-2012907 

1-2155978 

1-2306292 

21 

40 

1-1625891 

1-1749270 

1-1878954 

1-2015234 

1-2158423 

1-2308861 

20 

41 

1-1627897 

1-1751379 

1-18S1171 

1-2017563 

1-2160870 

1-2311432 

19 

42 

1-1629905 

1-1703190 

1-1883389 

1-2019894 

1-2163319 

1-2314004 

18 

43 

1-1031914 

1-1755603 

1-1685609 

1-2022226 

1-2160770 

1-2316579 

17 

M 

1-1633925 

1-1757717 

1-1887831 

1-2024561 

1-2168223 

1-2319156 

16 

45 

1-1636933 

1-1759833 

1-1890055 

1  -2026898 

1-2170678 

1-2321736 

15 

M 

M637953 

1-1761951 

1-1892280 

1-2029236 

1-2173135 

1-2324317 

14 

47 

1-1639969 

1-1764070 

1-1894508 

1-2031577 

1-2175594 

1-232GTOO 

13 

48 

1-1641987 

1-1766191 

1-1896737 

1-2033919 

1-2178055 

1-2329186 

12 

49 

1-1644007 

1-1768314 

M898968 

1-2036264 

1-2180518 

1  -2332074 

li 

50 

1^646028 

1-1770439 

1-1901201 

1-2038610 

1-2182983 

1-2331664 

10 

51 

1-1648051 

1-1772566 

1-1903436 

1-2040958 

1-2185150 

1-2337256 

9 

M 

1-1600076 

1-1774694 

1-1905673 

1-2043308 

1-2187919 

1-2339^50 

8 

63 

1-1652102 

1-1776824 

1-1907911 

1-2045660 

1-2190390 

1-2312446 

7 

54 

1-1654130 

1-1778906 

1-1910152 

1-2048014 

1-2192864 

1-2315044 

6 

• 

M656160 

1-1781069 

1-1912391 

1-2050370 

1-2195339 

1-2347645 

5 

M 

1-1658191 

M7H32S5 

1-1914638 

1-2052728 

1-2197816 

1-2350248 

4 

57 

M6«0224 

M  7&530-2 

1-191K884 

1-2055088 

1-2200296 

1-2352852 

3 

56 

J  -1662209 

1-1787501 

1-1919132 

1-2057450 

1-2202777 

1-2305459 

2 

50 

1-1664296 

1-1789042 

MU213-U 

1-2059814 

1-2200260 

1  -2358069 

I 

60 

M666334 

1-1791784 

1-1923633 

1-2062179 

1-2207746 

1-2360680 

0 

i 

69° 

C8° 

57° 

66° 

65° 

64° 

t 

COSECANTS. 

478 


SECANTS   AND    COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

t 

36* 

37° 

38° 

39° 

40' 

41° 

» 

1-3300680 

1-2531357 

1-2690183 

1-9367596 

1-3054073 

1-3250130 

60 

1-2363293 

1-3524103 

1-2693067 

1-2870028 

1-3057261 

1-3253182 

69 

1-2365909 

1-2526850 

1-2695955 

1-2873663 

1-3060451 

1-3256837 

08 

1-2368526 

1-2529601 

1-2698815 

1-2876700 

1-3063614 

1-3200191 

87 

1-2371146 

1-2532353 

1-2701737 

1-2879740 

1-3066839 

1-3-263554 

56 

1-3373768 

1-2535108 

1-2704633 

1-2882782 

1-3070038 

1-3260918 

55 

1-3376393 

1-2537865 

1-2707529 

1-2885827 

1-3073239 

1-3270284 

64 

1-3379019 

1-2510625 

1-2710429 

1-2888875 

1-3076142 

1-3273653 

53 

1-3381647 

1-2543387 

1-2713331 

1-2891925 

1-3079649 

1-3277021 

53 

1-2384278 

1-2546151 

1-2716235 

1-2891977 

1-3082858 

1-3280399 

51 

1-3386911 

1-2548917 

1-3719142 

1-2898032 

1-3086069 

1-3283776 

60 

1-2389516 

1-2551685 

1-3722052 

1-2901090 

1-3089284 

1-3287156 

49 

1-2392183 

1-2554456 

1-2724963 

1-2901150 

1-3092501 

1-8290539 

43 

1-2394823 

1-25572-29 

1-2727877 

1-2907213 

1-3095720 

1-3293925 

47 

1-2397464 

1-2560005 

1-2730794 

1-2910278 

1-3098943 

1-SH97H4 

40 

14 

1-3100103 

1-250-2782 

1-2733713 

1-3913346 

1-3102168 

1-3300706 

45 

16 

1  2402764 

1-2563562 

1-2736634 

1-2916416 

1-3105396 

1-3301100 

44 

II 

1-2105403 

1-2568345 

1-3739557 

1-2919489 

1-3108676 

1-3307497 

43 

17 

1-3108053 

1-2571129 

1-3712484 

1-2922564 

1-31118GO 

1-3310897 

43 

18 

1-2410704 

1-2573916 

1-2745412 

1-2925642 

1-3115095 

1-3311301 

41 

19 

1-2413359 

1-2576705 

1-2718313 

1-2928723 

1-3118334 

1-3317707 

40 

20 

1-3116016 

1-3579497 

1-2751276 

1-2931806 

1-3121575 

1-3321115 

39 

21 

1-3118675 

1-2582291 

1-2751213 

1-2934892 

1-3124820 

1-3324527 

33 

22 

1-2121336 

1-2585087 

1-2757151 

1-2937980 

1-3128066 

1-33-27913 

37 

23 

1-2423999 

1-2587885 

1-2760091 

1-2941071 

1-3131316 

1-3331359 

3(5 

21 

1-2426665 

1-2590686 

1-2763034 

1-2914164 

1-3134563 

1-3331779 

35 

95 

1-2429333 

1-2593489 

1-2765980 

1-2947260 

1-3137823 

1-3338203 

31 

36 

1-2132003 

1-2596294 

1  276*923 

1-2950359 

1-3141081 

1-3311029 

33 

37 

1-2181675 

1-2599103 

1-2771878 

1-2953460 

1-3144341 

1-3345058 

32 

93 

1-2437349 

1-2601912 

1-2774831 

1-2956564 

1-3147604 

1-3348489 

31 

29 

1-2110026 

1-2604724 

1-2777787 

1-2959670 

1-3150870 

1-3351924 

30 

30 

1-2442704 

1-2607539 

1-2780714 

1-2962779 

1-3154139 

1-3355362 

29 

31 

1-2413385 

1-2610356 

1-2783705 

1-29C5890 

1-3157110 

1-3358802 

28 

33 

1-2448069 

1-2613175 

1-27866G7 

1-2969004 

1-3160684 

1  -336-2-246 

27 

33 

1-2450754 

1-2615997 

1-2789632 

1-2972121 

1-3163961 

1-3365693 

2(5 

34 

1-3453413 

1-3618820 

1-2792600 

1-2975240 

1-3167210 

1-3369141 

25 

25 

1-3456131 

1-2621647 

1-2795570 

1-2978362 

1-3170523 

1-3372594 

24 

36 

1-24588-23 

1-2621175 

1  -2798543 

1-29814S7 

1-3173808 

1-8376049 

33 

37 

1-3461513 

1-2627306 

1-2801518 

1-29846U 

1-3177096 

1-3379507 

23 

38 

1-2161214 

1-3630140 

1-2804495 

1  -298774  3 

1-3180386 

1-8382968 

21 

39 

1-2166913 

1-2632975 

1-2807475 

1-299087(5 

1-3183680 

1  3386432 

20 

40 

1-2169614 

1-2635813 

1-281Q457 

1-5991011 

1-3186976 

1-3389898 

19 

41 

1-2472317 

1-263&653 

1-2813412 

1-2<J97148 

1-3190274 

1-3393368 

18 

43 

1-2475022 

1-2611199 

1-2816130 

1-3000288 

1-3193576 

1  -3396841 

17 

43 

1-3477730 

1-2644341 

1-2819419 

1-3003131 

1-3196881 

1-3400316 

16 

44 

1-2480410 

1-2047188 

1-2822412 

1-3006576 

1-3200183 

1-3403795 

15 

45 

1-2483152 

1-2650038 

1-2^25407 

1-3009721 

1-3203498 

1  -3407S76 

14 

46 

1-2485866 

1-2652890 

1-2828401 

1-3012875 

1-3206810 

1-3410761 

13 

47 

1-2488683 

1-2655715 

1-2831404 

1-3016028 

1-3210126 

1-3414-218 

13 

48 

1-2491302 

1-2658601 

1-2831406 

1-3019184 

1-3213444 

1-3417738 

11 

49 

1-2491023 

1-2661460 

1-2837111 

1-302-2313 

1-32167(55 

1-3421232 

10 

60 

1-2496746 

1-2664323 

1-2840418 

1-3025504 

1-3220089 

1-3124728 

9 

81 

1-2199171 

1-2607186 

1-2843423 

1-3028667 

1-3223416 

1-3428-227 

8 

63 

1-2502199 

1-2670052 

1-2846140 

1-3031831 

1-3226745 

13431729 

7 

53 

1-2501929 

1-2672921 

1-2849455 

1-3035003 

1-3230078 

1-3435234 

6 

64 

1-2507661 

1-2675792 

1-2852472 

1-3038175 

1-3233413 

1-3438742 

5 

65 

1-2510396 

1-2678665 

1-2855492 

1-3041349 

1-3236750 

1-3442253 

4 

66 

1-2513133 

1-2681541 

1-2858514 

1-3044526 

1-3210091 

1-3440767 

3 

67 

1-2516872 

1-2684419 

1-2861539 

1-3017706 

1-3243133 

1-3449284 

3 

68 

1-2518613 

1-2687-299 

1-2861566 

1-3050888 

1-3216781 

1-3452801 

1 

69 

1-2521357 

1-36901-82 

1-2867596 

1-3054073 

1-8250130 

1-3456327 

0 

* 

B3° 

52° 

51° 

60° 

49° 

48° 

•  '; 

COSECANTS. 

SECANTS   AND    COSECANTS. 


479 


• 

SECA 

NTS. 

/ 

42° 

43° 

44° 

45' 

46e 

47" 

< 

0 

1-3156327 

1-3673275 

1-3901636 

1-4142136 

1-4395565 

1-4662792 

60 

1-3159853 

1-367C985 

1-3903513 

1-4116251 

1-4399904 

1-4667368 

59 

2 

1-3463382 

1-3680699 

1-3909153 

1-4150370 

1-4404246 

1-1671918 

58 

3 

1-34GG914 

1-368*416 

1-3913366 

1-415*193 

1-4408592 

1-1670532 

57 

4 

1-3170119 

1-3688136 

1-3917283 

1-4158619 

1-4412911 

1-4681120 

56 

5 

1-3173987 

1-3691859 

1-3921203 

1-4162749 

1-4117295 

1-4685713 

55. 

6 

1-3*77528 

1-3695586 

1-3925127 

1-4166883 

1-1421652 

1-4690309 

54 

7 

1-3481072 

1-3699315 

1-3929054 

1-4171020 

1-4426013 

1-4691910 

53 

8 

1-3481619 

1-3703018 

1-3932985 

1-1175161 

1-4430379 

1  -16995  U 

52 

9 

1-3488163 

1-3706784 

1-3936913 

1-4179306 

1-4134748 

1-4704123 

51 

10 

1-3491721 

1-3710523 

1-3940856 

1-4183151 

1-4439120 

1-4708736 

50 

11 

1-3495277 

1-3714266 

1-3944796 

1-4187605 

1-4443*97 

1-4713354 

49 

12 

1-3498836 

1-3718011 

1-3948710 

1-4191761 

1-44*7878 

1-1717975 

48 

13 

1-3502398 

1-3721760 

1-3952688 

1-4195920 

1-4452262 

1-4722600 

47 

14 

1-3505963 

1-3725512 

1-3956639 

1-4-W0082 

1-1456651 

1-4727230 

46 

15 

1-3509531 

1-3729268 

1-3960593 

1-4204243 

1-4461043 

1-4731864 

45 

16 

1-3513102 

1-3733025 

1-3961551 

1-4208*18 

1-4465139 

1-4736502 

44 

17 

1-3516677 

1-3736788 

1-3968512 

1-4212592 

1-4469839 

1-4711144 

43 

13 

1-3520254 

1-3740553 

V3972177 

1-4216769 

1-447*243 

1-4745790 

42 

19 

1-3523834 

1-3744321 

1-3976445 

1-4220950 

1-4*78651 

1-1750140 

41 

20 

1-3527417 

1-3748092 

1-3980416 

1-4225134 

1-4483063 

1-4755095 

40 

21 

1-3531003 

1-3751867 

1-3984391 

1-4229323 

1-4487478 

1-4759754 

39 

22 

1-3534593 

1-3755645 

1-3988369 

1-42335U 

1-4491898 

1-4764417 

33 

23 

1-3538185 

1-3759426 

1-3992351 

1-4237710 

1-1*96322 

1-4769084 

37 

24 

1-3511780 

1-3763210 

1-3996336 

1-4211909 

1-4500749 

1-4773755 

38 

25 

1-3515379 

1-3766993 

1-4000325 

1-4246112 

1-4505181 

1-4778131 

35 

26 

1-3548980 

1-3770789 

1-4001317 

1-4250319 

1-4509616 

1-4788111 

34 

27 

1-3552585 

1-3771583 

1-4008313 

1-4254529 

1-4514055 

1-4787795 

33 

28 

1-3556193 

1-3778380 

1-1012312 

1-4258713 

1-4518*93 

1-4792183 

32 

29 

1-3539803 

1-3782181 

1-4016315 

1-1262961 

1-4522946 

1-4797176 

31 

39 

1-3563417 

1-3785985 

1-4020321 

1-4267182 

1-4527397 

1-4801872 

30 

31 

1-3567034 

1-3789792 

1-4024330 

1-4271407 

1-4531852 

1-4806573 

29 

32 

1-3570654 

1-3793602 

1-4028343 

1-4275636 

1-4536311 

1-4811278 

23 

33 

1-3574277 

1-3797116 

1-4032360 

1-4279868 

1-4510774 

1-4815988 

27 

34 

1-3577903 

1-3801233 

1-4036380 

1-4284105 

1-4545211 

1-1820702 

26 

85 

1-3581532 

1-3805053 

1-1040*03 

1-4288345 

1-4549712 

1-4825420 

95 

36 

1-3585164 

1-3808877 

1-1014430 

1-1292588 

1-4551187 

1-4830142 

24 

37 

1-3588800 

1-3812704 

1-4048161 

1-4296836 

1-4358686 

1-4834868 

23 

33 

1-3592133 

1-3816534 

1-4052194 

1-4301087 

1-4563149 

1-4839599 

22 

39 

1-3596080 

1-3820367 

1-4056532 

1-4305342 

1-4567636 

1-4811334 

21 

40 

1-3599725 

1-3824204 

1-1060573 

1-4309600 

1-4572127 

1-4849073 

20 

41 

1-3603372 

1-3828044 

l-*OG4fil7 

1-4313863 

1-4576621 

1-4853817 

19 

42 

1-3607023 

1-3831887 

1-4068665 

1-4318129 

1-4581120 

1-1858565 

18 

43 

1-3610677 

1-3835734 

1-4072717 

1-4322399 

1-4585623 

1-4863317 

17 

44 

1-3511334 

1-3839584 

1-4076772 

1-4326672 

1-4590130 

1-4868073 

16 

45 

1-3617995 

1-38*3437 

1-4080831 

1-4330950 

M5SM611 

1-4872834 

15 

46 

1-3621658 

1-3847294 

1-408*893 

1-4335231 

1-4599156 

1-4877599 

14 

47 

1-3625324 

1-3851153 

1-4088908 

1-4339516 

1-4603675 

1-4882369 

13 

48 

1-3628994 

1-3855017 

1-4093028 

1-4313805 

1-1608198 

1-4887142 

"12 

49 

1-3632667 

1-3858883 

1-4097100 

1-4348097 

1-1612726 

1-4891920 

11 

50 

1-3636313 

1-3862753 

1-4101177 

1-4352393 

1-4617257 

1-1896703 

10 

51 

1-3640022 

1-3866626 

1-4105257 

1-1356693 

1-4621792 

1-1901189 

52 

1-3613704 

1-3870503 

1-4109340 

1-1360997 

1-4626331 

1-4906280 

53 

1-36*7389 

1-3874383 

1-4113127 

1-1365305 

1-4630875 

1-1911076 

54 

1-3651078 

1-3878266 

1-4117517 

1-1369616 

1-4635122 

1-4915876 

55 

1-365*770 

1-3882153 

1-1121612 

1-4373932 

1-4639973 

1-4920680 

56 

1-3658164 

1-38860*3 

1-4125709 

1-4378251 

1-464*529 

1-4925488 

W 

1-3662162 

1-3889936 

1-4129810 

1-4382574 

1-4649089 

1-1930301 

58 

1-3665863 

1-3893832 

1-4133915 

1-4386900 

1-4653652 

1-1935118 

59 

1-3669567 

1-3897733 

1-4138024 

1-4391231 

1-4658220 

1-4939940 

60 

1-3673275 

1-3901636 

1-41*2136 

1-4395565 

MS62792 

1-4944765 

' 

47° 

46° 

4.5' 

44° 

43' 

43' 

t 

COSE( 

3ANTS. 

480 


SECANTS   AN"D    COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

/ 

48° 

49° 

50° 

51° 

52° 

53" 

• 

1-4914765 

1-5242531 

1-5557238 

1-5890157 

1-6242692 

1-6616101 

60 

1-4949596 

1-5247634 

1-5562634 

1-5895868 

1-6248743 

1-6622819 

59 

1-4954431 

1-5252741 

1-5568035 

1-5901584 

1-6254799 

1-6629213 

58 

1-4959270 

1-5257854 

1-5573441 

1-5907306 

1-6260861 

1-6635673 

57 

1-1964113 

1-5262971 

1-5578852 

1-5913033 

1-6266929 

1-6612110 

56 

* 

1-4968961 

1-5268093 

1-5584268 

1-5918766 

1-6273003 

1-6648553 

55 

1-4973813 

1-5273219 

1-5589689 

1-5924504 

1-6279083 

1-6655002 

54 

1-4978670 

1-5278351 

1-5595115 

1-5930217 

1-6285169 

1-6661458 

53 

1-4983531 

1-5283487 

1-5600546 

1-5935996 

1-6291261 

1-6667920 

53 

1-19S8397 

1-5288627 

1-5605982 

1-5941751 

1-6297359 

1-6674389 

51 

10 

1-4993267 

1-5293773 

1-5611424 

1-5947511 

1-6303162 

1-6680864 

50 

11 

1-4998141 

1-5298923 

1-5616871 

1-5953276 

1-6309572 

16687345 

49 

12 

1-5003020 

1-5301078 

1-0622322 

1-5959048 

1-6315688 

1-6693833 

48 

13 

1-5007903 

1-5309238 

1-5627779 

1-5961824 

1-6321809 

1-6700328 

47 

14 

J  -5012791 

1-5314403 

1-5633241 

1-5970606 

1-6327937 

1-6706828 

46 

15 

1-5017C83 

1-5319572 

1-5638708 

1-5976394 

1-6334070 

1-6713336 

45 

15 

1-50-22580 

1-5324716 

1-5644181 

1-5982187 

1-6340210 

1-6719850 

44 

17 

1  '5027481 

1-5329925 

1-5049658 

1-5987986 

1-6348355 

1-6726370 

43 

18 

1-5032387 

1-5335109 

1-5655141 

1-5993790 

1-6352507 

1-6732897 

42 

19 

1-5037297 

1-5340297 

1-5660628 

1-5999600 

1-6358661 

1-6739430 

41 

20 

1-5042211 

1-5345491 

1-5666121 

1-6005416 

1-6364828 

1-6745970 

40 

21 

1-5017131 

1-5350689 

1-5671619 

1-6011237 

1-6370997 

1-6752517 

39 

22 

1-5052054 

1-5355892 

1-5677123 

1-6017061 

1-6377173 

1-6759070 

33 

23 

1-5056982 

1-5361100 

1-5682631 

1-6022896 

1-6383355 

1-6765629 

37 

21 

1-5061915 

1-5366313 

1-5688145 

1-6028734 

1-6389042 

1-6772195 

36 

25 

1-006CW52 

1-5371530 

1-5693664 

1-6034577 

1-6395736 

1-6776768 

35 

26 

1-5071793 

1-5376752 

1-5699188 

1-6040126 

1-6101936 

1-6785347 

31 

27 

1  -5076739 

1-5381980 

1-5704717 

1-6046281 

1-6108112 

1-6791933 

33 

28 

1-5081690 

1-5387212 

1-5710252 

1-6052142 

1-6114354 

1-6798525 

32 

29 

1-5080645 

1-5392449 

1-5715792 

1-6058008 

1-6420572 

1-6805124 

31 

30 

1-5UU1G05 

1-5397690 

1-5721337 

1-6063879 

1-6126796 

1-6811730 

30 

31 

1-5096569 

1-5402937 

1-5726887 

1-6069757 

1-6433027 

1-6818342 

29 

32 

1-5101538 

1-5408189 

1-5732443 

1-6075640 

1-6139263 

1-6824961 

28 

33 

1-5106511 

1-5413445 

1-5738004 

1-6081528 

1-6115506 

1-6831586 

87 

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1-5111489 

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1-6087423 

1-6151754 

1-6838219 

26 

35 

1-5116472 

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1-5749111 

1-6093323 

1-6158009 

1-6814857 

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36 

1-5121459 

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1-0099228 

1-6164270 

1-6851503 

34 

37 

1-5126150 

1-5434520 

1-5760300 

1-6105140 

1-6170537 

1-6858155 

23 

38 

1-5131446 

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1-5765887 

1-6111057 

1-6176811 

1-6861314 

22 

39 

1-5136447 

1-5115087 

1-5771479 

1-6116980 

1-6483090 

1-6871479 

21 

40 

1-5141452 

1-5150378 

1-5777077 

1-6122908 

1-6189376 

1-6878151 

20 

41 

1-5146162 

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1-5782680 

1-6128843 

1*8195668 

1-6884830 

19 

42 

1-5151477 

1-5160974 

1-5783289 

1-6134788 

1-6501966 

1-6891516 

18 

43 

1-5156496 

1-5466280 

1-5793902 

1-6140728 

1-6508270 

1-6898208 

17 

44 

1-5161520 

1-5171590 

1-5799521 

1-6146680 

1-6514581 

1-6904907 

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45 

1-5166548 

1-5476906 

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1-6152637 

1-6520898 

1-6911613 

15 

46 

1-5171581 

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1-5810776 

1-6158600 

1-6527221 

1-6918326 

14 

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1-5176619 

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1-6164569 

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1-6925045 

13 

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1-5181661 

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1-6170514 

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1-5503558 

1-5833348 

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1-6552575 

1-6915244 

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1-5196815 

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1-6188502 

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55 

1-5217087 

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56 

1-5222166 

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SECANTS    AND   COSECANTS. 


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1-7013016 

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1-7026653 

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1-7033188 

1-7156230 

1-700C090 

1-8385498 

1-8897197 

1-9444288 

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1-7913831 

1-8393753 

1-8906016 

1-9453725 

1-  701710.0 

1-7470776 

1-7921580 

1-8402013 

1-8914845 

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6 

1-7051010 

1-7478060 

1-7929337 

1-8410292 

1-8923684 

1-9472632 

7 

1-7060867 

1-7485352 

1-7937102 

1-8418574 

1-8932532 

1-9482102 

8 

1-7067730 

1-7492651 

1-7944876 

1-8426866 

1-8911391 

13491583 

9 

1-7071601 

1-7499958 

1-7952658 

1-8435166 

1-8950259 

1-9501075 

10 

1-7081178 

1-7507273 

1-79G0149 

1-8443476 

1-8059133 

1-9510577 

11 

1-7088362 

1-7514595 

1-7968247 

1-8451795 

1-8968026 

1-9520091 

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1-7095254 

1-7521924 

1-7976054 

1-8160123 

1-8976921 

1-9529615 

13 

1-7102152 

1-7529262 

1-7983869 

1-8468160 

1-8985832 

1-9539150 

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1-7109033 

1-7536607 

1-7991693 

1-8476806 

1-8994750 

1-9548697 

15 

1-7115970 

1-7513959 

1-7999524 

1-8485161 

1-9003678 

1-9558254 

16 

1-7122890 

1-7551320 

1-8007365 

1-8493525 

1-9012616 

1-9567822 

17 

1-7129817 

l-75!i8687 

1-8015213 

1-8501898 

1-9021564 

1-9577402 

18 

1-7136750 

1-7566063 

1-8023070 

1-8510281 

1-9030322 

1-9586992 

19 

J  -71*389  1 

1-7573446 

1-8030935 

1-8518672 

1-9039491 

1-9596593 

20 

1-7150639 

1-7580837 

1-8038809 

1-8527073 

1-9048469 

1-9606206 

81 

1-7157594 

1-7588236 

1-8046691 

1-8535183 

1-9007457 

1-9615829 

22 

1-7164556 

1-7595612 

1-8054582 

1-8543903 

1-9066456 

19625464 

83 

1-7171525 

1-7603057 

1-8062481 

1-8552331 

1-9075464 

1-9635110 

24 

1-7178501 

1-7610478 

1-8070388 

1-8560769 

1-9084483 

19644767 

25 

1-7185184 

1-7617908 

1-8078304 

1-8569216 

1-9093512 

1-9654435 

M 

1-7192175 

1-7625315 

1-8086228 

1-8577672 

1-9102551 

1-9664114 

27 

1-7199172 

1-7632791 

18094161 

1-8586138 

1-9111600 

1-9673805 

28 

1-7206477 

1-7640244 

1-8102102 

1-8594612 

1-9120659 

1-9683507 

29 

1-7213189 

1-7647704 

1-8110052 

1-8603097 

1-9129729 

1-9693220 

30 

1-7220508 

1-7655173 

1-8118010 

1-8611590 

1-9138809 

1-9702944 

31 

1-7227534 

1  -76626  19 

1-8125977 

1*620093 

1-9117899 

1-9712680 

32 

1-7231568 

1-7670133 

1-8133953 

1-8628605 

1-9156999 

1-9722427 

33 

1-7211609 

1-7677625 

1-8141937 

1-8637126 

1-9106110 

1-9732185 

31 

1-7218657 

1-7685125 

1-8149929 

1-8U15657 

1-9175230 

1-9741954 

35 

1-7255712 

1-7692633 

1-8157930 

1-8054197 

1-9184362 

1-9751735 

36 

1-7262774 

1-7700149 

1-8165940 

1-8662747 

1-9193503 

1-9761527 

37 

1-7269844 

1-7707672 

1-8173958 

1-8671306 

1-9202655 

1-9771331 

38 

1-7276921 

1-7715204 

1-8181985 

1-8679875 

1-9211817 

1-9781146 

39 

1-7284005 

1-7722713 

1-8190021 

1-8688453 

1-9220990 

1-9790972 

10 

1-7291096 

1-7730290 

1-8198065 

1-8699040 

1-9230173 

1-9800810 

41 

1-7298195 

1-77378  15 

1-8206118 

1-8705637 

1-9239366 

1-9810659 

12 

1-7305301 

1-7715109 

1-8214179 

1-8714244 

1-9248070 

1-9820520 

13 

1-7312111 

1-7752980 

1-8222249 

1-8722859 

1-9257784 

1-9830393 

11 

1-7319535 

1-7760559 

1-8230328 

1-8731485 

1-9267009 

1-9840276 

15 

1-7326653 

1-776314G 

1-8238416 

1-8740120 

1-9276244 

1-9850172 

16 

1-7333798 

1-7775741 

1-8246512 

1-8748761 

1-92804CO 

1-9860080 

17 

1-7310911 

1-7783344 

1-8254017 

1-8757419 

1-9294746 

1-9869997 

18 

1-7318091 

1-7790955 

l-tfi62731 

1-8766082 

1-9304013 

1-9879927 

19 

1-7355248 

1-7798574 

1-8270854 

1-8774705 

1-9313290 

1-9889869 

50 

1-7362413 

1-7806201 

1-8278985 

1-8783433 

1-9322078 

1-9899822 

5 

1-7369585 

1-7813836 

1-8287125 

1-8792131 

1-9331876 

1-9909787 

5 

1-7376764 

1-7821479 

1-8295274 

1-8800833 

1-9341185 

1-9919764 

5 

1-7383951 

1-7829131 

1-8303132 

1-8809545 

1-9350005 

1-9929752 

5 

1-7391115 

1-7836790 

1-8311599 

1-8818266 

1-9359835 

1-9939753 

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1-7398347 

1-7844457 

1-8319774 

1-8826998 

1-9369176 

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1-7105556 

1-7852133 

1-8327959 

1-8835738 

1-9378527 

1-9959783 

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1-7412773 

1-7859817 

1-8336152 

1-8844489 

1-9387889 

1-9969823 

5 

1-7119997 

1-7867508 

1-8344354 

1-8S58249 

1-9397262 

1-99.79870 

5 

1-7427229 

1-7875208 

1-8302565 

1-8862019 

1-9400646 

1-9969929 

6 

1-7434468 

1-7882916 

1-8360785 

1-8870799 

1-9416040 

2-0000000 

36° 

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SECANTS   AND   COSECANTS. 


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60° 

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2-8000000 
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2-2166208 

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SECANTS    AND    COSECANTS. 


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2-6868867 
2-6888374 

2-8031777 
2-8053148 
2-8074554- 
2-8095995 
2-8117471 

2-9378968 
2-9402597 
29120263 
2-9449975 
2-9473723 

3-0872066 
3-0898319 
3-0924020 
3-093  jrC7 
3-0977303 

51 
53 
52 
51 
CO 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 

2-4764034 
2-4780366 
2-4796721 
2-4813100 
2-4829503 

2-5787570 
2-5805414 
2-5823284 
2-5841182 
2-5809107 

2-6907912 
2-69274SO 
2-6947079 
2-6966709 
2-6986370 

2-8138982 
2-81600-29 
2-8182111 
2-8203729 
2-8225382 

2-9497516 
2-9521348 
29545221 
2-9569135 
2  9593090 

3-1003805 
3-1030295 
3-1000835 
3-10<53422 
3-1110037 

49 
48 
47 
46 
45 

16 
17 
18 
19 

20 

2  1840929 
2  4862380 
2-4878854 
2-4895352 
2-4911874 

2-5877058 
2-5895037 
2-5913043 
2-5931077 
2-5949137 

2-7006061 
2-7025784 
2-7045538 
2-7065323 
2-7085139 

2-8247071 
2-8268796 
2-8290556 
2-8312353 
2-8334185 

2-9617087 
2-9641125 
2-9665205 
2  -9689327 
2--9713490 

3-1136740 
31163472 
3-1190252 
3-1217081 
3-1243959 

41 

4.1 
42 
41 
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21 
22 
23 
24 
25 

2-4S28421 
2-494499  1 
2-4961586 
2-4978204 
2-4994848 

2-5967225 
2-5985341 
2-6003484 
2-6021654 
2-6039852 

2-7104987 
2-7124866 
2-7144777 
2-7164719 
2-7184693 

2-8356054 
2-8377938 
2-8399899 
2-84-21877 
2-8443891 

2-9737695 
2-9761942 
29786231 
2-9810563 
2-9834936 

3-1270886 
3-1297862 
3-1321887 
3-1351962 
3-1379086 

39 
38 
37 
36 
35 

26 
27 
28 
29 
30 

2-5011515 

2-50-28207 
2-5044923 
2-5061663 
2-0078428 

2-C058078 
2-6076332 
2-6094613 
2-6112922 
2-6131259 

2-7204698 
2-72-24735 
2-7244S04 
2-7261905 
2-7285038 

2-8460941 
2-8488028 
2-8510152 
2-8532312 
2-8554510 

2-9859352 
2-9883311 
2-9908312 
2-9932856 
2-9i>57443 

3-1406259 
3-1433483 
3-1460706 
3-1486079 
3-1510403 

34 
33 
32 
31 
30 

31 
32 
33 
34 
35 

2-5095218 
2-5112032 
2-5128871 
2-5145735 
2-5162624 

2-6149624 
2-6168018 
2-6186439 
2-6204888 
2-6223366 

2-7305203 

2-73-25100 
2-7345630 
2'736J8y2 
2-7386186 

2-8576744 
2-8599015 
2-8621324 
2-8643670 
2-8666053 

2-9982073 
3-0006746 
3-0031462 
3-0056221 
3-0081021 

3-1542877 
3-1570351 
3-1697876 
3-1620452 
3-1653078 

29 
28 
27 
26 
25 

36 

2-5179537 

2-6241872 

2-7406512 

2-8688474 

3-0105870 

3-1680756 

24 

87 
88 
89 
40 

2-519G475 
2-5213438 
2-5230426 
2-5247440 

2-6260406 
2-6278969 
2-6297560 
2-6316180 

27420871 
2-7447263 
2-7467687 
2-7488144 

2-8710932 
2-8733428 
2-8755961 
2-877SJ32 

S'0130760 
3-0155694 
3-0180672 
3-0205693 

3-1708484 
3-1736-264 
3-17C4095- 
3'179la78 

23 
22 

20 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 

2-5264478 
2-5281541 
2-5298630 
2-5315744 
2-5332883 

2-6334828 
2-6353506 
2-6372211 
2-6390946 
2-6409710 

2-7508634 
2-7529157 
2-7549712 
2-7570301 
2-7590923 

2-8801142 
2-3S23789 
2-8846474 
2-8S69198 
2-8891960 

3-0230759 
3-0255868 
3-C  281023 
3-0306221 
30331464 

3-1819913 
3-1S47899 
3-1870937 
3-1904028 
3-1932170 

19 
18 
17 
16 
15 

46 
47 
48 
49 
50 

2-5350043 
2-5367238 
2-5384453 
2-5401694 
2-5418961 

2-6428502 
2-6447323 
2-6466174 
26485054 
2-6503962 

2-7611578 
2-7632267 
2-7652988 
2-7673744 
2-7694532 

2-8914760 
2-8937598 
2-8960475 
2-8983391 
2-9006346 

3-0306752 
3-0382084 
3-0407462 
3-0432884 
3-0458352 

3-1960365 
3-ly8b613 
3-2016913 
3-2045266 
3-2073673 

14 
13 
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10 

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5 
5 
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2-5436253 
2-5453571 
2-5470915 

2-5483284 
2-5505680 

2-6522901 
2-6541868 
2-6560865 
2-6579891 
2-6598947 

2-7715356 
2-7736211 
2-7757100 
2-7778024 
2-7798982 

2-9029339 
2-9052372 
2-9075443 
2-9098553 
2-9121703 

3-0483864 
3-0509423 
3-0535026 
3-0560675 
3-0086370 

3-2102132 
3-2130644 
3-2159210 
3-2187830 
3-2216503 

9 
8 
7 
6 

56 

5 

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2-5523101 
2-5540513 
2-5558022 
2-5575521 
2-5593047 

2-6618033 
2-6637148 
2-G656292 
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2-6694672 

2-7819973 
2-7840P99 
2-7862059 
2-7883153 
2-7904281 

2-9144892 
2-9168121 
2-9191389 
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3-OI-37893 
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3-2245230 
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3-2302346 
3-2331736 
3-2300680 

4 
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22° 

21° 

20° 

19° 

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COSECANTS. 

484 


SECANTS  AND   COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 


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72° 

73* 

74- 

75° 

76' 

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3-2360680 

3-4203036 

3-6279553 

3-8637033 

4-1335655 

4-1454115 

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S-2389',78 

S'4235611 

3-6316395 

3-8679025 

4-13^3939 

4-4510198 

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3-2418732 

3-4263251 

3-C30M16 

3-8721112 

4-1132339 

4-4566128 

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3-24478-10 

3-4300956 

3-6390315 

3-8763293 

4-1180856 

4-4622803 

57 

3-2477003 

3-4333727 

3-6127392 

3-8805570 

4-1529491- 

4-4679324 

56 

5 

3-2506222 

3-4366563 

3-6161548 

3-8847913 

4-1578243 

4-4735993 

65 

6 

3-2535496 

3-4399465 

3-6501783 

3-8890411 

4-1627114 

4-4792810 

54 

7 

3-2564825 

3-4432433 

3-6539097 

3-8932970 

4-1676102 

4-1319775 

63 

8 

3-2594211 

3-4165167 

3-6576191 

3-8975637 

4-1725210 

4-1906889 

52 

9 

3-2623652 

3-4498568 

3-6613964 

3-9018395 

4-1774138 

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3-2653149 

3-4531735 

3-6651513 

3-9061250 

4-1823785 

4-5021565 

30 

11 

3-2682703 

3-4561969 

3-6689151 

3-9104203 

4-1873252 

4-5079129 

49 

12 

3-2712311 

3-1598269 

3-6726865 

3-9117254 

4-1922810 

4-5136814 

48 

13 

3-2741977 

3-4631037 

3-6761660 

3-9190403 

4-1972519 

4-5194711 

47 

14 

3-2771700 

3-1065073 

3-6802536 

3-9233651 

4-2022380 

4-5252730 

46 

15 

3-2801479 

3-4098576 

1-6840493 

3-9276997 

4-2072333 

4-5310903 

45 

16 

3-2831316 

3-4732116 

3-6878532 

3-9320443 

4-2122408 

4-5369229 

44 

17 

3-2361209 

3-4765785 

3-6916652 

3-9363988 

4-2172006 

4-5427709 

43 

18 

3-2891160 

3-1799192 

3-6951854 

3-9407633 

4'2J*2928 

4-5186314 

42 

19 

3-2921168 

3-1833267 

3-6993139 

3-9451379 

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41 

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3-2951234 

3-4867110 

3-7031506 

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4-2323943 

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3-4901023 

3-7069956 

3-9539171 

4-2374637 

4'5'>63183 

39 

22 

3-3011539 

3-1935004 

3-7108189 

3-9583219 

4-2425457 

4-5722114 

38 

23 

3-3041778 

3-1969055 

3-7147105 

3-9627369 

4-2476402 

45781802 

37 

21 

3-3072076 

3-5003175 

3-7185805 

3-9071621 

4-2527474 

4-58411?'> 

36 

25 

3-3102432 

3-5037365 

3-7224589 

3-9715975 

4-2578671 

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35 

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3-3132847 

3-5071625 

3-7263157 

3-9760431 

4-2629996 

4-5961070 

31 

27 

3-3163320 

3-5105954 

3-7302409 

3-9804991 

4-2681449 

4-6021126 

33 

28 

3-3193853 

3-5140354 

3-7311116 

3-9819654 

4-2733029 

4-6081313 

32 

29 

3-3221444 

3-5174824 

3-7380568 

3-9894421 

4-2784733 

4-6141722 

31 

30 

3-3250095 

3-5209365 

37419775 

3-9939292 

4-2836576 

4-6202263 

30 

31 

3-3285805 

3-5243977 

3-7459003 

3-9984267 

4-2888513 

4-6262967 

29 

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3-3316575 

3-5278660 

3-7498117 

4-0029317 

4-2910610 

4-6323835 

28 

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3-3347405 

3-5313114 

3-7537911 

4-0074532 

4-2992807 

4-6381867 

27 

34 

3-3378294 

3-5318210 

3-7577162 

4-0119823 

4-3015225 

4-6146061 

26 

35 

3-3409241 

3-5383138 

3-7617100 

4-0165219 

4-3097715 

4-6507427 

25 

36 

3-3440254 

3-5418107 

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4-0210722 

4-3150336 

4-6568956 

24 

37 

3-3471324 

3-5153149 

3-7696636 

4-0256332 

4-3203090 

4-6630652 

23 

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3-3502455 

3-5188203 

3-7736035 

4-0302018 

4-3255977 

4-6692516 

22 

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3-3533617 

3-5523150 

3-7776522 

4-0347872 

4-3308996 

4-6754518 

21 

40 

3-3564900 

3-5558710 

3-7816596 

4-0393804 

4-3362150 

4-6816748 

20 

41 

3-3596214 

3-5591042 

3-7856760 

4-0139844 

4-3415438 

4-6879119 

19 

42 

3-3627589 

3-5629448 

3-7897011 

4-0185992 

4-3468861 

4-69416GO 

18 

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3-3659026 

3-5661928 

3-7937352 

4-0532-219 

4-3522419 

4-7004372 

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3-5700481 

3-7977782 

4-0578615 

4-3576113 

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3-3722084 

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3-8018301 

4-0625091 

4-3629943 

4-7130313 

15 

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3-3753707 

3-5771810 

3-8058911 

4-0671677 

4-3683910 

4-7193542 

14 

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3-3785391 

3-5807586 

3-8099610 

4-0718374 

4-3738015 

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3-3817138 

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3-8140399 

4-0765181 

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4-0812100 

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3-8222251 

4-08591*0 

4-3901158 

4-7418200 

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3-3912755 

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4-3955817 

4-7512312 

52 

3-3911754 

3-5987590 

3-8304167 

4-0953526 

4-4010616 

4-7576596 

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3-3976816 

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4-1000893 

4-4065556 

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3-4008911 

3-6060121 

3-8387052 

4  1018374 

4-4120637 

4-7705699 

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3-4011130 

3-6096501 

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4-1095907 

4-4175859 

4-7770519 

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3-4073382 

3-6132957 

3-8470006 

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4-4231224 

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3-6169190 

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4-1191198 

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4-1239135 

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3-4170526 

3-62127s8 

3-8595135 

4-1287487 

4-4398176 

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3-4203036 

3-6279553 

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4-1335655 

4-4454115 

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16° 

16° 

14° 

13° 

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COSEC 

ANTS. 

SECANTS  AND   COSECANTS. 


465 


SECANTS. 

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78° 

79° 

80° 

81° 

82° 

£2° 

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0 

4-8097343 

5-2403431 

6-7587705 

6-3924532 

7-1852965 

8-20550SX; 

60 

1 

4-8163258 

5-248GD79 

6-768-2867 

6-4042101 

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4-8229307 

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4-8295643 

6-2614798 

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4-8362114 

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5-7970-280 

6-439766G 

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4-8495621 

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4-8562657 

5-2963354 

5-8260617 

6-1757195 

7-2909160 

8-34389S6 

63 

8 

4-6629833 

5-3043603 

5-8358053 

6-4877944 

7-3062954 

8-3640531 

52 

9 

4-8697299 

5-3124109 

5-8455820 

6-4999148 

7-3-217102 

8-3313005 

51 

10 

4-8764907 

5-3^04860 

5-8553921 

6-5120S12 

7-3371909 

8-1046586 

50 

11 

4-8832707 

5-3285861 

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6-5242938 

7-3527377 

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4-8900700 

5-3367114 

5-8751128 

6-5365528 

7-3683512 

8-4456629 

48 

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4-8968886 

5-3448620 

5-8850238 

6-5488586 

7-3840318 

8-4GC31C5 

47 

14 

4-9037267 

5-3530379 

5-8949688 

6-5G12113 

7-3997798 

8-4870721 

46 

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6-3612393 

5-9049179 

6-573C112 

7-4105909 

8-5079301 

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4-9174616 

5-3094664 

5-9119C14 

6-5860587 

7-4314S03 

8-5288923 

44 

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4-9243586 

6-3777192 

6-9250095 

6-5985540 

7-4474335 

8-549D584 

43 

18 

4-9312751 

5-3859979 

5-9300922 

6-61K>973 

7-4634560 

8-5711295 

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4-9382120 

5-3913026 

5-9452098 

6-623(JS90 

7-1795182 

8-592J065 

11 

20 

4-9451687 

5-4026333 

5-9503625 

6-6363-293 

7-4957106 

8-6137901 

40 

21 

4-9521453 

5-4109903 

5-9605504 

6-6490184 

7-5119437 

8-6352812 

39 

22 

4-9591421 

5-4193737 

5-9757737 

6-6617568 

7-528-2478 

8-6068805 

38 

23 

4-9661591 

5-4277835 

5-986032G 

6-6740446 

7-5446236 

8-6785889 

37 

24 

4-9731961 

5-4362199 

6-9963274 

6-6873822 

7-5610713 

8-7004071 

36 

25 

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5-4416831 

6-0066581 

6-7002699 

7-5775916 

8-7-223361 

35 

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4-9873323 

5-4531731 

6-0170250 

6-7132079 

7-5941849 

8-7443766 

34 

27 

4-9944311 

6-4616901 

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5-0015505 

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5-0230337 

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6-0694085 

0-7780632 

7-6782631 

8-8562828 

29 

32 

5-0302367 

5-5046843 

6-0799964 

6-7919095 

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8-8790109 

28 

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5-0374607 

5-5133659 

6-0906219 

6-8002082 

7-7124227 

8-9018567 

27 

31 

5-0447060 

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6-1012850 

6-8185597 

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5-0519726 

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6-8319642 

7-746S901 

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23 

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6-0739013 

6-5571951 

6-1443189 

6-8724995 

7-7991778 

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22 

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6-1551736 

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6-0960248 

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6-1770003 

6-9135239 

7-8521851 

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5-1034431 

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7-8700120 

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6-9830092 

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12 

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6-1559948 

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6-1636924 

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8-1712128 

6-6715380 

6-2885295 

7-0539205 

8-0342321 

9-3343006 

9 

52 

6-1788563 

5-6837734 

6-2999073 

7-0682777 

8-0529062 

9-35950-82 

8 

53 

6-18652-28 

6-6930393 

6-3113269 

7-0826941 

8-0716681 

9-3840738 

7 

54 

6-19i212S 

5-7023360 

6-3227884 

7-0971700 

8-0900182 

9-1100181 

6 

55 

6-2019384  . 

1-7116636 

6-3342923 

7-1117059 

8-1091573 

9-4362033 

5 

56 

5-2096C18 

5-7210223 

8-3458386 

7-1263019 

8-1234860 

9-4620296 

4 

57 

6-2174216 

5-7301121 

6-3574276 

7-1409087 

8-1176018 

9-4879984 

3 

58 

5-2252050 

5-7398333 

6-3690595 

7-1056764 

8-1668145 

9-0141110 

2 

69 

5-2330121 

6-7492861 

6-3807347 

7-1704556 

8-1861157 

9-5103686 

1 

60 

5-i'108431 

6-7587705 

6-3921532 

7-1802965 

0 

11° 

10° 

9° 

8° 

7° 

6° 

' 

COSECANTS. 

486 


SECANTS   AN  I)    COSECANTS. 


SECANTS. 

t 

84" 

85° 

86° 

87* 

88° 

89° 

' 

9-5667728 

11-473713 

14-335587 

19-107323 

28-653708 

67-298638 

60 

9-5933233 

11-511990 

14-395471 

19-213970 

28-894393 

68-269755 

69 

9-6200229 

11-550523 

14-455859 

19-321816 

29-139169 

59-274308 

JT 

9-6163724 

11-589316 

14-516757 

19-430882 

29-388124 

60-314110 

67 

S-6738730 

11-628372 

14-578172 

19-541187 

29-641373 

61-391050 

56 

S  7010260 

11-667693 

14-640109 

19-652754 

29-899026 

62-507153 

M 

9-7283327 

11-707282 

14-702576 

19-765604 

30-161201 

63-664595 

54 

9-7557944 

11-747141 

14-765580 

19-879753 

30-428017 

64-865716 

53 

9-7834124 

11-787274 

14-829128 

19-995241 

30-699593 

66-113036 

52 

9-8111830 

11-827683 

14  -8932-26 

20-112075 

30-976074 

67-409272 

51 

10 

9-8391227 

11-868370 

14-957882 

20-230284 

31-257577 

68-757360 

M 

11 

98672176 

11-909340 

15-023103 

20-349893 

31-544246 

70-160474 

49 

12 

9-8954744 

11-950595 

15-083896 

20-470925 

31-8362-25 

71-6-2-2052 

43 

13 

9-9238943 

11-992137 

15-155270 

20-593409 

32-133663 

73-1408-27 

47 

11 

9-9521787* 

12-033970 

15-222231 

20-717368 

32-436713 

74-735856 

43 

15 

9-3812291 

12-076098 

15-289788 

20-842830 

32-745537 

76-390551 

45 

16 

10-010147 

12-118522 

15-357949 

20-969824 

33-060300 

78-132742 

44 

17 

10-033234 

12-161246 

15-426721 

21-098376 

33-381176 

79-949684 

43 

18 

10-068491 

12-204274 

15-496114 

21-2-28515 

33-708345 

81-853150 

42 

19 

10-097920 

12-247G08 

15-566135 

21-360272 

34-041994 

&3-849470 

41 

SO 

10-127522 

12-291252 

15-636793 

21-493676 

34-382316 

85-945609 

40 

21 

10-157300 

12-33.1210 

15-708096 

21-628759 

34-729515 

88-149244 

39 

22 

10-187254 

12-37J484 

15-780054 

21-765553 

35-083800 

90-4C8863 

33 

23 

10-217386 

12-424078 

15-852676 

21-904090 

35-445391 

92-913869 

37 

24 

10-247697 

12-468995 

15-925971 

22-044403 

33-814517 

95-494711 

36 

25 

10-278190 

12-514240 

15-999943 

22'  1865-28 

36-191414 

98-2-23033 

35 

26 

10-308865 

12-559815 

16-074017 

22-330499 

36-576332 

101-11185 

3* 

27 

10-339726 

12-605724 

16-149987 

22-476353 

36-969528 

104-17574 

33 

28 

10-370772 

12-651971 

16-226069 

22-624126 

37-371273 

107-43114 

32 

29 

10-402007 

12-698560 

16-302873 

22-773857 

37-781849 

110-89656 

31 

30 

10-433431 

12-745495 

16-380408 

2292558S 

38-201550 

114-59301 

id 

81 

10-465046 

12-792779 

16-458686 

23-079351 

38-630683 

118-54440 

S3 

32 

10-496854 

12-840416 

16-537717 

23-235196 

39-069571 

122-77803 

28 

33 

10-528857 

12-888410 

16-617512 

23-393161 

39-518549 

127-32525 

27 

31 

10-501057 

12-936765 

16-098082 

23-553291 

39-977969 

132-22229 

26 

35 

10-593455 

12-985486 

16-779439 

23-715630 

40-448201 

137-51108 

23 

26 

10-626054 

13-034576 

16-861594 

23-880224 

40-929630 

143-24061 

M 

37 

10-658854 

13-084040 

16-944559 

24-047121 

41-422660 

149-46837 

23 

33 

10-091859 

13-133£S2 

17-028346 

24-216370 

41-927717 

156-20-223 

2-J 

39 

10-725070 

13-184106 

17-11296G 

24-388020 

42  445245 

163-703i5 

OJ 

40 

10-758483 

13-234717 

17-198434 

24-562123 

42-975713 

171-88831 

20 

41 

10-792117 

13-285719 

17-284761 

24-738731 

43-519612 

180-93496 

19 

42 

10-825957 

13-337116 

17371960 

24-917900 

44-077458 

190-98680 

18 

43 

10-860011 

13-388914 

17-460046 

25-099685 

44-649795 

202-22122 

17 

44 

10-894281 

13-441118 

17-549030 

25-284144 

45-237195 

214-85995 

IS 

45 

10-928763 

13-493731 

17-638923 

25-471337 

45-840260 

229-18385 

15 

46 

10-963473 

13-54G758 

17-729753 

25-661324 

46-459625 

245-55402 

14 

47 

10-998406 

13-600205 

17-821520 

25-854169 

47-095961 

264-44269 

13 

48 

11-033560 

13-654077 

17-914243 

26-049937 

47-749974 

286-47948 

12 

49 

11-068940 

13-708379 

18-007937 

26-248694 

48-422411 

312-52297 

1! 

60 

11-104549 

13-763115 

18-102619 

26-450510 

49-114062 

343-77516 

10 

61 

11-140389 

13-8182D1 

18-198303 

26-655455 

49-825762 

381-97230 

9 

62 

11-176463 

13-873913 

18-295005 

26-863603 

50-558393 

429-71873 

8 

63 

11-212770 

13-929935 

18-392742 

27-075030 

51-312902 

491  10702 

1 

61 

11-249316 

13-986514 

18-491530 

27-289814 

62-090-272 

672-95809 

6 

55 

11-286101 

14-043504 

18-591387 

27-508035 

52-891564 

887-54960 

5 

56 

11-323129 

14-1009G3 

18-692330 

27-729777 

53-717896 

859-43689 

4 

67 

11  -360402 

H-  158894 

18-794377 

27-955125 

54-570464 

1145-9157 

3 

68 

11-397922 

14-217304 

18-897545 

28-184168 

55-450534 

1718-8735 

2 

69 

11  -48569  J 

14-276200 

19-001854 

28-416997 

56-359462 

3437-7468 

| 

«0 

11-473715 

14-335587 

19-107323 

28-653708 

57-298688 

Infinite. 

0 

/ 

5° 

4° 

3° 

2° 

1° 

0° 

/ 

COSECANTS. 


TABLE  86.— NA'IUKAL.  TANGENTS  AKD  COTANGENTS. 


c 

0 

1 

1 

2 

° 

3 

o 

/ 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

0 

.00000 

Infinite. 

.01746 

57.2900 

.03492 

28.6363 

.05241 

19.0811 

00 

1 

.00029 

3437.75 

.01775 

56.a">06 

.03521 

28.3994 

.05270 

18.9755 

59 

2 

.00058 

1718.87 

.01804 

55.4415 

.03550 

28.1664 

.05299 

18.8711  I 

58 

3 

.00087 

1145.92 

.01833 

54.5613 

.03579 

27.9372 

.05328 

18.7678 

57 

4 

.00116 

859.436 

.01862 

53.7086 

.03609 

27.7117 

.05357 

18.6656  ; 

50 

5 

.00145 

687.549 

.01891 

52.8821 

.03638 

27.4899 

.05387 

18.5645 

55 

6 

.00175 

572.957 

.01920 

52.0807 

.03667 

27.2715 

.05416 

18.4645 

54 

7 

.00204 

491.106 

.01949 

51.3032 

.03696 

27.0566 

.05445 

18.3655 

53 

8 

.00233 

429.718 

.01978 

50.5485 

.03725 

26.8450 

.05474 

18.2677 

52 

9 

.00262 

381.971 

.02007 

49.8157 

.03754 

2<;.0:'>07 

.05503 

18.1708  ! 

51 

10 

.00291 

343.774 

.02036 

49.1039 

.03783 

26.4116 

.05533 

18.0750 

50 

11 

.00320  ' 

312.521 

.02066 

48.4121 

.03*12 

26.2296 

.05562 

17.9802 

1!) 

12 

.00349 

2S0.478 

.02095 

47.7395 

.03843 

20.0307 

.05591 

17.8863 

48 

13 

.00378 

264.441 

.02124 

47.0868 

.03S71 

a.-*.  S3  is 

.05620 

-.7934 

47 

14 

.00407 

245.553 

.02153 

46.4489 

.03900 

25.6418 

.05649 

7.7015 

46 

15 

.00436 

IM'.MS-,! 

.02182 

.15.S-3DI 

.03929 

25.4517 

.05678 

7.6106 

45 

,10 

.<X)405 

214.858 

.02211 

45.2201 

.03958 

25.2644 

.05708 

7.5205 

11 

17 

.00495 

202.219 

.02240 

4  J.  03X0 

.03987 

25.0798 

.057'37 

".4314 

48 

18 

.00524 

190.984 

.02269 

44.0001 

.04016 

24.8978 

.0.7706 

7.3432 

& 

19 

.00553 

180.932 

.02298 

43.50S1 

.04046 

24.7185 

.05795 

17.2558 

11 

!20 

.00582 

171.885 

.02388 

42.9641 

.04075 

24.5418 

.05824 

1-.1608 

10 

'21 

.00611 

163.700 

.02357 

42.4335 

.04104 

24.3675 

.05854 

17.0837 

a 

go 

.00010 

156.259 

.02386 

41.9158 

.04133 

24.1957 

.05883 

16.9990 

38 

23 

.00669 

149.465 

.02415 

41.4106 

.04162 

24.0263 

.05912 

16.9150 

87 

24 

.00698 

143.237 

.02444 

40.9174 

.04191 

23.8593 

.05941 

16.8319 

36 

25 

.00727 

137.507 

.02473 

40.4358 

.04220 

23.6945 

.05970 

16.7496 

88 

26 

.00756 

132.219 

,02502 

39.9655 

.04250 

23.5321 

.05999 

16.6681 

84 

27 

.00785 

127.321 

.02531 

39.5059 

.04279 

23.3718 

.06029 

16.5874 

81 

28 

.00815 

122.774 

.02560 

39.0568 

.04308 

23.2137 

.06058 

16.5075 

tt 

29 

.00844 

118.540 

.02589 

38.0177 

.04337 

23.0577 

.06087 

16.4283 

81 

30 

.00873 

114.589 

.02619 

38.1885 

.04306 

22.90:38 

.06116 

16.3499 

30 

31 

.00902 

110.892 

.02648 

37.7686 

.04395 

22.7519 

.06145 

16.2722 

29 

32 

.00931 

107.426 

.02077 

37.3579 

.04424 

22.6020 

.06175 

16.1952 

28 

33 

.00960 

104.171 

.02706 

36.9560 

.04454 

22.4541 

.06204 

16.1190 

27 

34 

.00989 

101.107 

.02735 

36.5627 

.04483 

22.3081 

.06233 

16.0435 

20 

35 

.01018 

98.2179 

.02764 

36.1776 

.04512 

22.1640 

.06262 

15.9687 

25 

30 

.01047 

95.4895 

.02793 

35.8006 

.04541 

22.0217 

.06291 

15.8945 

m 

37 

.01076 

92.9085 

.02822 

35.4313 

.04570 

21.8813 

.06321 

15.8211 

23 

,38 

.01105 

90.4633 

.02851 

35.0695 

.04599 

21.7426 

.06350 

15.7483 

22 

39 

.01135 

88.1436 

.02881 

34.7151 

.04628 

21.6056 

.06379 

15.6762 

81 

40 

.01164 

85.9398 

.02910 

34.3678 

.04658 

21.4704 

.06408 

15.6048 

H 

41 

.01193 

83.8435 

.02939 

34.0273 

.04687 

21.!  3369 

.06437 

15.5340 

10 

42 

.01222 

81.8470 

.02968 

33.6935 

.04716 

21.2049 

.00407 

15.4638 

is 

43 

.01251 

79.9434 

.02997 

33.3662 

.04745 

21.0747 

.0041)0 

15.3943 

17 

44 

.01280 

78.1263 

.03026 

33.  0452 

.0-1774 

20.9460 

.06525 

15.3254 

10 

45 

.01309 

76.3900 

.03055 

32.7303 

.04803 

20.8188 

.06554 

15.2571 

15 

46 

.01338 

74.7292 

.03084 

32.4213 

.04833 

20.6932 

.06584 

15.1893 

14 

47 

.01367 

73.1390 

.03114 

32.1181 

.04862 

20.5691 

.06(513 

15.1222 

13 

48 

.01396 

71.6151 

.03143 

31.8205 

.04891 

20.4405 

.06642 

15.0557 

12 

49 

.01425 

70.1533 

.03172 

31.5284 

.04920 

20.32M 

.00071 

14.9898 

11 

50 

.01455 

68.7501 

.03201 

31.2416 

.04949 

20.2056 

.06700 

14.9244 

10 

51 

.01484 

67.4019 

1   .03230 

30.9599 

.04978 

20.0872 

.06730 

14.8596 

9 

52 

.01513 

66.1055 

.03259 

30.6833 

.05007 

19.9702 

.0(5759 

14.7964 

8 

53 

.01542 

64.8580 

.03288 

30.4110 

.05037 

19.8546 

.0(5788 

14.7317 

7 

54 

.01571 

63.6567 

.03317 

30.1446 

.05066 

19.7403 

.06817 

14.6685 

0 

55 

.01600 

62.4992 

.03346 

29.8823 

.05095 

19.6273 

.06847 

14.6059 

B 

5f 

.01629 

61.3829 

.03876 

29.6245 

.05124 

19.5156 

.06876 

14.5438 

4 

57 

.01658 

(50.3058 

.08405 

29.3711 

.05153 

19.4051 

.06905 

14.4823 

8 

58 

.01687 

59.2659 

.03434 

29.122C 

.05182 

19.2959 

.06934 

14.4212 

2 

59 

.01716 

58.2612 

.08463 

2H.8771 

.05212 

19.1879 

.06963 

14.3607 

1 

60 

.01746 

57.2900 

.0*402 

28.6363 

.05241 

19.0811 

.00!)'.):? 

14.3007 

0 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

/ 

t 

19° 

i 

w 

8 

7° 

8 

6° 

487 


NATtfRAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


4° 

5° 

6°                         7° 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang      Tang     Cotang 

~0i~706993 

14.3007 

.08749 

11.4301 

.10510 

9.51436 

.12278 

8.14435 

60 

l!   .07022 

14.2411 

.08778 

11.3919 

.10540 

9.48781 

.12308 

8.12481 

59 

2|   .07051 

14.1821 

.08807 

11.3540 

.10569 

9.46141 

.12338 

8.10536 

58 

3 

.07080 

14.1235 

.08837 

11.3163 

.10599 

9.43515 

.12367 

8.08600 

57 

4 

.07110 

14.0655 

.08866 

11.2789 

.10628 

9.40904 

.12397 

8.C6674 

56 

5 

.07139 

14.0079 

.08895 

11.2417 

.10657 

9.38307 

.12426 

8.04756 

55 

6 

.07168 

13.9507 

.08925 

11.2048 

.10687 

9.35724 

.12456 

8.02848 

54 

7 

.07197 

13.8940 

.08954 

11.1681 

.10716 

9.33155 

.12485 

8.00948 

58 

B 

.07227 

13.8378 

.08983 

11.1316 

.10746 

9.30599 

.12515 

7.99058 

52 

g 

.07256 

13.7821 

.09013 

11.0954 

.10775 

9.28058 

.12544 

7.97176 

51 

to 

.07285 

13.7267 

.09042 

11.0594 

.10805 

9.25530 

.12574 

7.95302 

50 

11 

.07314 

13.6719 

.09071 

11.0237 

.10834 

9.23016 

.12603 

7.93438 

49 

12 

.07344 

13.6174 

.09101 

10.9882 

.10863 

9.20516 

.12033 

7.91582 

48 

K5 

.07373 

13.5634 

.09130 

10.9529 

.10893 

9.18028 

.12662 

7.89734 

47 

11 

.07402 

13.5098 

.09159 

10.9178 

.10922 

9.15554 

.12692 

7.87895 

46 

15 

.07431 

13.4566 

.09189 

10.8829 

.10952 

9.13093 

.12722 

7.86064 

45 

16 

.07461 

13.4039 

.09218 

10.8483 

.10981 

9.10646 

.12751 

7.84242 

44 

17 

.07490 

13.3515 

.09247 

10.8139 

.11011 

9.08211 

.12781 

7.82428 

43 

is 

.07519 

13.2996 

.09277 

10.7797 

.11040 

9.05789 

.12810 

7.80622 

42 

19 

.07548 

13.2480 

.09306 

10.7457 

.11070 

9.03379 

.12840 

7.78825 

41 

M 

.07578 

13.1969 

.09335 

10.7119 

.11099 

9.00983 

.12869 

7.77035 

40 

21 

.07607 

13.1461 

.09365 

10.6783 

.11128 

8.98598 

.12899 

7.75254 

39 

22 

.07636 

13.0958 

.09394 

10.6450 

.11158 

8.96227 

.12929 

7.73480 

38 

23 

.07665 

13.0458 

.09423 

10.6118 

.11187 

8.93867 

.12958 

7.71715 

37 

24     .07695 

12.9962 

.09453 

10.5789 

.11217 

8.91520 

.12988 

7.69957 

36 

25 

.07724 

12.9469 

.09482 

10.5462 

.11246 

8.89185 

.13017 

7.68208 

35 

96 

.07753 

12.8981 

.09511 

10.5136 

.11276 

8.86862 

.13047 

7.66466 

34 

27 

.07782 

12.8496 

.09541 

10.4813 

.11305 

8.84551 

.13076 

7.64732 

33 

2M 

.07812 

12.8014 

.09570 

10.4491 

.11335 

8.82252 

.13106 

7.63005 

32 

29 

.07841 

12.7536 

.09600 

10.4172 

.11364 

8.79964 

.13136 

7.61287 

31 

30 

.07870 

12.7062 

.09629 

10.3854 

.11394 

8.77689 

.13165 

7.59575 

30 

31 

.07899 

12.6591 

.09658 

10.3538 

.11423 

8.75425 

.13195 

7.57872 

29 

as 

.07929 

12.6124 

.09688 

10.3224 

.11452 

8.73172 

.13224 

7.56176 

28 

88 

.07958 

12.5660 

.09717 

10.2913 

.11482 

8.70931 

.13254 

7.54487 

27 

M 

.07987 

12.5199 

.09746 

10.2602 

.11511 

8.68701 

.13284 

7.52806 

26 

86 

.08017 

12.4742 

.09776 

10.2294 

.11541 

8.66482 

.13313 

7.51132 

25 

86 

.08046 

12.4288 

.09805 

10.1988 

.11570 

8.64275 

.13343 

7.49465 

24 

87 

.08075 

12.3838 

.09834 

lo.ie&s 

.11600 

8.62078 

.13372 

7.47806 

23 

86 

.08104 

12.3390 

.09864 

10.1381 

.11629 

8.59893 

.13402 

7.46154 

22 

39 

.08134 

12.2946 

.09893 

10.1080 

.IK    > 

8.57718 

.13432 

7.44509 

21 

40 

.08163 

12.2505 

.09923 

10.0780 

.11688 

8.55555 

.13461 

7.42871 

20 

41 

.08192 

12.2067 

.09952 

10.0483 

.11718 

>  53402 

.13491 

7.41240 

19 

42 

.08221 

12.1632 

.09981 

10.0187 

.11747 

8.51259 

.13521 

7.39616 

18 

18 

.08251 

12.1201 

.10011 

9.98931 

.11777 

8.49128 

.13550 

7.37999 

17 

44 

.08280 

12.0772 

.10040 

9.96007 

.11806 

8.47007 

.13580 

7.36389 

16 

45 

.08309 

12.0346 

.10069 

9.93101 

.11836 

8.44896 

.13609 

7.34786 

15 

4(1 

.08339 

11.9923 

.10099 

9.90211 

.11865 

8.42795 

.13639 

7.33190 

14 

47 

.08368 

11.9504 

.10128 

9.87338 

.11895 

8.40705 

.13669 

7.31600 

13 

4S 

.08397 

11.9087 

.10158 

9.84482 

.11924 

8.38625 

.13698 

7.30018 

12 

4!) 

.08427 

11.867'3 

.10187 

9.81641 

.11954 

8.36555 

.13728 

7.28442  111 

50 

.08456 

11.8262 

.10216 

9.78817 

.11983 

8.34496 

.13758 

7.26873 

10 

51 

.08485 

11.7853 

.10246 

8.76009 

.12013 

8.32446 

.13787 

7.25310 

9 

52 

.08514 

11.7448 

.10275 

9.73217 

.12042 

8.30406 

.13817 

7.23754 

8 

58 

.08544 

11.7045 

.10305 

9.70441 

.  12072 

8.28376 

.13846 

7.22204 

7 

M 

.08573 

11.6645 

.10334 

9.67680 

.12101 

8.26355 

.13876 

7.20661 

6 

55 

.08602 

11.6248 

.10363 

9.64935 

.12131 

8.24345 

.13906 

7.19125 

5 

66 

.08632 

11.5853 

.10393 

9.62205 

.12160 

8.22344 

.13935 

7.17594 

4 

57 

.08661 

11.5461 

.10422 

9.59490 

.12190 

8.20352 

.13965 

7.16071 

3 

66 

.06690 

11.5072 

.10452 

9.56791 

.12219 

8.18370 

.13995 

7.14553 

2 

56 

.08720 

11.4685 

.10481 

9.54106 

.12249 

8.16398 

.14024 

7.13042 

1 

80 

.08749 

11.4301 

.10510 

9.51436 

.12278 

8.14435 

.14054 

7.11537 

0 

, 

Cotang  i    Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

' 

85° 

84° 

83° 

82° 

488 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


B° 

9° 

] 

0° 

1 

1° 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

o 

.14054 

7.11537 

.15838 

6.31375 

.17633 

5.67128 

.19438 

5.14455 

60 

1 

.14084 

7.10038 

.15868 

6.30189 

.17663 

5.66165 

.19468 

5.13658 

59 

2 

.14113 

7.08546 

.15898 

6.29007 

.17693 

5.65205 

.19498 

5.12862 

58 

3 

.14143 

7.07059 

1   .15928 

6.27829 

.17723 

5.64248 

.19529 

5.12069 

57 

4 

.14173 

7.05579 

!   .15958 

6.26655 

.17753 

5.63295 

.19559 

5.11279 

56 

.14202 

7.04105 

.15988 

6.25486 

.17783 

5.62344 

.19389 

5.10490 

55 

6 

.14232 

7.02637 

.16017 

6.24321 

.17813 

5.61397 

.19619 

5.09704 

54 

7 

.14262 

7.01174 

.16047 

6.23160 

.17843 

5.60452 

.  19649 

5.08921 

53 

8 

.14291 

6.99718 

.16077 

6.22003 

.17873 

5.59511 

.19080 

5.08139 

52 

9 

.14321 

6.98268 

.16107 

6.20851 

.17903 

5.58573 

.19710 

5.07360 

51 

10 

.14351 

6.96823 

.16137 

6.19703 

.17933 

5.57638 

.19740 

5.06584 

50 

11 

.14381 

6.95385 

.16167 

6.18559 

.17963 

5.56706 

.19770 

5.05809 

49 

12 

.14410 

6.93952 

.16196 

6.17419 

.17993 

5.55777 

.19801 

5.05037 

48 

13 

.14440 

6.92525 

.16226 

6.16283 

.18023 

5.54851 

.19831 

5.042G7 

47 

14 

.14470 

6.91104 

.16256 

6.15151 

.18053 

5.53927 

.19861 

5.03499 

46 

15 

.14499 

6.89688 

.16286 

6.14023 

.18083 

5.53007 

.19891 

5.02734 

45 

16 

.14529 

6.88278 

.16316 

6.12899 

.18113 

5.52090 

.19921 

5.01971 

44 

17 

.14559 

6.86874 

.16346 

6.11779 

.18143 

5.51176 

.19952 

5.01210 

43 

18 

.14588 

6.85475 

.16376 

6.10664 

.18173 

5.50264 

.19982 

5.00451 

42 

19 

.14618 

6.84082 

.16405 

6.09552 

.18203 

5.49356 

.20012 

4.99695 

41 

20 

.14648 

6.82694 

.16435 

6.08444 

.18233 

5.48451 

.20042 

4.98940 

40 

21 

.14678 

6.81312 

.16465 

6.07340 

.18263 

5.47548 

.20073 

4.98188 

39 

22 

.14707 

6.79936 

.16495 

6.06240 

.18293 

5.40648 

.20103 

4.97438 

38 

23 

.14737 

6.78564 

.16525 

6.05143 

.18333 

5.45751 

.20133 

4.96690 

37 

24 

.14767 

6.77199 

.16555 

6.04051 

.18&53 

5.44857 

.20164 

4.95945 

36 

25 

.14796 

6.75838 

.16585 

6.02962 

.18384 

5.43966 

.20194 

4.95201 

35 

26 

.14826 

6.74483 

.16615 

6.01878 

.18414 

5.43077 

.20224 

4.94460 

34 

27 

.14856 

6.73133 

.16645 

6.00797 

.18444 

5.42192 

.20254 

4.93721 

33 

28 

.14886 

6.71789 

.16674 

5.99720 

.18474 

5.41309 

.20285 

4.92984 

32 

29 

.14915 

6.70450 

.16704 

5.98646 

.18504 

5.40429 

.20315 

4.92^49 

31 

30 

.14945 

6.69116 

.16734 

5.97576 

.18534 

5.39552 

.20345 

4.91516 

30 

31 

.14975 

6.67787 

.16764 

5.96510 

.18564 

5.38677 

.20376 

4.90785 

29 

32 

.15005 

6.66463 

.16794 

5.95448 

.18594 

5.37805 

.20406 

4.90056 

28 

33 

.15034 

6.65144 

.16824 

5.94390 

.18624 

5.36936 

.20436 

4.89330 

27 

34 

.15064 

6.63831 

.16854 

5.93335 

.18654 

5.36070 

.20466 

4.88605 

26 

35 

.15094 

6.62523 

.16884 

5.92283 

.18684 

5.35206 

.20497 

4.87882 

25 

36 

.15124 

6.61219 

.16914 

5.91236 

.18714 

5.34345 

.20527 

4.87162 

24 

37 

.15153 

6.59921 

.16944 

5.90191 

.18745 

5.33487 

.20557 

4.86444 

23 

38 

.15183 

6.58627 

.16974 

5.89151 

.18775 

5.32631 

.20588 

4.85727 

22 

39 

.15213 

6.57339 

.17004 

5.88114 

.18805 

5.31778 

.20618 

4.85013 

21 

40 

.15243 

6.56055 

.17033 

5.87080 

.18835 

5.30928 

.20648 

4.&4300 

20 

41 

.15272 

6.54777 

.17063 

5.86051 

.18865 

5.30080 

.20679 

4.83590 

19 

42 

.15302 

6.53503 

.17093 

5.85024 

.18895 

5.29235 

.20709 

4.82882 

18 

43 

.15332 

6.52234 

.17123 

5.84001 

.18925 

5.28393 

.20739 

4.82175 

17 

44 

.15302 

6.50970 

.17153 

5.82982 

.18955 

5.27553 

.20770 

4.81471 

16 

45 

.15391 

6.49710 

.17183 

5.81966 

.18986 

5.26715 

.20800 

4.80709 

15 

46 

.15421 

6.48456 

.17213 

5.80953 

.19016 

5.25880 

.20830 

4.80068 

14 

47 

.15451 

6.47206 

.17243 

5.79944 

.19046 

5.25048 

.20861 

4.79370 

13 

48 

.15481 

6.45961 

.17273 

5.78938 

.19076 

5.24218 

.20891 

4.78673 

12 

49 

.15511 

6.44720 

.17303 

5.77936 

.19106 

5.23391 

.20921 

4.77978 

11 

50 

.15540 

6.43484 

.17333 

5.7G937 

.19136 

5.22566 

.20952 

4.77286 

10 

51 

.15570 

6.42253 

.17363 

5.75941 

.19166 

5.21744 

.20982 

4.76595 

9 

52 

.15600 

6.41026 

.17393 

5.74949 

.19197 

5.20925 

.21013 

4.75906 

8 

53 

.15630 

6.39804 

.  7423 

5.73960 

.19227 

5.20107 

.21043 

4.75219 

7 

54 

.15660 

6.38587 

.   7453 

5.72974 

.19257 

5.19293 

.21073 

4.74534 

6 

55 

.15689 

6.37374 

.  7483 

5.71992 

.19287 

5.18480 

.21104 

4.73851 

5 

56 

.15719 

6.36165 

.  7513 

5.71013 

.19317 

5.17671 

.21134 

4.73170 

4 

57 

.15749 

6.34961 

.  7543 

5.70037 

.19347 

5.16863 

.21164 

4.72400 

3 

58 

.15779 

6.33761 

.17573 

5.69064 

.19378 

5.16058 

.21195 

4.71813 

2 

59 

.15809 

6.32566 

.17603 

5.68094 

.19408 

5.15256 

.21225 

4.71137 

1 

60 

.15838 

6.31375 

.17633 

5.67128 

.19438 

5.14455 

.21256 

4.70403 

0 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

/ 

8 

1° 

8 

)°             1 

7 

9°           1 

7 

J° 

489 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


12° 

13°             |            14° 

15° 

/ 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang     Cotang 

Tang  |  Cotang 

/ 

~0 

.21256 

4.70463 

.23087 

4.33148 

.24933 

4.01078 

.26795  I  3.73205 

00 

1 

.21286 

4.69791 

..23117 

4.32573 

.24964 

4.00582 

.26826      3.72771    59 

2 

.21316 

4.69121 

.23148 

4.32001 

.24995  1  4.00086 

.26857  [  3.72338 

58 

•; 

.21347 

4.68452 

.23179 

4.31430 

.25026  i  3.99592 

.26888  i  3.71907 

57' 

4 

.21377 

4.67786 

.23209 

4.30860 

.25056 

3.99099 

.26920      3.71476    56 

£ 

.21408 

4.67121 

.23240 

4.30291 

.25087 

3.98607 

.26951  !  3.71046    56 

f 

.21438 

4.66458 

.23271 

4.29724 

.25118 

3.98117 

.26982     3.70616  154 

7 

.21469 

4.65797 

.23301 

4.29159 

.25149 

3.97627 

.27013     3.70188 

53 

8 

.21499 

4.65138 

.23332 

4.28595 

.25180 

3.97139 

.27044 

3.69761 

52 

S 

.215£9 

4.64480 

.23363 

4.28032 

.25211 

3.96651 

.27076 

3.69,335 

51 

10 

.21560 

4.63825 

.23393 

4.27471 

.25242 

3.96165 

.27107 

3.68909 

50 

11 

.21590 

4.63171 

.23424 

4.26911 

.25273 

3.95680 

.27138 

3.68485 

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18 

.21621 

4.62518 

.23455 

4.26352 

.25304 

3.95196 

.27169 

3.680)11 

48 

la 

.21651 

4.61868 

.23485 

4.25795 

.25835 

3.94713 

.27201 

3.07038 

47 

14 

.21682 

4.61219 

.23516 

4.25239 

.25366 

3.94232 

.27232 

3.67'217 

40 

15 

.21712 

4.60572 

.23547 

4.24685 

.25397 

3.1(3751 

.27'263 

3.(>67i)0 

45 

1C, 

.21743 

4.59927 

.23578 

4.24132 

.25428 

3.93271 

.27294 

3.0r,37'i; 

44 

17 

.21773 

4.59283 

.23608 

4.23580 

.25459 

3.92793 

.27326 

3.65957 

4.1 

18 

.21804 

4.58641 

.23639 

4.23030 

.25490 

3.92316 

.27357 

3.05538 

42 

1!) 

.21834 

4.58001 

.23670 

4.22481 

.25521 

3.91839 

.27388 

3.05121 

11 

£0 

.21864 

4.57363 

.23700 

4.21933 

.25552 

3.91364 

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3.017K, 

to 

21 

.21895 

4.56726 

.23731 

4.21387 

.25583 

3.90890 

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3.64289 

80 

22 

.21925 

4.56091 

.23762 

4.20842 

.25614 

3.90417 

.27482 

3.63874 

38 

23 

.21956 

4.55458 

.23793 

4.20298 

.26646 

3.89945 

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3.63401 

37 

21 

.21986 

4.54826 

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4.19756 

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3.89474 

.27545 

3.63048 

36 

25 

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4.54196 

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4.19215 

.25707 

3.89004 

.27576 

3.02030 

35 

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.22047 

4.53568 

.23885 

4.18675 

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3.88536 

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34 

27 

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4.52941 

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4.18137 

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3.88068 

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28 

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4.52316 

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4.17600 

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4.51693 

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4.17064 

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3.87136 

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3.  (50996    31 

so 

.22169 

4.51071 

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4.16530 

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3.86671 

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3  60588    30 

81 

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4.50451 

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4.15997 

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3.86208 

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3.60181 

29 

32 

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4.49832 

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4.15465 

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3.85745 

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3.59775 

28 

33 

.22261 

4.49215 

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4.14934 

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3.85284 

.27826 

3.59370 

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.22292 

4.48600 

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4.14405 

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3.84824 

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3.58966 

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35 

.22322 

4.47986 

.24162 

4.13877 

.26017 

3.84364 

.27889 

3.58562 

25 

86 

.22353 

4.47374 

.24193 

4.1,3350 

.26048 

3.83906 

.27921 

3.58160 

24 

87 

.22383 

4.46764 

.24223 

4.12825 

26079 

3.83449 

.27952 

3.57758 

23 

88 

.22414 

4.46155 

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4.12301 

.26110 

3.82992 

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3.57357 

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4.45548 

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4.11778 

.26141 

3.82537 

.28015 

3.56957 

21 

11) 

.22475 

4.44942 

.24316 

4.11256 

.26172 

3.82083 

.28046 

3.56557 

21 

11 

.22505 

4.44338 

.24347 

4.10736 

.26203 

3.81C30 

.28077 

3.56159 

1!) 

42 

.22536 

4.43735 

.24377 

4.10216 

.20235 

3.81177 

.28109 

3.55701 

18 

13 

.22567 

4.43134 

.24408 

4.09699 

.26266 

3.807'26 

.28140 

3.55304 

17 

H 

.22597 

4.42534 

.24439 

4.09182 

.26297 

3.80276 

.28172 

3.54968 

18 

'15 

.22628 

4.41936 

.24470 

4.08666 

.20.328 

3.79827 

.28203 

3.51573 

15 

46 

.22658 

4.41340 

.24501 

4.08152 

.26859 

3.79378 

.28234 

3.54179 

11 

17 

.22689 

4.40745 

.24532 

4.07639 

.28890 

3.78931 

.28266 

3.53785 

18 

IS 

.22719 

4.40152 

.24562 

4.07127 

.26421 

3.78485 

.28297 

3.53393 

12 

49 

.23750 

4.39560 

.24593 

4.06616 

.20452 

3.78040 

.28329 

3.53001 

11 

50 

.22781 

4.38969 

.24624 

4.06107 

.20483 

3.77595 

.28360 

3.52609 

10 

51 

.22811 

4.38381 

.24655 

4.05599 

.26515 

3.77152 

.28391 

3.52219 

9 

52 

.22842 

4.37793 

.24686 

4.05092 

.26546 

3.76709 

.28423 

3.51829 

8 

53 

.22872 

4.37207 

.24717 

4.04586 

.26577 

3.76268 

.28454 

3.51441 

7 

54 

.22903 

4.36623 

.24747 

4.04081 

.26608 

3.75828 

.28486 

3.51053 

(i 

55 

.22934 

4.36040 

.24778 

4.03578 

.26639 

8.75388 

.28517 

3.50066 

1 

56 

.22964 

4.35459 

.24809 

4.03076 

.26670 

3.74950 

.285J9 

3.50279 

4 

57 

.22995 

4.34879 

.24840 

4.02574 

.26701 

3.74512 

.28580 

3.49894 

3 

r,s 

.23026 

4.34300 

.24871 

4.02074 

.26733 

3.74075 

.28012 

3.49509 

2 

5!t 

.23056 

4.33723 

.24902 

4.01576 

.26764 

3.73640 

.28643 

3.49125 

1 

60 

.28087 

4.&3148 

.249:33 

4.01078 

.20796 

3.73205 

.28678 

3.48741 

0 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang  |    Tang 

/ 

77° 

76° 

75° 

74° 

490 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


16°            |           17° 

18° 

19° 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang     Cotang 

Tang   |  Cotang 

0 

.28675 

3.18741 

.30573 

3.27085 

.32492 

3.07768 

.84433 

2.90421 

(50 

1 

.28706 

3.48359  • 

.30605 

3.26745 

.32524 

3.07464 

.34465 

2.90147 

59 

2    .28738 

3.47977 

.30637 

3.26406 

.32556 

3.07160 

.34498 

2.89873 

58 

3     .28769 

3.47596 

.30669 

3.26067 

.32588 

3.06857 

.34530 

2.89600 

57 

4     .28800 

3.47216 

.30700 

3.25729 

.32621 

3.06554 

.34563 

2.89327 

5(5 

5 

.28832 

3.46837 

.30732 

3.25392 

.32653 

3.06252 

.34596 

2.89055 

55 

6 

.28864 

3.46458 

.30764 

3.25055 

.32685 

3.05950 

.34628 

2.88783 

54 

7    .28895 

3.46080 

.30796 

3.24719 

.32717 

3.05649 

.34661 

2.88511 

53 

8     .28927 

3.45703 

.30828 

3.24383 

.32749 

3.05349 

.34693 

2.88240 

52 

9|    .28958 

3.45327 

.30860 

3.24049 

.32782 

3.05049 

.34726 

2.87970 

51 

10     .28990 

3.44951 

.30891 

3.23714 

.32814 

3.04749 

.34758 

2  87700 

50 

11 

.29021 

3.44576 

.30923 

3.23381 

.32846 

3.04450 

.34791 

2.87430 

49 

12 

.29053 

3.41202 

.30955 

3.23048 

.32878 

3.04152 

.34824 

2.87161 

48 

13 

.29084 

3.43829 

.30987 

3.22715 

.32911 

3.013854 

.34856 

2.86892 

47 

It 

.29116 

3.43456 

.31019 

3.22384 

.32943 

3.03556 

.34889 

2.86624 

4(5 

15 

.21)147 

3.43084 

.31051 

3.22053 

.32975 

3.03260 

.34922 

2.86a56 

48 

1C, 

.29179 

3.42713 

.31083 

3.21722 

.33007 

3.02963 

.34954 

2.86089 

44 

ir 

.29210 

3.42343 

.31115 

3.21392 

.33040 

3.02667 

.34987 

2.85822 

43 

is 

.29242 

3.41973 

.31147 

3.21063 

.33072 

3.02372 

.35020 

2.85555 

42 

lit 

.29274 

3.41604 

.31178 

3.20734 

.a3104 

3.02077 

.a5052 

2.a5289 

41 

20 

.29305 

3.41236 

.31210 

3.20406 

.33130 

3.01783 

.35085 

2.85023 

JO 

8i 

.29337 

3.40869 

.31242 

3.20079 

.33169 

3.01489 

.35118 

2.84758 

89 

•,>-,> 

.29368 

3.40502 

.31274 

3.19752 

.33201 

3.01196 

.a5150 

2.84494 

38 

23 

.29400 

3.40136 

.31306 

3.19426 

.33233 

3.00903 

.35183 

2.84229 

37 

24 

.29432 

3.39771 

.31338 

3.19100 

.33266 

3.00611 

.35216 

2.8396T) 

86 

Or. 

.29463 

3.39406 

.31370 

3.18775 

.33298 

3.00319 

.35248 

2.83702 

35 

28 

.29495 

3.39042 

.31402 

3.18451 

.33330 

3.00028 

.35281 

2.83439 

34 

27 

.29526 

3.38679 

.31434 

3.18127 

.&S363 

2.99738 

.35314 

2.a3176 

33 

28 

.29558 

3.38317 

.31466 

3.17804 

.33395 

2.99447 

.35346 

2.82914 

32 

29 

.29590 

3.37955 

.31498 

3.17481 

.33427 

2.99158 

.35379 

2.82653 

31 

80 

.29621 

3.37594 

.31530 

3.17159 

.33460 

2.98868 

.35412 

2.82391 

30 

81 

.29653 

3.37234 

.31562 

3.16838 

.33492 

2.98580 

.35445 

2.82130 

29 

:•« 

.29685 

3.36875 

.31594 

3.16517 

.33524 

2.98292 

.35477 

2.81870 

28 

33 

.21(716 

3.36516 

.31626 

3.16197 

.33557 

2.98004 

.35510 

2.81610 

27 

84 

.29748 

3.36158 

.31658 

3.15877 

.33589 

2.97717 

.35543 

2.81350 

2(5 

36 

.29780 

3.35800 

.31690 

3.15558 

.33621 

2.97430 

.35576 

2.81091 

25 

36 

.29811 

8.35443 

.31722 

3.15240 

.33654 

2.97144 

.35608 

2.80833 

21 

37     .29843 

3.35087 

.31754 

3.14922 

.33686 

2.96858 

.35641 

2.80574 

23 

38     .29875 

3.34732 

.31786 

3.14605 

.33718 

2.96573 

.35674 

2.80316 

22 

39 

.29906 

3.34377 

.31818 

3.14288 

.33751 

2.96288 

.35707 

2.80059 

21 

to 

.29938 

3.34023 

.31850 

3.13972 

.33783 

2.96004 

.35740 

2.79802 

20 

41 

.29970 

3.33670 

.31882 

3.13656 

.33816 

2.95721 

.35772 

2.79545 

19 

12 

.30001 

3.33317 

.31914 

3.13341 

.33848 

2.95437 

.35805 

2.79289 

IS 

48 

.30033 

3.32965 

.31946 

3.13027 

.33881 

2.95155 

.35838 

2.79033 

17 

H 

.300li5 

3.32614 

.31978 

3.12713 

.33913 

2.94872 

.a5871 

2.78778 

16 

45 

.3001)7 

3.32264 

.32010 

3.12400 

.33945 

2.94591 

.35904 

2.78523 

15 

1C, 

.30128 

3.31914 

.32042 

3.12087 

.33978 

2.94309 

.35937 

2.78269 

14 

47 

.30160 

3.31565 

.32074 

3.11775 

.34010 

2.94028 

.35969 

2.78014 

13 

48 

.30192 

3.31216 

.32106 

3.11464 

.34043 

2.93748 

.36002 

2.77761 

N 

49     .30224 

3.30868 

.32139 

3.11153 

.34075 

2.93468 

.36035 

2.77507 

11 

50 

.30255 

3.30521 

.32171 

3.10843 

.34108 

2.93189 

.36068 

2.77254 

10 

.-,1 

.30287 

3.30174 

.32203 

3.10533 

.34140 

2.92910 

.36101 

2.77002 

9 

52 

.30319 

3.29829 

.32235 

3.10223 

.34173 

2.92632 

.36134 

2.76750 

8 

58 

.30351 

3.29483 

.32267 

3.09914 

.34205 

2.9235-4 

.36167 

2.76498 

7 

54 

.30382 

3.29139 

.32299 

3.09606 

.34238 

2.92076 

.36199 

2.76247 

6 

55 

.30414 

3.28795 

.32331 

3.09298 

.34270 

2.91799 

.36232 

2.75996 

5 

56 

.30446 

3.28452 

.32363 

3.08991 

.34303 

2.  91  523 

.36265 

2.75746 

4 

57 

.30478 

3.28109 

.32396 

3.08685 

.34335 

2.91246 

.36298 

2.75496 

a 

56 

.30509 

3.27767 

.32428 

3.08379 

.84868 

2.90971 

.36331 

2.75246 

2 

59 

.30541 

3.27426 

.3*160 

3.08073 

.34400 

2.90696 

.36364 

2.74997 

1 

i;o 

.30573 

3.27085 

J32492 

3.07768 

.31133 

2.90421 

.36397 

2.74748 

0 

• 

Cotang  |    Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

/ 

73° 

72° 

71° 

70° 

491 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


20°           ||           21° 

22°           l|           23° 

_Tang_ 

Cotang  fl   Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang  |  Cotang 

/ 

0 

.36397 

2.74748 

1   .33336 

2.60509 

.40403 

2.47509 

.42447 

2.35585 

60 

i 

.36430 

2.74499 

.38420 

2.60283 

.40436 

2.47302 

.42482 

2.35395 

59 

2 

.36463 

2.74251 

.38453 

2.60057 

.40470 

2.47095 

.42516 

2.35205 

58 

3 

.36496 

2.74004 

.38487 

2.59831 

.40504 

2.46888 

.42551 

2.35015 

57 

4 

.36529 

2.73756 

.38520 

2.59606 

.40538 

2.46682 

.42585 

2.34825 

56 

5 

.36562 

2.73509 

.38553 

2.59381 

.40572 

2.46476 

.42619 

2.34636 

55 

0 

.36595 

2.73263 

.38587 

2.59156 

.40606 

2.46270 

.42654 

2.34447 

54 

7 

.36628 

2.73017 

.38620 

2.58932 

.40640 

2.46065 

.42688 

2.34258 

53 

8 

.36661 

2.72771 

.38654 

2.58708 

.40674 

2.45860 

.42722 

2.34069 

52 

91   .36(594 

2.72526 

.38687 

2.58484 

.40707 

2.45655 

.42757 

2.3:3881 

51  1 

10  1   .36727 

2.72281 

.38721 

2.58261 

.40741 

2.45451 

.42791 

2.33693 

50 

11 

.36760 

2.72036 

.38754 

2.58038 

.40775 

2.45246 

.42826 

2.a3505 

49 

12 

.36793 

2.71792 

.38787 

2.57815 

.40809 

2.45043 

.42860 

2.33317 

48 

u 

.36820 

2.71548 

.38821 

2.57593 

.40843 

2.44839 

.42894 

2.33130 

47 

14 

.$6859 

2.71305 

.38854 

2.57371 

.40877 

2.44636 

.42929 

2.32943 

46 

15 

.36892 

2.71062 

.38888 

2.57150 

.40911 

2.44433 

.42963 

2.32756 

45 

16 

.36925 

2.70819 

.38921 

2.56928 

.40945 

2.44230 

.42998 

2.32570 

44 

1< 

.36958 

2.70577 

.38955 

2.56707 

.40979 

2.44027 

.43032 

2.32:383 

43 

Ih 

.36991 

2.70335 

.38988 

2.56487 

.41013 

2.43825 

.43067 

2.32197 

42 

19 

.37024 

2.70094 

.39022 

2.56266 

.41047 

2.43623 

.43101 

2.32012 

41 

20 

.37057 

2.69853 

.39055 

2.56046 

.41081 

2.43422 

.43136 

2.31826 

40 

21 

.37090 

2.69612 

.39089 

2.55827 

.41115 

2.43220 

.43170 

2.31641 

39 

22 

.37123 

2.69371 

.39122 

2.55608 

.41149 

2.43019 

.43205 

2.31456 

38 

23 

.37157 

2.69131 

.39156 

2.55389 

.41183 

2.42819 

.43239 

2.31271 

37 

21 

.37190 

2.68892 

.39190 

2.55170 

.41217 

2.42G18 

.43274 

2.31086 

36 

35 

.37223 

2.68653 

.39223 

2.54952 

.41251 

2.42418 

.43308 

2.30902 

35 

26 

.37256 

2.68414 

.39257 

2.54734 

.41285 

2.42218 

.43343 

2.30718 

34 

27 

.37289 

2.68175 

.39290 

2.54516 

.41319 

2.42019 

.43378 

2.30534 

33 

28 

.37322 

2.67937 

.39324 

2.54299 

.41353 

2.41819 

.43412 

2.30351 

32 

29 

.37355 

2.67700 

.39357 

2.54082 

.41387 

2.41620 

.43447 

2.30167 

31 

30 

.37388 

2.67462 

.39391 

2.53865 

.41421 

2.41421 

.43481 

2.29984 

30 

31 

.37422 

2.67225 

.39425 

2.53648 

.41455 

2.41223 

.43516 

2.29801 

29 

32 

.37455 

2.66939 

.39458 

2.53432 

.41490 

2.41025 

.43550 

2.29619 

28 

33 

.37488 

2.66752 

.39492 

2.53217 

.41524 

2.40827 

.43585 

2.29437 

27 

:J4 

.37521 

2.66516 

.39526 

2.53001 

.41558 

2.40629 

.43620 

2.29254 

26 

35 

.37554 

2.66281 

.39559 

2.52786 

.41592 

2.40432 

.43654 

2.29073 

25 

3D 

.37588 

2.66046 

.39593 

2.52571 

.41626 

2.40235 

.43689 

2.28891 

24 

57 

.37621 

2.65811 

.39626 

2.52357 

.41660 

2.40038 

.43724 

2.28710 

23 

13 

.37654 

2.65576 

.39660 

2.52142 

.41694 

2.39841 

.43758 

2.28528 

22 

•J9 

.37687 

2.65342 

.39694 

2.519^9 

.41728 

2.39645 

.43793 

2.28348 

21 

40 

.37720 

2.65109 

.39727 

2.51715 

.41763 

2.39449 

.43828 

2.28167 

20 

11 

.37754 

2.64875 

.39761 

2.51502 

.41797 

2.39253 

.43862 

2.27987 

19 

42 

.377'87 

2.64642 

.39795 

2.51289 

.41831 

2.3iX)58 

.43897 

2.27806 

18 

43 

.37820 

2.64410 

.39829 

2.51076 

.41865 

2.38863 

.43932 

2.27626 

44 

.37853 

2.64177 

.39862 

2.50864 

41899 

2.38668 

.43966 

2.27447 

ie 

45 

.37887 

2.63945 

.39896 

2.50652 

.41933 

2.38473 

.44001 

2.27267 

15 

46 

.37920 

2.63714 

.39930 

2.50440 

.41968 

2.38279 

.44036 

2.27088 

14 

47 

.37953 

2.63483 

.39963 

2.50229 

.42002 

2.38084 

.44071 

2.26909 

13 

48 

.37986 

2.63252 

.39997 

2.50018 

.42036 

2.37891 

.44105 

2.26730 

12 

49 

.38090 

2.63021 

.40031 

2.49807 

.42070 

2.37097 

.44140 

2.26552 

11 

50 

.38053 

2.62791 

.40065 

2.49597 

.42105 

2.37504 

.44175 

2.26374 

10 

51 

.38086 

2.62561 

.40098 

2.49386 

.42139 

2.37311 

.44210 

2.26196 

9 

52 

,88120 

2.62332 

.40132 

2.49177 

.42173 

2.37118 

.44244 

2.26018 

8 

58 

.38153 

2.62103 

.40166 

2.48967 

.42207 

2.36925 

.44279 

2.25840 

7 

54 

.38186 

2.61874 

.40200 

2.48758  ! 

.42242 

2.36733 

.44314 

2.25663 

6 

55 

.38220 

2.61646 

.40234 

2.48549 

.42276 

2.36541 

.44349 

2.25486 

5 

56 

.88258 

2.61418 

.40267 

2  4&340 

.42310 

2.36349 

.44384 

2.25309 

4 

57 

.38286 

2.61190 

.40301 

2.48132 

.423-15 

2.36158 

.44418 

2.25132 

3 

5S 

.38320 

2.60963 

.403&5 

2.47924 

.42379 

2.35967 

.44453 

2.24956 

2 

51) 

.38353 

2.60736 

.40369 

2.47716 

.42413 

2.35776 

.44488 

2.24780 

1 

60 

.38386 

2.60509 

.40403 

2.47509 

.42447 

2.35585 

.44523 

2.24604 

0 

/ 

Cotang      Tang 

Cotang      Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

69° 

68°            I 

67° 

66° 

492 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


2 

4° 

2 

5° 

!           2 

6° 

2 

7° 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

1   Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

0 

.44523 

2.24604 

.46631 

2.14451 

.48773 

2.05030 

.50953 

1.96261 

GO 

1 

.44558 

2.24428 

.46666 

2.14288 

.48809 

2.04879 

.50989 

1.96120 

59 

2 

.44593 

2.24252 

.46702 

2.14125 

.48845 

2.04728 

.51026 

.95979 

58 

3 

.44627 

2.24077 

.46737 

2.13963 

.48881 

2.04577 

.51063 

.95838 

57 

4 

.44662 

2.23902 

.46772 

2.13801 

.48917 

2.04426 

.51099 

.95698 

56 

5 

.44697 

2.23727 

.46808 

2.13639 

.48953 

2.04276 

.51136 

.95557 

55 

6 

.44732 

2.23553 

.46843 

2.13477 

.48989 

2.04125 

.51173 

.95417 

54 

7 

.44767 

2.23378 

.46879 

2.13316 

.49026 

2.03975 

.51209 

.95277 

53 

8 

.44802 

2.23204 

.46914 

2.13154 

.49062 

2.03825 

.51246 

.95137 

52 

9 

.44837 

2.23030 

.46950 

2.12993 

.49098 

it.  03675 

.51283 

.94997 

51 

10 

.44872 

2.22857 

.46985 

2.12832 

.49134 

2.03526 

.51319 

.94858 

50 

11 

.44907 

2.22683 

.47021 

2.12671 

.49170 

2.03376 

.51356 

.94718 

49 

12 

.44942 

2.22510 

.47056 

2.12511 

.49206 

2.03227 

.51393 

.94579 

48 

18 

.44977 

2.22337 

.47-092 

2.12350 

.49242 

2.03078 

.51430 

.94440 

47 

14 

.45012 

2.22164 

.47128 

2.12190 

.49278 

2.02929 

.51467 

.94301 

46 

15 

.45047 

2.21992 

.47163 

2.12030 

.49315 

2.02780 

.51503 

.94162 

45 

10 

.45082 

2.21819 

.47199 

2.11871 

.49351 

2.02631 

.51540 

.94023 

44 

17 

.45117 

2.21647 

.47234 

2.11711 

.49387 

2.02483 

.51577 

.93885 

43 

18 

.45152 

2.21475 

.47270 

2.11552 

.49423 

2.02335 

.51614 

.93746 

42 

1!) 

.45187 

2.21304 

.47305 

2.11392 

.49459 

2.02187 

.51651 

.93608 

41 

20 

.45222 

2.21132 

.47341 

2.11233 

.49495 

2.02039 

.51688 

.93470 

40 

M 

.45257 

2.20961 

.47377 

2.11075 

.49532 

2.01891 

.51724 

.93332 

39 

22 

.45292 

2.20790 

.47412 

2.10916 

.49568 

2.01743 

.51761 

.93195 

38 

88 

.45327 

2.20619 

.47448 

2.10758 

.49604 

2.01596 

.51798 

.93057 

87! 

24 

.45362 

2.20449 

.47483 

«.  10600 

.49640 

2.01449 

.51835 

.92920 

36 

25 

.45397 

2.20278 

.47519 

2.10442 

.49677 

2.01302 

.51872 

.92782 

35 

26 

.45432 

2.20108 

.47555 

2.10284 

.49713 

2.01155 

.51909 

.92645 

34 

27 

.45467 

2.19938 

.47590 

2.10126 

.49749 

2.01008 

.51946 

.92508 

33 

28 

.45502 

2.19769 

.47626 

2.09969 

.49786 

2.00862 

.51983 

.92371 

32 

29 

.45538 

2.19599 

.47662 

2.09811 

.49822 

2.00715 

.52020 

.92235 

81 

30 

.45573 

2.19430 

.47698 

2.09654 

.49858 

2.00569 

.52057 

.92098 

30 

31 

.45608 

2.19261 

.47733 

2.09498 

.49894 

2.00423 

.52094 

.91962 

29 

'62 

.45643 

2.19092 

.47769 

2.09341 

.49931 

2.00277 

.52131 

.91826 

28 

88 

.45678 

2.18923 

.47805 

2.09184 

.49967 

2.00131 

.52168 

.91690 

27 

34 

.45713 

2.18755 

.47840 

2.09028 

.50004 

1.99986 

.52205 

.91554 

26 

35 

.45748 

2.18587 

.47876 

2.08872 

.50040 

.99841 

.52242 

.91418 

25 

36 

.45784 

2.18419 

.47912 

2.08716 

.50076 

.99695 

.52279 

.91282 

24 

37 

.45819 

2.18251 

.47948 

2.08560 

.50113 

.99550 

.52316 

.91147 

23 

38 

.45854 

2.18084 

.47984 

2.08405 

.50149 

.99406 

.52353 

.91012 

22 

39 

.45889 

2.17916 

.48019 

2.08250 

.50185 

.99261 

.52390 

.90876 

21 

40 

.45924 

2.17749 

.48055 

2.08094 

.50222 

.99116 

.52427 

.90741 

20 

41 

.45960 

2.17582 

.48091 

2.07939 

.50258 

.98972 

.52464 

.90607 

19 

42 

.45995 

2.17416 

.48127 

2.07785 

.50295 

.98828 

.52501 

.90472 

18 

43 

.46030 

2.17249 

.48163 

2.07630 

.50331 

.98684 

.52538 

.90337 

17 

44 

.46065 

2.17083 

.48198 

2.07476 

.50368 

.98540 

.52575 

.90203 

10 

45 

.46101 

2.16917 

.48234 

2.07321 

.50404 

.98396 

.52613 

.90069 

15 

46 

.46136 

2.16751 

.48270 

2.07167 

.50441 

.98253 

.52650 

.89935 

14 

47 

.46171 

2.16585 

.48306 

2.07014 

.50477 

.98110 

.52687 

.89801 

13 

48 

.46206 

2.16420 

.48342 

2.06860 

.50514 

.97966 

.52724 

.89667 

12 

49 

.46242 

2.16255 

.48378 

2.06706 

.50550 

.97823 

.52761 

.89533 

11 

50 

.46277 

2.16090 

.48414 

2.06553 

.50587 

.97681 

.52798 

.89400 

10 

51 

.46312 

2.15925 

.48450 

2.06400 

.50623 

.97538 

.52836 

1.89260 

9 

52 

.46348 

2.15760 

.48486 

2.06247 

.50660 

.97395 

.52873 

1.89133 

8 

53 

.46383 

2.155% 

.48521 

2.06094 

.50696 

.97253 

.52910 

1.89000 

7 

54 

.46418 

2.15432 

.48557 

2.05942 

.50733 

.97111 

.52947 

1.88867 

6 

55 

.46454 

2.15268 

.48593 

2.05790 

.50769 

.96969 

.52985 

1.88734 

5 

56 

.46489 

2.15104 

.48629 

2.05637 

.50806 

.96827 

.5J3022 

1.88602 

4 

57 

.46525 

2.14940 

.48665 

2.05485 

.50843 

.96685 

.53059 

1.88469 

3 

58 

.46560 

2.14777 

.48701 

2.05333 

.50879 

.96544 

.53096 

1.88337 

2 

59 

.46595 

2.14614 

.48737 

2.05182 

.50916 

.96402 

.53134 

1.88205 

1 

60 

.46631 

2.14451 

.48773 

2.05030 

.50953 

1.96261 

.53171 

1.88073 

0 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

f 

6 

5° 

6 

6 

3° 

6 

2°           1 

493 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


2 

Q 

2 

9° 

3 

Qo 

3 

/ 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

~0 

.53171 

.88073 

,  .55431 

1.80405 

.57735 

1.73205 

.60086 

1.66428 

<>o 

1 

.53208 

.87941  i 

.55469 

1.80281 

.  57774 

1.73089  ' 

.60126 

1.66318 

59 

2 

.53246 

.87809  i 

.55507 

1.80158 

.57813 

1.72973 

.60165 

.66209 

58 

8 

.53283 

.87677 

.55545 

1.80034 

.57851 

1.72857  ! 

.60205 

.66099 

57 

4 

.53320 

.87546 

.55583 

1.79911 

.57890 

1.72741 

.60245 

.65990 

5(5 

5 

.53358 

.87415 

.55621 

1.79788 

.57929 

1.72625 

.60284 

.65881 

55 

6 

.53395 

.87283 

.55659 

1.79665 

.57968 

1.72509 

.60324 

.65772 

54 

7 

.53432 

.87152 

.55697 

1.79542 

.58007 

1.72393 

.60364 

.65663 

53 

8 

.53470 

.87021 

.55736 

1.79419 

.58046 

1.72278 

.60403 

.65554 

52 

9 

.53507 

.86891 

.55774 

1.79296 

.58085 

.72163 

.60443 

.65445 

51 

10 

.53545 

1.86760 

.55812 

1.79174 

.58124 

.72047 

.60483 

.65&37 

50 

11 

.53582 

1.86630 

.55850 

1.79051 

.58162 

.71932 

.60522 

.65228 

49 

18 

.53620 

1.86499 

.55888 

1.78929 

i  .58201 

.71817 

.60562 

.65120 

4S 

18 

.53657 

1.86369 

.55926 

1.78807 

.58240 

.71702 

.60602 

.65011 

47 

14 

.53694 

.86239 

.55964 

1.78685 

.58279 

.71588 

.60642 

.64903 

4(5 

15 

.53732 

.86109 

.56003 

1.78563 

.58318 

.71473 

.60681 

.64795 

45 

10 

.53769 

.85979 

.56041 

1.78441 

.58357 

.71358 

.60721 

.64687 

41 

17 

.53807 

.85850 

.56079 

1.7&319 

.58396 

.71244 

.60761 

.64579 

43 

IS 

.53844 

.85720 

.56117 

1.78198 

.58435 

.71129 

.60801 

.64471 

42 

1!) 

.53882 

.85591 

.56156 

1.78077 

.58474 

.71015 

.60841 

.64363 

41 

80 

.53920 

.85462 

.56194 

1.77955 

.58513 

.70901 

.60881 

.64256 

40 

21 

.53957 

.85333 

.56232 

1.77834 

.58552 

.70787 

.60921 

.64148 

89 

82 

.53995 

.85204 

.56270 

1.77713 

.58591 

.70673 

i  .609(50 

.64041 

;js 

88 

.54032 

.85075 

.56309 

1.77592 

.58631 

.70560 

.61000 

.63934 

37 

84 

.54070 

.84946 

.56347 

1.77471 

.58670 

.70446 

.61040 

.63826 

86 

86 

.54107 

.84818 

.56385 

1.77351 

.58709 

.70332 

.61080 

.63719 

85 

86 

.54145 

.84689 

.56424 

1.77230 

1  .58748 

.70219 

.61120 

.63612 

84 

87 

.54183 

.84561 

.56462 

1.77110 

.58787 

.70106 

.61160 

.63505 

33 

88 

.54220 

.84433 

.56501 

1.76990 

.58826 

.69992 

.61200 

.63398 

32 

2',) 

.54258 

.84305 

.56539 

1.76869 

.58865 

.69879 

.61240 

.63292 

81 

BO 

.54296 

.84177 

.56577 

1.76749 

.58905 

.69706 

.61280 

.63185 

80 

Ml 

.54333 

.84049 

.56616 

1.76629 

.58944 

.69653 

.61320 

.63079 

2<) 

82 

.54371 

.83922 

.56654 

1.76510 

.589*3 

.69541 

.61360 

.62972 

88 

88 

.54409 

.83794 

.56693 

1.76390 

.5G022 

.69428 

.61400 

.  628(56 

•27 

HI 

.54446 

.83667 

.56731 

1.76271 

.59061 

.69316 

.61440 

.62760 

2<i 

85 

.54484 

.83540 

.56769 

1.76151 

.59101 

.69203 

.61480 

.62654 

25 

86 

.54522 

.83413 

.56808 

1.76032 

!  .59140 

.69091 

.61520 

.62548 

24 

37 

.51560 

.83286 

.56846 

1.75913 

.59179 

.68979 

.61561 

.62442 

83 

88 

.54597 

.&3159 

.56885 

1.75794 

i  .59218 

.68866 

.61601 

.62336 

22 

:J,'.» 

.54635 

.83033 

.56923 

1.75675 

.59258 

.68754 

.61641 

.62230 

21 

40 

.54673 

.82906 

.56962 

1.75556 

.59297 

.68643 

.61681 

.62125 

80 

•11 

.54711 

.82780 

.57000 

1.75437 

.59336 

.68531 

.61721 

.62019 

19 

43 

.54748 

.82654 

.57039 

1.75319 

.59376 

.68419 

.61761 

.61914 

J8 

43 

.51786 

.82528 

.57078 

1.75200 

.59415 

.68308 

.61801 

.61808 

17 

14 

.54824 

.82402 

.57116 

1.75082 

!  .59454 

.68196 

.61842 

.61703 

16 

45 

.54862 

.82276 

.57155 

1.74964 

''  .59494 

.68085 

.61882 

.61598 

15 

46 

.54900 

.82150 

.57193 

1.74846 

|  .59533 

.67974 

.61922 

.61493 

14 

47 

.54938 

.82025 

.57232 

1.74728 

.59578 

.67863 

.61962 

.61388 

13 

48 

.51975 

.81899 

.57271 

1.74610 

.59612 

.67752 

.62003 

.61283 

12 

49 

.55013 

.81774 

.57309 

1.74492 

.59651 

.67641 

.62043 

.61179 

11 

50 

.55051 

.81649 

.57348 

1.74375 

.59691 

.67530 

.62083 

.61074 

10 

51 

.55089 

.81524 

.57386 

1.74257 

.59730 

.67419 

.62124 

.60970 

9 

52 

.55127 

.81399 

.57425 

1.74140 

;  .59770 

.67309 

.62164 

.60865 

8 

53 

.55165 

.81274 

.57464 

1.74022 

.59809 

1.67198 

.62204 

.60761 

7 

54 

.55203 

.81150 

.57503 

1.73905 

.59849 

1.67088 

.62245 

.60657 

6 

55 

.55241 

.81025 

.57541 

1.73788 

.59888 

1.66978 

.62285 

,60553 

5 

56 

.55279 

.80901 

.57580 

1.73671 

•  .59928 

1.66867 

.62325 

.60449 

4 

57 

.55317 

.80777 

.57619 

1.73555 

:  .59967 

1.66757 

.62366 

.60345 

3 

58 

.55355 

.80653 

.57657 

1.73438 

.60007 

1.66647 

.62406 

.60241 

2 

59 

.55393 

.80529 

.57696 

1.73321 

.60046 

1.66538 

.62446 

.60137 

-J 

00 

.55431 

.80405 

j  .57735 

1.73205 

.60086 

1.66428 

.62487 

.60033 

0 

, 

Col.  -ing 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

t 

6 

1° 

6 

0° 

5 

9° 

5 

8° 

494 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


• 

32°                        33°                       34°                        35° 

• 

Tang     Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang     Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

~0 

.62487 

1.60033 

.64941 

1.53986 

.67451 

1.48256 

.70021 

1.42815 

60 

.62527 

1.59930 

.64982 

1.53888 

.67493 

1.48163 

.70064 

1.42726 

59 

2 

.62568 

1.59826 

.65024 

1  .53791 

.67536 

1.48070 

.70107 

1.42638 

58 

3 

.62608 

1.59723 

.65065 

1.53693 

.67578 

1.47977 

.70151 

1.42550 

57 

4 

.62649 

1.59620 

.65106 

1.53595 

.67620 

1.47885 

.70194 

1.42462 

56 

5 

.6268!)      1.59517 

.65148 

1.53497 

.67663 

1.47792 

.70238 

1.42374 

55 

6 

.62730     1.59414 

.65189 

1.53400 

.67705 

1.47699 

.70281 

1.42286 

54 

7 

.62770 

1.59311 

.65231 

1.53302 

.67748 

1.47607 

.70325 

1.42198 

53 

8 

.62811 

1.59208 

.65272 

1.53205 

.67790 

1.47514 

.7'0368 

1.42110 

52 

9 

.62852 

1.59105 

.65314 

1.53107 

.67832 

1.47422 

.70412 

1.42022 

51 

10 

.62892 

1.59002 

.65355 

1.53010 

.67875 

1.47330 

.70455 

1.41934 

50 

11 

.62933 

1.58900 

.65397 

1.52913 

.67917 

1.47238 

.70499 

1.41847 

49 

12 

.62973 

1.58797 

.65438 

1.52816 

.67960 

1.47146 

.70542 

1.41759 

48 

13 

.63014 

1.58695 

.65480 

1.52719 

.68002 

1.47053 

.70586 

1.41672 

47 

14 

.63055 

1.58593 

.65521 

1.52622 

.68045 

1.46962 

.70629 

1.41584 

46 

15 

.63095 

1.58490 

.65563 

1.52525 

.68088 

1.46870 

.70673 

1.41497 

45 

16 

.63136 

1.58388 

.65604 

1.52429  : 

.68130 

1.46778 

.70717 

1.41409 

44 

17 

.63177 

1.58286 

.65646 

1.52332 

.68173 

1.46686 

.7'0760 

1.41322 

43 

18  j   .63217 

1.58184 

.65688 

1.52235 

.68215 

1.46595 

.70804 

1.41235 

42 

19     .63258 

1.58083 

.65729 

1.52139 

.68258 

1.46503 

.70348 

1.41148 

41 

20 

.63299 

1.57981 

.65771 

1.52043 

.68301 

1.46411 

.70891 

1.41061 

40 

21 

.63340 

1.57879 

.65813 

1.51946  i 

.68343 

1.46320 

.70935 

1.40971 

39 

22 

.63380 

1.57778 

.65854 

1.51850  i 

.68386 

1.4622J) 

.70979 

1.40387 

38 

23 

.63421 

1.57676 

.65896 

1.51754 

.68429 

1.46137 

.71023 

1.40800 

37 

24 

.63462 

1.57575 

.65938 

1.51658 

.68471 

1.46046 

.71066 

1.40714 

36 

25 

.63503 

1.57474 

.65980 

1.51562 

.68514 

1.45955 

.71110 

1.40627 

35 

26 

.63544 

1.57372 

.66021 

1.51466 

.68557 

1.45864 

.71154 

1.40540 

34 

27 

.63584 

1.57271 

.66063 

1.51370 

.68600 

1  .45773 

.71198 

1.40454 

83 

28 

.63625 

1.57170 

.66105 

1.51275 

.68642 

1.45682 

.71242 

1.40367 

32 

29 

.63666 

1.57069 

.66147 

1.51179 

.68685 

1.45592 

.71285 

1.40281 

31 

30 

.63707 

1.56969 

.66189 

1.51084 

.68728 

1.45501 

.71329 

1.40195 

30 

31 

.63748 

1.56868 

.66230 

1.50988 

.68771 

1.45410 

.71373 

1.40109 

29 

32 

.63789 

1.567(37 

.66272 

1.50893 

.68814 

1.45320 

.71417 

1.40022 

28 

33 

.63830 

1.56667 

.66314 

1.50797 

.68857 

1.45229 

.71461 

1.39936 

27 

34 

.63871 

1.56566 

.66856 

1.50702 

.68900 

1.45139 

.71505 

1.39850 

26 

a5 

.63912 

1.56466 

.66398 

1.50607 

.68942 

1.45049 

.71549 

1,38764 

25 

36 

.63953 

1.56366 

j   .66440 

1.50512  ! 

.68985 

1.44958 

.71593 

1.80679 

24 

37 

.63904 

1.56265 

.66482 

1.50417  I 

.69028 

1.44868 

.71637 

1.39593 

23 

38 

.640:35 

1.56165 

.66524 

1.50322  ! 

.69071 

1.44778 

.71681 

1.39507 

22 

39 

.64076 

1.56065 

.66566 

1.50228 

.69114 

1.44688 

.71725 

1.39421 

21 

40 

.64117 

1.55966 

.6GG08 

1.50133 

.69157 

1.44598 

.71769 

1.39336 

20 

41 

.64158 

1.55866 

.66650 

1.50038 

.69200 

1.44508 

.71-813 

1.39250 

19 

42 

.64199 

1.55766 

.66692 

1.49944 

.69243 

1.44418 

.71857 

1.39165 

18 

43 

.64240 

1.556(56 

.66734 

1.49849 

.69288 

1.44329 

.71901 

1.39079 

17 

44 

.64281 

1.55567 

.66776 

1.49755 

.69329 

1.44239 

.71946 

1.88994 

16 

45 

.64322 

1.55407 

.66818 

1.49661 

.69372 

1.44149 

.71990 

1.38909 

15 

46 

.64363 

1.55368 

.66860 

1.49566 

.69416 

1.44060 

.72034 

1.3^24    14 

47 

.64404 

1.55269 

.66902 

1.49472 

.69459 

1.43970 

.72078 

I  !  88738 

13 

48 

.64446 

1.55170 

.66944 

1.49378 

.69502 

1.43881 

.72122 

1.33G53 

12 

49 

.64487 

1.55071 

.66986 

1.49284        .69545 

1.43792 

.72167 

1.:    5  s 

11 

50 

.64528 

1.54972 

.67028 

1.49190       .69588 

1.43703 

.72811 

1-33484 

10 

51 

.64569 

1.54873 

.67071 

1.49097 

.69631 

1.43614 

1W855 

1.  38309 

Q 

52 

.64610 

1.54774 

.67113 

1.49003 

.69675 

1.43525 

.72299 

1.  HSl.lt 

8 

51 

.64652 

1.54675 

.67155 

1.48909 

.69718 

1.43436 

.72344 

1.38%$ 

*7 

54 

.64693 

1.54576 

.67197 

1.48816 

.69761 

1.43347 

.72388 

1.38145 

6 

55 

.64734 

1.54478 

.67'239 

1.48722 

.69804 

1.43258 

.72432 

1.38060 

5 

56 

.64775 

1.5437-9 

.67'282 

1.48629 

.69847 

1.43169 

.72477 

1.37976 

4 

5' 

.64817 

1.54281 

.67324 

1.48536 

.69891 

1.43080 

.72521 

1.37891 

£ 

$ 

.64858 

1.54183 

.67366 

1.48442 

.69934 

1.42992 

.72565 

1.37807 

2 

1  - 

.64899 

1.54085 

.67409 

1.48349 

.69977 

1.42903 

.72610 

1.37722 

1 

• 

.64941 

1.53986 

.67451 

1.48256 

.70021 

1.42815 

.72654 

1.37638 

0 

\~ 

Cotang     Tang 

Cotang 

Tang    '<  Cotang  j    Tang      Cotang 

Tang 

i 

I 

57° 

56°            i           55°           |j           54° 

495 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


36° 

37° 

38°           II           39° 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang     Cotang 

o 

.72654 

1.37638 

.75355 

1.32704 

.78129 

1.27994 

.80978 

1.23490 

60 

1 

72699 

1  37554 

.75401 

1.32624 

.78175 

1.27917 

.81027 

1.23416 

59 

2 

.72743 

1.37470 

.75447 

1.32544 

.78222 

1.27841 

.81075 

1.23343 

58 

3 

.72788 

1.37386 

.75492 

1.32464 

.78269 

1.27764 

.81123 

1.23270 

57 

4 

.72832 

1.37302 

.75538 

1.32384 

.78316 

1.27688 

.81171 

1.23196 

56 

5 

.72877 

1.37218 

.75584 

1.32304 

.78363 

1.27611 

.81220 

1.23123 

55 

6 

.72921 

1.37134 

.75629 

1.32224 

.78410 

1.27535 

.81268 

1.23050 

54 

7 

.72966 

1.37050 

.75675 

1.32144 

.78457 

1.27458 

.81316 

1.22977 

53 

8 

.73010 

1.36967 

.75721 

1.32064 

.78504 

1.27382 

.81364 

1.22904 

52 

9 

.73055 

1  36883 

.75767 

1.31984 

.78551 

1.27306 

.81413 

1.22831 

51 

10 

.73100 

1.36800 

.75812 

1.31904 

.78598 

1.27230 

.81461 

1.22758 

50 

11 

.73144 

1.36716 

.75858 

1.31825 

.78645 

1.27153 

.81510 

1.22685 

49 

12 

.73189 

1.36633 

.75904 

1.31745 

.78692 

1.27077 

.81558 

1.22612 

48 

13 

.73234 

1.36549 

.75950 

1.31666 

.78739 

1.27001 

.81606 

1.22539 

47 

14 

.73278 

1.36466 

.75996 

1.31586 

.78786 

1.26925 

.81655 

1.22467 

46 

15 

.73323 

1.36383 

.76042 

1.31507 

.78834 

1.26849 

.81703 

1.22394 

45 

16 

.73368 

1.36300 

.76088 

1.31427 

.78881 

1.26774 

.81752 

1.22321 

44 

17 

.73413 

1.36217 

.76134 

1.31348 

.78928 

1.26698  I 

.81800 

1.22249 

43 

18 

.73457 

1.36134 

.70180 

1.31269 

.78975 

1.26622 

.81849 

1.22176 

42 

19 

.73502 

1.36051 

.76226 

1.31190 

.79022 

1.26546 

.81898 

1.22104 

41 

20 

.73547 

1.35968 

.76272 

1.31110 

.79070 

1.26471 

.81946 

1.22031 

40 

21 

.73592 

1.35885 

.76318 

1.31031 

.79117 

1.26395 

.81995 

1.21959 

39 

22 

.73637 

1.35802 

.76304 

1.30952 

.79164 

1.26319 

.82044 

1.21886 

38 

23 

.73681 

1.35719 

.76410 

1.30873 

.79212 

1.26244 

.82092 

1.21814 

37 

24 

.73726 

1.35637 

.76456 

1.30795 

.79259 

1.26169 

.82141 

1.21742 

36 

25 

.73771 

1.35554 

.76502 

1.30716 

.79306 

1.26093 

.82190 

1.21670 

35 

26 

.73816 

1.35472 

.76548 

1.30637 

.79354 

1.26018 

.82238 

1.21598 

34 

27 

.73861 

1.35389 

.76594 

1.30558 

.79401 

1.25943 

.82287 

1.21526 

33 

28 

.73906 

1.35307 

.76640 

1.30480 

.79449 

1.25867 

.82336 

1.21454 

32 

29 

.73951 

1.35224 

.76686 

1.30401 

.79496 

1.25792 

.82385 

1.21382 

31 

30 

.73996 

1.35142 

.76733 

1.30323 

.79544 

1.25717 

.82434 

1.21310 

30 

31 

.74041 

1.35060 

.76779 

1.30244 

.79591 

1.25642 

.82483 

1.21238 

29 

32 

.74086 

1.34978 

.76825 

1.30166 

.79639 

1.25567 

.82531 

1.21166 

28 

33 

.74131 

1.348% 

.76871 

1.30087 

.79686 

1.25492 

.82580 

1.21094 

27 

34 

.74176 

1.34814 

.76918 

1.30009 

.79734 

1.25417 

.82629 

1.21023 

26 

35 

.74221 

1.34732 

.76964 

1.29931 

.79781 

1.25343 

.82678 

1.20951 

25 

36 

.74267 

1.34650 

.77010 

1.29853 

.79829 

1.25268 

.82727 

1.20879 

24 

37 

.74312 

1.34568 

.77057 

1.29775 

.79877 

1.25193 

.82776 

1.20808 

23 

38 

.W357 

1.34487 

.77103 

1.29696 

.79924 

1.25118 

.82825 

1.20736 

22 

39 

.74402 

1.34405 

.77149 

1.29618 

.79972 

1.25044 

.82874 

1.20665 

21 

40 

.74447 

1.34323 

.77196 

1.29541 

.80020 

1.24969 

.82923 

1.20593 

20 

41 

.74492 

1.34242 

.77242 

1.29463 

.80067 

1.24895 

.82972 

1.20522 

19 

42 

.74538 

1.34160 

.77289 

1.29385 

.80115 

1.24820 

.83022 

1.20451 

18 

43 

.74583 

1.34079 

.77335 

1.29307 

.80163 

1.24746 

.83071 

1.20379 

17 

44 

.74628 

1.33998 

.77382 

1.29229 

.80211 

1.24672 

.83120 

1.20308 

16 

45 

.74674 

1.33916 

.77428 

1.29152 

.80258 

1.24597 

.83169 

1.20237 

15 

46 

.74719 

1.33835 

.77475 

1.29074 

.80306 

1.24523 

.83218 

1.20166 

14 

47 

.74764 

1.33754 

.77521 

1.28997 

.80354 

1.24449 

.83268 

1.20095 

13 

48 

.74810 

1.33673 

.77568 

1.28919 

.80402 

1.24375 

.83317 

1.20024 

12 

49 

.74855 

1.33592 

.77615 

1.28842 

.80450 

1.24301 

.83366 

1.19953 

11 

50 

.74900 

1.33511 

.77661 

1.28764 

.80498 

1.24227 

.83415 

1.19882 

10 

51 

.74946 

1.33430 

.77708 

1.28687 

.80546 

1.24153 

.83465 

1.19811 

9 

52 

.74991 

1.33349 

.77754 

1.28610 

.80594 

1.24079 

.83514 

1.19740 

8 

53 

.75037 

1.33268 

.77801 

1.285a3 

.80642 

1.24005 

.83564 

1.19669 

7 

54 

.75082 

1.33187 

.77848 

1.28456 

.80690 

1.23931 

.83613 

1  .  19599 

6 

55 

.75128 

1.33107 

.77895 

1.28379 

.80738 

1.23858 

.83662 

1.19528 

5 

56 

.75173 

1.33026 

.77941 

1.28302 

.80786 

1.23784 

.83712 

1.19457 

4 

57 

.75219 

1.32946 

.77988 

1.28225 

.80834 

1.23710 

.83761 

1.19387 

3 

58 

.75264 

1.32865 

.78035 

1.28148 

.80882 

1.23637 

.88811 

1.19316 

2 

59 

.75310 

1.32785 

.78082 

1.28071 

.80930 

1.23563 

.83860 

1.19246 

1 

6C 

.75355 

1.32704 

.78129 

1.27994 

.80978 

1.23490 

.83910      1.19175 

0 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang      Cotang 

Tang 

;  Cotang     Tang 

i 

53°           II           52° 

51° 

50° 

496 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


41 

)° 

4 

1° 

4' 

1° 

4 

5° 

/ 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang  i 

Cotang  | 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

~0 

.83910 

1.19175 

.86929 

1.15037 

.90040  i 

1.11061 

.93252 

1.07237 

60 

1 

.83960 

1.19105 

.86980 

1.14969 

.'JOC'JS 

1.10996 

.93306 

1.07174 

59 

2 

.84009 

1.1  90*5 

.87031 

1.14902 

.90146 

1.10931 

.<JK60 

1.07112 

58 

3 

.84059 

1.18964 

.87082 

1.14834 

.90199 

1.10867 

.93415 

1.07049 

57 

4 

.84108 

1.18894 

.871*3 

1.14767 

.90251 

1  .  10803 

.93469 

1.06987 

56 

5 

.84158 

1.18824 

.87184 

1  .  1  1699 

.90:304 

1.10737 

.93524 

1.06925 

55 

6 

.84208 

1.18754 

.87236 

1.14632 

.90357 

1.10672 

.913578 

1.06862 

54 

7 

.84258 

1.18684 

.87287 

1.14565 

.90410 

10607 

.93633 

1.06800 

53 

8 

.81307 

1.18614 

.87338 

1.14498 

.00463 

10543 

.93688 

1.06788 

52 

9 

.84357 

1.18544 

.87389 

1.14430 

.90516 

10478 

.93742 

1.06676 

51 

10 

.84407 

1  .  18474 

.87441 

1.14363 

.90569 

.10414 

.93797 

1.06613 

50 

11 

.84457 

1.18404 

.87492 

1.14296 

.90621 

.10349 

.93852 

1.06551 

49 

12 

.84507 

1.18334 

.87543 

1  .  14229 

.90674 

.10285 

.93906 

1.06489 

48 

13 

.84556 

1.18264 

.87595 

1.14162 

.S0727 

.10220 

.93961 

1.06427 

47 

14 

.8-1606 

1.18194 

.87646 

1.14095 

.90781 

.10156 

.94016 

1.06365 

46 

15 

.84656 

1.18125 

.87698 

1.14028 

.90834 

.10091 

.94071 

1.06303 

45 

1C 

.84706 

1.18055 

.87749 

1.13961 

.90887 

.10027 

.94125 

1.06241 

44 

17 

.84756 

1.17986 

.87801 

1.13894 

.90940 

.099(33 

.94180 

1.06179 

43 

18 

.84806 

1.17916 

.87852 

1.13828 

.90993 

.09899 

.94235 

1.06117 

42 

19 

.84856 

1.17846 

.87904 

1.13761 

.91046 

.09834 

.94290 

1.06056 

41 

20 

.84906 

1  .  17777 

.87955 

1.13694 

.91099 

.09770 

.94345 

1.05994 

40 

21 

.84956 

1.17708 

.88007 

1.13627 

.91153 

.09706 

.94400 

1.05932 

39 

22 

.85006 

1.17638 

.88059 

1.13561 

.91206 

.09642 

.94455 

1.05870 

38 

23 

.85057 

1.17569 

.88110 

1.13494 

.91259 

.09578 

;   .94510 

1.05809 

37 

24 

.85107 

1.17500 

.88162 

1.13428 

.91313 

.09514 

.94565 

1.05747 

36 

25 

.85157 

1.174:30 

.88214 

1.13361 

.91366 

.09450 

.94620 

1.05685 

35 

26 

.85207 

1.17361 

.88265 

1.13295 

1    .91419 

.09386 

I   .94676 

1.05624 

34 

27 

.85257 

1.17292 

.88317 

1.13223 

.91473 

.09322 

.94731 

1.05562 

33 

28 

.a5308 

1.17223 

.88369 

1.13162 

.91526 

.09258 

i   .94786 

1.05501 

32 

29 

.85358 

1.17154 

.88421 

1.13096 

.91580 

.09195 

.94841 

1.05439 

31 

30 

.85408 

1.17085 

.88473 

1.13029 

.91633 

.09131 

.94896 

1.05378 

30 

31 

.85458 

1.17016 

.88524 

1.12963 

.91687 

.09067 

.94952 

1.05317 

29 

32 

.85509 

1.16947 

.88576 

1.12897 

.91740 

.09003 

.95007 

1.05255 

28 

33 

.85559 

1.16878 

.88628 

1.12831 

.91794 

.08940 

.95062 

1.05194 

27 

34 

.85609 

1.16809 

.88680 

1.12765 

.91847 

.08876 

.95118 

1.05133 

26 

35 

.85660 

1.16741 

.88732 

1.12699 

.91901 

.08813 

.95173 

1.05072 

25 

36 

.85710 

1.16672 

.88784 

1.12633 

.91955 

.08749 

.95229 

1.05010 

24 

37 

.85761 

1.16603 

.888:36 

1.12567 

.92008 

.08686 

.95284 

1.04949 

23 

38 

.85811 

1.16535 

.88888 

1.12501 

.92062 

.08622 

.95340 

1.04888 

22 

39 

.85862 

1  .  16466 

.88940 

1.12435 

.92116 

.08559 

.95395 

1.04827 

21 

40 

.85912 

1.16398 

.88992 

1.12369 

.92170 

.08496 

.95451 

1.04768 

20 

41 

.85963 

1.16329 

.89045 

1.12:303 

.92224 

.08432 

.95506 

1.04705 

19 

42 

.86014 

1.16261 

.89097 

1.12238 

.92277 

.08369 

.95562 

1.04644 

18 

43 

.86064 

1.16192 

.89149 

1.12172 

.92:331 

.08306 

.95618 

1.04583 

17 

44 

.86115 

1.16124 

.89201 

1.12106 

.92385 

.08243 

.95673 

1.04522 

16 

45 

.86166 

1.16056 

.89253 

1.12041 

.92439 

.08179 

.95729 

1.04461 

15 

46 

.8621« 

1  .  15987 

.89306 

1.11975 

.92493 

.08116 

.95785 

1.04401 

14 

47 

.8(5267 

1  .  15919 

.89358 

1.11909 

!    .92547 

.08053 

.95841 

1.04340 

13 

48 

.86318 

1.15851 

.89410 

1.11844 

.92601 

•07990 

.95897 

1.04279 

12 

49 

.8631)8 

1.15783 

1    .89463 

1  11778 

I    .92655 

.07927 

.95952 

1.04218 

11 

50 

.86419 

1.15715 

.89515 

1.11713 

.92709 

.07864 

.96008 

1.G4158 

10 

51 

.86470 

1.15647 

.89567 

1.11648 

.92763 

.07801 

.96064 

1.04097 

9 

52 

;    .  86521 

1.15579 

.89620 

1.11582 

.92817 

.07738 

.96120 

1.04036 

8 

53 

.86572 

1.15511 

.89672 

!  1.11517 

.92872 

.07676 

.96176 

1.03976 

1 

54 

.K61M3 

1  .  15443 

.89725 

1.11452 

.92926 

.07613 

.96232 

1.03915 

6 

!>5 

.86674 

1.15375 

.89777 

1.111387 

.92980 

.07550 

.96288 

1.0:3855 

5 

56 

.8(5725 

1.15308 

.89830 

1.11321 

1   .93034 

.07'487 

.96344 

1.03794 

4 

57 

.86776 

1.1  52  tO 

.89883 

1.11256 

.93088 

.07425 

.96400 

1.03734 

3 

58 

.86827 

1.15172 

.899.35 

1.11191 

.93118 

.07362 

.96457 

1.03674 

2 

no 

.86878 

1  .  15104 

.8U9S8 

1.11126 

.93197 

.07299 

.96513 

1.03613 

1 

u 

.8i;929 

i.i.-xnr 

.90040 

1.11061 

.93252 

.07237 

.96569 

1.03553 

0 

t 

Cotang 

Tang 

.Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

jCotang 

Tang 

/ 

i 

19° 

*• 

18° 

i             4 

L7° 

4 

6° 

497 


NATURAL  TANGENTS  AND  COTANGENTS. 


4 

fa 

|, 

4 

4° 

! 

4 

4° 

Tang 

1  Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

Tang 

Cotang 

0 

.96569 

.03553 

60 

20 

.97700 

1.02855 

10 

40 

.98843 

.01170 

20 

1 

.96655 

.03493 

59 

21 

.97756 

1.02295 

39 

;4I 

.98901 

.01112 

19 

2 

.966S1 

.03433 

58 

1  OO 

.97813 

1.02236 

3S 

42 

.9H95S 

.0105:) 

18 

3 

.967:58 

.03372 

57 

23 

.97870 

1.02176 

3? 

43 

.990iti 

.00994 

17 

4 

.95791 

.03312 

56 

24 

.97927 

.02117 

36 

41 

.9907-3 

.00935 

16 

5 

.90850 

.03252 

55 

25 

.97984 

.02057 

35 

|45 

.9SM31 

.00876 

15 

i  6 

.90907 

.03192 

54 

26 

.98041 

.01998 

34 

4,1 

.99189 

.'.  OS18 

14 

7 

.96963 

.03132 

53 

27 

.98098 

.01939 

38 

47 

.99217 

.00769 

13 

8 

.970-20 

.03072 

52 

28 

.!)S155 

.01879 

32 

i48 

.99301 

.00701 

12 

9 

.97076 

.03012 

51 

'") 

.98213 

.01820 

31 

149 

.99362 

.00642 

11 

10 

.9713:] 

.02952 

50 

30 

.98270 

.01761 

30 

|50 

.99420 

.00583 

10 

11 

.97189 

.02892 

49 

31 

.9S327 

.01702 

29 

J51 

.99478 

.00525 

9 

12 

.97246 

.02832 

48 

32 

.98381 

.01642 

28 

52 

.99536 

.0*1167 

8 

13 

.97302 

.02772 

47 

33 

.98441 

.01583 

27 

!53 

.99594 

,00108 

7 

14 

.97359 

.02713 

46 

34 

.98499 

.01524 

26 

54 

.99652 

.00350 

6 

15 

.97416 

.02(553 

45 

35 

.98556 

.01465 

25 

55 

.99710 

.00291 

5 

16 

.97472 

.02593 

44 

36 

.98613 

.01406 

24 

i  56 

.99768 

.00233 

4 

1? 

.97529 

.02533 

43 

37 

.98671 

.01347 

23 

j  57 

.99826 

.00175 

3 

18 

.97586 

.02474 

42 

38 

.98728 

.01288 

22 

158 

.99884 

.00116 

2 

19 

.97643 

.02414 

41 

39 

.98786 

1.01229 

21 

59 

.99942 

.00058 

1 

20 

.97700 

.02355 

40 

40 

.98843 

1.01170 

20 

60 

1.00000 

.00000 

0 

i 

Cotang 

Tang 

/ 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

/ 

Cotang 

Tang 

/ 

4 

3 

4 

5° 

4 

5° 

498 


DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS    USED.  490 


Definitions  of  Terms  used  in  Construction. 

ALTARS  :  The  steps  on  the  sides  and  ends  of  a  dry -dock. 

AriiON  :  A  covering  of  stone,  timber,  or  metal  to  protect  a  sur- 
face against  the  action  of  water  flowing  over  it. 

AQJEDUCT  :  A  conduit  for  the  conveyance  of  water.  More 
particularly  applied  to  those  of  considerable  magnitude  intended 
to  supply  cities  with  water  derived  from  a  distance  for  domestic 
purposes,  or  for  conveying  the  water  of  canals  across  rivers  or 
valleys. 

ARRIS  :  The  edge  in  which  two  surfaces  meet;  the  intersection 
of  two  planes. 

BALLAST  :  Broken  stone  or  gravel  on  which  railroad  cross-ties 
are  laid. 

BASE  :  Lower  portion  of  a  post  or  column,  but  is  generally  used 
to  designate  the  lowest  portion  of  any  structure. 

BASIL  :  The  angle  at  the  cutting  edge  of  a  tool  or  instrument. 

BATTLEMENT  :  A  notched  or  indented  parapet,  of  which  the 
higher  parts  are  called  merlons,  and  the  openings  or  lower  por- 
tions embrasure*  or  loops. 

BEAM  (see  Girder) :  A  "spandrel-beam"  is  a  common  term  for 
a  steel  or  iron  beam  carrying  a  portion  of  the  exterior  wall  of  a 
building. 

BEARING:  The  span  or  length  in  the  clear  between  the  points 
of  support  of  a  beam,  etc.  The  points  of  support  themselves  of 
a  beam,  etc. 

BEARING-PLATE  ;  A  plate  of  cast  or  wrought  iron  placed  on  a 
wall  to  support  the  ends  of  beams,  etc. 

BEARING- STRESS  :  The  stress  which  occurs  when  one  body 
presses  against  another  so  as  to  tend  to  produce  indentation  or 
cutting. 

BED-PLATE  :  A  large  plate  of  iron  laid  on  a  foundation  for 
something  to  rest  on. 

BEETLE  :  A  heavy  wooden  rammer. 

BERMG  :  (1)  The  embankment  of  a  canal,  opposite  to  and  like 
the  low-path;  (2)  the  .space  between  the  toe  of  an  embankment 
slope  and  the  edge  of  a  ditch. 

BEVEL  ;  A  term  for  a  plane  having  any  other  angle  than  45°  or 
90°  formed  by  cutting  off  the  sharp  edge,  as  of  a  board. 


500  DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS   USED. 

BLOCK  :  A  grooved  pulley,  rotating  on  a  pintle  and  mounted 
in  a  casing  culled  a  shell,  which  is  furnished  with  a  hook,  eye,  or 
strap  by  which  it  may  be  attached  to  an  object.  They  are  used 
extensively  for  moving  heavy  weights.  Blocks  are  of  various 
forms,  each  having  a  particular  name:  Single  or  Double  Block, 
Differential  Block,  Fall-block,  Purchase-block,  Snatch-block,  Stand- 
ing Block,  Tail-block,  etc. 

BLOCK  AND  TACKLE  :  A  term  including  the  block  and  the  rope 
rove  through  it,  for  hoisting  or  obtaining  a  purchase. 

BLOCKINGS  :  Pieces  of  timber  used  to  raise  barrels,  etc.,  off  the 
ground. 

BOLSTER  :  The  resting-place  of  a  truss-bridge  on  its  pier  or 
abutment,  or  a  timber  or  thick  iron  plate  placed  between  the  end 
of  a  bridge  and  its  seat  on  the  abutment. 

BONING,  in  carpentry  and  masonry,  is  performed  by  placing 
two  straight-edges  on  an  object  and  sighting  on  their  upper  edges 
to  see  if  they  range.  If  they  do  not,  the  surface  is  said  to  be  in 
wind. 

BORE  •  The  inner  diameter  of  a  pipe,  hollow  cylinder,  etc. 

BORROW-PIT  :  A  pit  dug  in  order  to  obtain  material  for  an  em- 
bankment. 

BOULDER  :  A  stone  rounded  by  natural  attrition  ;  a  rounded 
mass  of  rock  transported  from  its  original  bed. 

BUEAK  JOINT  :  So  to  overlap  pieces  that  the  joints  shall  not  be 
in  line. 

BREAKING  LOAD  ;  The  load  or  weight  which  will  just  produce 
fracture  in  a  piece  of  material  or  structure. 

BREAKWATER  :  A  structure  of  stone  or  timber  so  placed  as  to 
break  the  force  of  the  waves  to  protect  an  anchorage  or  harbor. 

BREAST-WALL  :  One  built  to  prevent  the  falling  of  a  vertical 
face  cut  into  the  natural  soil. 

BRIDGE-TRUSS  •.  A  structure  of  thrust-  and  tension-pieces,  form- 
ing a  skeleton  beam.  It  has  several  varieties. 

BRITTLENESS  :  The  inclination  of  a  material  to  break  sudden- 
ly under  any  stress. 

BULKHEAD  :  A  timber  or  other  structure  built  along  the  sides 
of  streams  or  rivers.  The  face  of  a  wharf  parallel  to  the  stream. 

BUTT  :   The  n:.me  given  to  an  ordinary  door-hinge. 

CALIBRE  :  The  inner  diameter  or  bore  of  pipes,  etc. 

CALIPERS  :  Compasses  or  dividers  with  curved  legs  for  meas- 
uring outside  and  inside  diameters. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS  USED.         501 

CALK  OR  CAULK  :  To  fill  seams  or  joints  with  something  to  pre- 
vent leaking. 

CAMBER  :  A  slight  upward  curve  given  to  a  beam  or  truss  to 
allow  for  settling. 

CANT-HOOK  :  A  lever  and  suspended  hook  for  turning  logs. 

CANTILEVER  :  A  projecting  beam  or  bracket  which,  however 
it  may  be  loaded,  has  the  upper  fibres  in  tension  and  the  lower 
in  compression.  A  bridge  formed  by  projecting  brackets  which 
support  a  central  portion. 

CAUSEWAY  :  A  raised  footway  or  roadway. 

CHAIKS  :  Castings  used  to  support  the  ends  of  rails  or  timbers. 

CHAMFER  means  much  the  same  as  bevel,  but  applies  more 
especially  when  two  edges  are  cut  away  so  as  to  form  either  a 
chamfer  groove  or  a  projecting  sharp  edge. 

CHIPPING-CHISEL  :  A  cold-chisel  with  a  slightly  convex  face 
and  an  angle  of  about  80°. 

CHIPPING-PIECE  :  The  projecting  piece  left  on  a  forged  surface, 
affording  surplus  metal  for  reduction  to  a  line  with  the  chipping- 
chisel. 

The  projecting  piece  of  iron  cast  on  the  face  of  a  piece  of 
iron  framing  where  it  is  intended  to  be  fitted  against  another. 

CHOCK  :  Any  piece  used  for  filling  up  a  chance  hole  or  va- 
cancy. 

CLEARING  :  Cutting  down  timber  and  brush. 

CLEVIS  :  See  Shackle. 

COMPRESSION  is  the  stress  produced  by  pressure;  it  shortens 
the  material  to  which  it  is  applied  and  tends  to  cause  rupture  by 
crushing. 

CORBEL  ;  A  horizontal  projecting  piece  which  assists  in  sup- 
porting one  resting  upon  it  which  projects  still  farther. 

COUNTERBRACE  :  The  member  of  a  truss  which  is  designed  to 
resist  both  tensile  and  compressive  strains. 

COUNTERSINK. — An  enlargement  of  a  hole  to  receive  the  head 
of  a  bolt,  screw,  rivet,  etc.  The  sides  of  the  hole  are  merely 
chamfered  when  it  is  to  receive  the  head  of  an  ordinary  wood- 
screw.  When  a  flat-head  screw  or  bolt-head  is  to  be  let  in 
flush  with  the  surface  a  flat  bottom  is  required. 

COVERING-STONES  :  In  culverts  the  large  stones  extending 
across  the  top  from  side  to  side  and  resting  upon  the  walls. 

CRAB  :  A  winch  on  a  movable  frame  with  power  gearing,  used 
in  connection  with  derricks  and  other  non-permanent  hoisting- 
machines. 


502  DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS   USED. 

CIIADLE  :  Applied  to  various  kinds  of  timber  supports  which 
partly  enclose  the  mass  sustained.  The  masonry  built  around 
and  below  the  haunches  of  an  arch  in  sewers. 

CRANE  :  A  machine  for  hoisting  and  lowering  heavy  weights. 

CREST  :  The  top  part  of  a  dam  over  which  the  water  Hows. 

CREST  RAILING  :  The  railing  surmounting  the  ridge  of  the 
roof  of  a  building. 

CROSS-STRAIN  :  See  Transverse  Stress. 

CROWBAR:  A  bar  of  iron  used  as  a  lever  for  various  purposes, 
often  pointed  at  one  end. 

CURB  :  1.  A  stone,  timber,  or  iron  structure  formed  inside  a 
well  to  keep  back  the  surrounding  earth.  2.  A  broad,  flat, 
circular  ring  of  timber  or  iron  placed  under  the  bottoms  of 
circular  walls  in  wells,  shafts,  etc.,  to  prevent  unequal  settle- 
ment. 3.  The  stones  dividing  the  sidewalk  from  the  carriage- 
way of  streets. 

CULVERT  :  A  waterway  or  drain  of  masonry  or  earthenware  or 
iron  pipe  beneath  a  road  or  canal. 

CULLED ;  Assorted,  picked  out,  selected. 

CURTAIN-WALL  is  that  part  of  the  exterior  walls  of  buildings 
extending  from  the  line  of  the  window-cap  of  one  story  to  the 
line  of  the  window-sill  of  the  next  story  above. 

CUTWATER  OR  STARLING  :  The  projecting  ends  of  a  bridge- 
pier,  etc.,  usually  so  shaped  as  to  allow  water,  ice,  etc.,  to  strike 
them  with  but  little  injury. 

DAM  :  A  bank  of  earth  or  a  structure  of  stone,  timber,  etc., 
constructed  across  a  stream  to  store  water. 

DEAD  LOAD  :  A  load  applied  gradually  and  steadily. 

DEADMAN  :  A  log  of  wood  placed  firmly  in  the  ground  to 
serve  as  an  anchor  for  the  guys  of  derricks,  etc. 

DECK-BRIDGE  :  One  in  which  the  roadway  is  carried  directly 
at  the  top-chord  joints  or  on  the  upper  chords  themselves. 

DEFLECTION  is  the  bending  caused  by  a  transverse  stress. 

DUCTILITY  is  the  property  of  being  permanently  elongated  or 
drawn  out. 

DERRICK. — A  form  of  hoisting-machine.  The  peculiar  feature 
of  a  derrick,  which  distinguishes  it  from  some  other  forms  of 
hoisting  machines,  is  that  it  has  a  boom  stayed  from  a  central 
post,  which  may  be  anchored  but  is  usually  sta}'ed  by  guys. 

A  derrick  has  one  leg,  a  shears  or  "  A  "  derrick  two,  and  a  gin 
three.  A  crane  has  a  post  and  jib.  A  whin  or  inliitn  hns  a  verti- 
cal axis  on  which  a  rope  winds.  The  capstan  has  a  vertical  drum 


DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS    USED.  503 

for  the  rope,  and  is  rotated  by  bars.     The  windlass  and  winch 
have  a  horizontal  barrel.     See  also  Gin-pole. 

DIKE,  DYKE  :  A  levee  or  wall  of  earth  to  prevent  the  encroach- 
ment of  water  or  to  serve  as  a  wharf  or  jettj.  The  construction 
varies  considerably,  according  to  purpose,  exposure,  and  the 
nature  of  the  foundation. 

DOCK.— An  artificial  excavation  or  structure  for  containing  a 
vessel  for  repairs,  etc. 

Docks  are  of  various  kinds. 

Dry-dock :  A  dock  from  which  the  water  is  withdrawn  after 
the  vessel  is  floated  in  for  repairs. 

Wet-dock:    Where  ve.  sels  are  placed  to  be  loaded  or  unloaded. 

DOG-IRON  :  A  short  bar  of  iron,  forming  a  kind  of  cramp,  with 
its  ends  bent  down  at  right  angles  and  pointed,  so  as  to  hold 
together  two  pieces  into  which  they  are  driven  ;  often  used  for 
temporary  purposes. 

DREDGING  is  the  operation  of  excavating  mud,  silt,  etc.,  from 
the  bottom  of  rivers,  harbors,  etc.  Machines  of  various  form, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  service,  are  employed,  as  the 
dipper  -dredge,  clam-shell  or  grapple  dredge,  C7'a/i£-dredge,  suction 
or  hydraulic  dredge,  ladder-  or  eleva tor  dredge,  etc. 

DRIFT-PIN  •  A  round  piece  of  steel,  made  slightly  tapering, 
and  used  for  drawing  holes  in  two  pieces  fair  or  for  enlarging  the 
holes  by  being  driven  through  them. 

DUMP  :  An  embankment  where  material  is  deposited  from 
carts,  cars,  or  barrows. 

DUMP  scow  :  A  boat  having  a  movable  bottom  or  other  con- 
trivance for  automatically  discharging  the  load. 

DUTCHMAN  :  The  name  given  to  a  block  or  wedge  of  like 
material  with  the  structure  driven  into  a  gap  to  hide  the  fault  in 
a  badly  made  joint. 

EAVES  :  That  portion  of  a  roof  which  projects  beyond  the 
walls. 

ESCARPMENT  :  A  nearly  vertical  natural  face  of  rock  or  soil. 

EYE  :  A  circular  hole  in  a  flat  bar,  etc.,  for  receiving  a  pin,  or 
for  other  purposes. 

ELASTICITY  The  property  which  all  materials  have  (in  greater 
or  less  degree  of  perfection)  of  returning  to  their  original  figure 
after  being  disturbed  (i.  e.,  strained)  by  any  kind  of  stress. 

ELASTIC  LIMIT  of  materials  is  defined  as  that  point  at  which 
the  deformation  ceases  to  be  proportional  to  the  stress,  or  the 
point  at  which  the  rate  of  stretch  (or  other  deformation)  begins 


504  DEFINITIONS   OP   TERMS   USED. 

to  increase.  It  is  also  defined  as  the  point  at  which  the  first  per- 
manent set  becomes  visible. 

FALL  :  The  rope  used  with  pulleys  in  hoisting. 

FACTOR  OF  SAFETY. — The  ratio  in  which  the  breaking  load 
exceeds  the  working  load.  The  factors  of  safety  recommended 


Dead          Live 
Load.         Load. 

For  perfect  materials  and  workmanship 2  4 

For  good  ordinary  materials  and  workmanship: 

Metals 3  6 

Timber 4  to  5  8  to  10 

Masonry 4  8 

FALL  AND  TACKLE  :  The  fall  is  the  pulling  end  of  the  rope ; 
the  tackle  is  the  blocks  with  the  rope  rove  through  them. 

FALSE  WORKS  :  Construction  works  to  enable  the  erection  of 
the  main  works.  Among  false  works  may  be  cited  coffer-dams, 
bridge- centring,  scaffolding,  etc. 

FASCINE  :  A  cylindrical  bundle  or  fagot  of  brushwood  used  in 
revetments  of  earthworks,  in  making  river-  and  sea-walls,  etc. 
They  vary  in  size  from  6  to  18  feet  in  length  and  6  to  9  inches  in 
diameter. 

FEATHER-EDGED:  Said  of  boards  when  one  edge  is  thinner 
than  the  other. 

FENDER  •  A  piece  for  protecting  one  thing  from  being  broken 
or  injured  by  blows  from  another. 

FENDER  PILES  :  Piles  driven  to  ward  off  floating  bodies. 

FISHING  :  Applied  to  a  form  of  joint  ;  uniting  by  clamping 
between  two  short  pieces  which  cover  the  joint. 

FLANGE  :  A  projection  from  one  end  or  from  the  body  of  a 
column,  pipe,  beam,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  it  to  another 
piece  or  to  a  support. 

FLASH-BOARDS  :  Movable  boards  placed  on  the  top  of  a  dam  or 
weir  to  letain  the  water  of  the  stream  when  the  flow  is  small. 

FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION.— "  The  term  '  fire  proof  construc- 
tion '  applies  to  buildings  in  which  nil  parts  that  carry  weights, 
stairs,  elevator-enclosures  and  their  contents  are  mude  of  incom- 
bustible material,  and  in  which  all  metallic  structural  members 
are  protected  against  the  effects  of  fire  by  coverings  of  an  incon- 
bustible  and  slow-heat-conducting  material.  As  such  will  be 
considered  brick,  hollow  tiles  or  burnt  clay,  porous  terra-cotta, 
and  two  layers  of  plastering  on  metal  lath. 


DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS   USED.  505 

"  The  term  '  slow-burning  construction  '  comprises  all  buildings 
in  which  the  structural  members  are  made  wholly  or  in  part  of 
combustible  material,  but  throughout  which  all  materials  shall 
be  protected  against  injury  from  fire  by  coverings  of  incom- 
bustible, slow- heat-conducting  materials."  (Chicago  Building 
Ordinances,  1893.) 

FLASHINGS  :  Broad  strips  of  sheet  lead,  copper,  tin,  etc.,  with 
one  edge  inserted  into  the  joints  of  masonry  an  inch  or  two  above 
the  roof  and  projecting  out  several  inches  so  as  to  be  flattened 
down  close  to  the  roof  to  prevent  rain  from  leaking  through  the 
joint  between  the  roof  and  chimney,  etc.,  which  projects  above  it. 

FLUSH:  1.  A  term  signifying  an  unbroken  or  even  surface. 
2.  To  wash  by  turning  on  a  sudden  dash  of  water,  as  in  cleansing 
sewers  by  means  of  flush-tanks. 

FLUME  :  A  ditch,  trough,  or  other  channel  of  moderate  size  for 
conducting  water. 

FOUNDATION  :  The  bed  or  basis  of  a  structure. 

FOXTAIL  :  A  thin  wedge  inserted  into  a  slit  at  the  lower  end  of 
a  pin  or  bolt  so  that  as  the  pin  is  driven  down  the  wedge  enters 
it  and  causes  it  to  swell  and  hold  more  firmly. 

FRAME  .  The  skeleton  of  a  structure;  to  put  together  pieces  so 
as  to  form  a  frame. 

FUHKINGS  :  Pieces  which  are  placed  upon  others  which  are  too 
low  merely  to  bring  their  upper  surfaces  up  to  a  required  level,  as 
is  often  done  with  joists  when  one  or  more  are  too  low;  a  kind 
of  chock. 

FUSIBILITY  is  the  property  of  becoming  fluid  when  subjected  to 
heat.  The  temperature  at  which  th.'s  is  effected  differs  in  each 
metal,  and  is  called  the  melting-point. 

GASKET  :  Rope-yarn  or  hemp  used  for  stuffing  at  the  joints  of 
water-pipes,  etc. 

GIN-POLE  :  A  timber  mast  with  four  guys  and  a  sheave  at  the 
top  over  which  the  hoist-line  leads  to  a  crab  bolted  three  or  four 
feet  from  the  bottom. 

GIRDER. — The  name  girder  is  generally  applied  to  beams  of  iron 
and  steel,  whatever  the  form,  either  cast,  solid,  rolled,  or  built  up 
of  plates  and  angles  or  other  shapes  riveted  together.  A  "  riveted 
girder"  means  a  girder  made  of  plates  and  angles;  a  "girder- 
beam  "  means  a  girder  made  of  a  solid  rolled  beam;  a  "  box- 
girder  "  is  composed  of  two  girders  joined  together  by  cover- 
plates,  etc.;  a  "double  girder"  signifies  the  use  of  two  rolled 
beams  in  a  girder. 


506  DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS   USED. 

GRUBBING  :  Removing  roots  and  stumps  from  the  surface. 

GUSSETS  .  Plain  triangular  pieces  of  plate  iron  riveted  by  their 
vertical  and  horizontal  legs  to  the  sides,  tops,  and  bottoms  of  box- 
girders,  etc.,  for  strengthening  their  angles. 

GUY  :  A  stay-rope  passing  from  the  top  of  a  spar  or  mast  to  a 
post  or  anchor  in  the  ground,  us  the  guys  of  a  derrick,  etc. 

HARDENING  :  The  property  of  becoming  very  hard  when  heated 
and  quenched. 

HARDNESS  is  the  property  of  resisting  indentation  or  wear  by 
friction. 

HANDSPIKE  :  A  loose  bar  forming  a  lever  for  lifting  or  shifting 
an  object. 

HARDPAN  :  Gravel  cemented  with  clay,  which  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  blast. 

HTP  ROOF  :  One  that  slopes  four  ways,  forming  ridges  or  hips. 

HOARDING  :  A  temporary  close  fence  of  boards  placed  around 
a  work  in  progress  to  exclude  stragglers. 

HOUSE  :  A  wooden  bar  with  legs  used  for  supporting  a  staging. 

IMPOST  •  The  upper  part  of  a  pier  from  which  an  arch  springs. 

JAM-NUT  :  An  auxiliary  nut  screwed  down  upon  another  one 
to  hold  it  in  plac-;  check-nut,  lock-nut. 

JACK  :  A  raising  instrument,  consisting  of  an  iron  rack  in  con- 
nection with  a  short,  stout  timber  which  supports  it,  and  worked 
by  cog  wheels  and  a  winch. 

JACK  SCREW  :  A  lifting  implement  which  acts  by  the  rotation 
of  a  screw  in  a  threaded  socket. 

JETTY:  A  construction  of  stone,  wood,  etc.,  projecting  into 
the  sea,  and  serving  as  a  wharf  or  pier  for  shipping,  or  as  a  mole 
to  protect  a  harbor. 

JIB  :  The  upper  projecting  arm  of  a  crane,  supported  by  the 
stay. 

JIM  CROW  :  An  implement  for  bending  or  straightening  rails. 

KERF  :  The  opening  or  narrow  slit  made  in  sawing. 

KNEE  :  A  piece  of  metal  or  wood  bent  at  an  angle  to  serve  as 
a  bracket. 

LAP  :  To  place  one  piece  upon  another,  with  the  edge  of  one 
reaching  beyond  that  of  the  other. 

LAP- WELDING  :  Welding  together  pieces  that  have  first  been 
lapped,  in  distinction  to  bittt-icelding. 

LEAD  :  The  length  of  haul  from  the  pit  to  the  dump. 

LIGHT:  A  pane  of  window-glass. 

LINING  :  The  masonry  walls  and  arch  built  in  a  tunnel. 


DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS  USED.          507 

LINTEL  :  A  horizontal  beam  over  an  opening  in  a  wall. 

LIVE  LOAD  :  A  loud  which  is  applied  suddenly. 

LOAD  :  The  weight  upon  a  beam  or  structure  ;  it  may  be  either 
concentrated  at  the  centre  or  other  point  or  uniformly  distributed. 

LOCK  (CANAL). — A  canal-lock  is  a  device  by  which  boats  are 
passed  from  one  level  to  another.  It  consists  of  a  basin  between 
the  levels,  having  a  pair  of  gates  at  each  end  communicating 
with  the  respective  level.  The  floor  of  the  upper  end  is  even 
writh  the  upper  level,  and  the  lower  floor  with  the  lower  level. 

The  parts  of  a  lock  are  : 

The  head-gate  and  the  tail-gate,  which,  with  the  side  walls, 
enclose  the  lock-chamber.  The  gates  are  made  of  framing,  with 
leaf-planking  nailed  and  bolted  thereto. 

The  clap-sill  or  mitre-sill,  with  two  branches,  is  the  framing 
against  which  the  lower  edge  of  the  gate  shuts. 

The  hollow  quoin  is  the  recess  in  the  masonry  occupied  by  the 
heel- post  of  the  gate. 

The  head-lay  is  the  canal  above  the  lock. 

The  tail  bay  is  the  canal  below  the  lock. 

The  lift  is  the  amount  of  fall  overcome  by  the  lock. 

The  lift-wall  is  the  wall  at  the  foot  of  the  head-gate. 

LOUVRE:  A  kind  "of  vertical  window  placed  on  the  roofs  cf 
workshops,  etc.,  and  formed  of  slats  which  permit  ventilation 
and  exclude  rain. 

LUMBER:  Sawed  timber,  either  boards,  plank,  or  squared 
pieces. 

MALLEABILITY  is  the  property  of  being  permanently  extensible 
in  all  directions  by  hammering  or  rolling. 

MAUL  :  A  large  mallet  of  hardwood. 

.  MILL  CONSTRUCTION. — The  term  "mill  construction  "  applies 
to  buildings  in  which  all  the  girders  and  joists  supporting  floors 
and  roof  have  a  sectional  area  of  not  less  than  72  square  inches, 
and  above  the  joists  of  which  there  is  laid  a  solid  timber  floor  not 
less  than  3|  inches  thick.  Wooden  posts  in  buildings  of  this  class 
are  to  have  an  area  of  at  least  100  square  inches.  Iron  columns, 
girders,  or  beams  must  be  protected  by  an  incombustible  slow- 
heat-conducting  material,  but  the  wooden  posts,  girders,  and  joists 
need  not  be  covered.  (Chicago  Building  Ordinances,  1898.) 

MODULUS  OR  COEFFICIENT  OF  ELASTICITY  is  a  number  express- 
ing the  relation  between  the  amount  of  extension  or  compression 
of  n  material  and  the  load  producing  that  extension  or  compres- 
sion ;  it  is  obtained  by  dividing  the  stress  in  pounds  per  square 


508  DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS    USED. 

inch  of  sectional  area  by  the  elongation  or  contraction  expressed 
as  a  fraction  of  the  leugth  of  the  specimen. 

MUCK  :  Soft  mud  containing  much  vegetable  matter. 

MUCKING  :  Removing  muck. 

NEAT  LINES  :  Those  by  which  the  work  is  laid  out. 

NEAT  WORK  :  Work  wrought  to  the  neat  lines. 

NOSING  :  The  slight  projection  upon  the  front  edge  of  a  step 
or  window-sill. 

OUT  OF  SQUARE  :  Askew,  oblique. 

OUT  OP  WIND  :  Perfectly  straight  or  flat. 

PLIABILITY  :  The  ability  of  a  body  to  change  its  form  tempo- 
rarily under  different  stresses. 

PROOF  LOAD  :  The  greatest  load  that  can  be  applied  to  a  piece 
of  material  to  prove  or  test  it  by  straining  it  to  the  utmost  ex- 
tent without  producing  permanent  deformation  or  injury. 

PARGET:  The  plastering  applied  to  the  interior  surface  of 
chimneys. 

PLANT  :  The  tools  and  apparatus  required  in  any  operation. 

PIG:  An  oblong  mass  of  iron  as  run  from  the  smelting-fur- 
nace. 

PILE  :  Spars  pointed  at  one  end  and  driven  into  the  ground 
(see  Piles,  page  215  et  seq.).  Spile  is  a  corruption. 

PILOT-NUT  :  A  nut  placed  on  a  truss-pin  to  protect  the  thread 
and  assist  in  guiding  the  pin  while  it  is  being  driven. 

PONY-TRUSS  :  A  low  truss,  of  short  span,  without  overhead 
lateral  bracing,  and  with  the  roadway  carried  at  the  bottom 
joints. 

PRIMED  :  Having  the  first  coat  of  paint  or  "priming  "  laid  on. 

PROFILE  :  A  light  wooden  frame  set  up  to  guide  workmen 
during  construction ;  a  longitudinal  section  through  a  roadway, 
etc. 

QUICKSAND  may  be  defined  as  a  mass  of  sand,  or  of  silt  and 
argillaceous  matter,  intimately  mixed  with  water,  forming  a 
semi-fluid,  having  all  the  properties  of  a  fluid,  but  in  a  minor 
degree. 

RAMP  :  An  inclined  platform  used  instead  of  steps.  A  con- 
cave sweep  connecting  a  higher  and  lower  portion  of  a  railing, 
wall,  etc. 

RACKED  BACK  :  Built  in  steps  or  offsets. 

RAKED  OUT  :  Cleaned  out  with  a  scraper. 

RETURN  :  The  termination  of  the  drip-stone  or  hood-moulding 
of  a  door  or  window. 


DEFINITIONS    OF   TERMS    USED.  509 

REVEAL  :  The  sides  of  an  opening  for  a  doorway,  window, 
etc..  between  the  framework  and  the  outer  surface  of  the  wall. 

RESILIENCE  is  a  term  used  to  express  the  quantity  of  "work 
done  "  in  deforming  a  piece  of  material  up  to  the  elastic  limit  by 
the  application  of  any  kind  of  stress. 

SADDLE  HEADS  :  Hollow,  castings  resting  on  the  heads  of 
columns  to  sustain  another  series  above  and  allow  beams  to  pass 
through. 

SCAFFOLD:  A  platform  temporarily  erected  during  the  prog- 
ress <  f  a  structure  for  the  support  of  workmen  and  materials. 

Scow  :  A  flat-bottomed,  square-ended  boat,  employed  for  many 
purposes— carrying  materials,  supporting  pile  drivers,  etc. 

SCRIBE  :  To  trim  off  the  edge  of  a  board,  etc.,  so  as  to  make  it 
fit  closely  at  all  points  to  an  irregular  surface. 

SEPARATORS  ;  Thimbles  or  small  pieces  of  iron  inserted  be- 
tween girders  to  keep  them  apart. 

SET  (n.) :  A  permanent  bend  or  deflection  produced  by  strain- 
ing a  beam  beyond  its  limit  of  elasticity. 

SET  (v.) :  Hardened,  as  the  hardening  of  cement. 

SEWAGE  :  The  matter  borne  off  by  a  sewer. 

SEWERAGE  :  The  system  of  sewers. 

SHACKLE  OK  CLEVIS  :  A  link  in  a  chain  shaped  like  a  U,  and 
so  arranged  that  by  drawing  out  a  bolt  or  pin  which  fits  into 
two  holes  at  the  ends  of  the  U  the  chain  can  be  separated  at  that 
point.  A  U-shaped  metallic  strap  used  in  connection  with  a 
pin  to  connect  a  draft  chain  or  tree  to  a  plough,  etc. 

SHIM  :  A  piece  of  wood,  stone,  or  iron  let  into  a  slack  place 
to  fill  it  out  to  a  fair  surface  or  line. 

SHAFT  :  A  vertical  pit  or  well. 

SHOES  :  Iron  fittings  at  the  ends  of  rafters,  etc. 

SHOOT  :  An  inclined  trough  through  which  materials  are  slid. 

SHORE  :  A  prop. 

SHEARING  STRESS  :  The  stress  produced  when  one  part  of  n 
body  is  forcibly  pressed  or  pulled  so  as  to  tend  to  make  it  slide 
over  another  part. 

SILT  :  Soft,  fine  mud. 

SINKING  :  Digging  a  vertical  shaft. 

SIPHON  OR  DIVE-CULVERT  :  A  culvert  built  in  the  shape  of  a 
U  for  carrying  a  stream  under  an  obstacle  and  allowing  it  after- 
wards to  rise  again  to  its  natural  level. 

SKID  :  Slanting  timbers  forming  an  inclined  plane,  used  in  load- 
ing or  unloading  heavy  articles  from  a  truck,  wagon,  etc. 


510  DEFINITIONS   OF   TERMS    USED. 

SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION  :  A  framework  of  metal  which 
transmits  all  the  external  aud  internal  strains  from  the  top  of  u 
building  to  the  foundation. 

SLINGS:  Pieces  of  rope  or  chain  put  around  stones,  etc.,  for 
raising  them  by. 

SLIP  :  The  sliding  down  of  the  sides  of  earth  cuts  or  embank- 
ments. A  long,  narrow  water-space  or  dock  between  two 
wharves  or  piers. 

SLUICE  :  A  water-channel  of  masonry,  wood,  etc.,  furnished 
with  gates  to  regulate  the  flow  of  the  water. 

SODDING. — The  placing  of  grass  sods  on  the  slopes  of  embank- 
ments or  other  surfaces. 

The  sods  are  cut  from  their  bed  in  long  strips  with  a  sharp 
spade  or  on  a  large  scale  with  a  paring-plough.  The  strips  are 
rolled  with  the  grass  inward  for  transportation  to  the  place  of 
use.  On  slopes  they  are  held  in  place  by  small  pegs  driven  at 
suitable  intervals,  and  are  tamped  or  beaten  down  to  a  solid  bear- 
ing with  a  square  or  oblong  mallet,  called  a  flatteuing-mallet. 
Ragged  and  torn  edges  are  removed  or  pared  with  a  curved 
knife. 

SPANDREL-BEAM  :  See  Beam. 

SPLAY  :  A  surface  making  with  another  an  angle  differing 
from  a  right  angle. 

SPILE. — The  name  spile  is  frequently  but  incorrectly  given  to 
piles. 

A  spile  is  a  small  plug  of  wood  used  for  stopping  the  spile-hole 
of  a  barrel  or  cask.  The  spile-hole  is  a  small  aperture  made  in 
the  cask  when  placed  on  tap,  usually  near  the  bung-hole,  to  afford 
ingress  for  the  air  in  order  to  permit  the  contained  liquid  to  flow 
freely. 

SPLICE  :  To  unite  two  pieces  firmly  together. 

STAGE  :  The  interval  or  distance  between  two  platforms  in 
shovelling,  throwing,  or  lifting. 

STIFFNESS  OR  RIGIDITY  :  The  resistance  offered  by  bodies  to 
change  of  their  form  under  stresses. 

STONE  BOAT:  A  flat-bottomed  sled  for  hauling  heavy  stones  for 
short  distances. 

STRENGTH  :  The  resistance  offered  by  materials  to  deforma- 
tion. 

STRESSES  :  Stress  and  strain  are  words  often  used  indifferently, 
either  to  mean  the  alterations  of  figure  produced  in  a  body  by 
any  forces,  or  to  mean  the  forces  producing  those  alterations. 


DEFINITIONS    OF   TERMS   USED.  511 

Materials  are  subject  to  the  undermentioned  stresses,  which 
produce  strains,  and,  when  carried  far  enough,  fracture  as 
stated. 

Stress.  Strain.  Mode  of  Fracture. 

TeusMe  or  pulling  P  Teuriug 


Compressive  or  thrust-  j  Shortening  )  rVnclm.c 

ing  I  Squeezing    f 

Transverse  or  bending     Bending  Breaking  across 

Shearing                              Distortion  Cutting  asunder 


Tordon.il  or  twisting          Twisting          j  ™^er°T  Wrenching 


STIRRUP  :  A  pendant  band  of  iron  supporting  girders. 

STRINGERS  :  Longitudinal  beams,  generally  used  to  support 
uniform  loads. 

STRUT  :  An  oblique  brace  ;  the  member  of  a  truss  which  is 
compressed  endwise. 

STUD  :  A  short,  projecting  pin. 

STUD  BOLT  :  A  bolt  with  a  screw  cut  upon  each  end,  one  end 
to  be  screwed  permanently  into  something,  and  the  other  end  to 
hold  by  a  nut  something  else  that  may  be  required  to  be  removed 
at  times. 

SUMP  :  A  well  dug  at  the  lowest  point  of  the  work  into  which 
the  rain  and  other  water  may  be  led  and  from  which  it  is  re- 
moved by  pumps. 

SWEDGED  :  Hammered  with  a  swedge-hammer. 

SWIVEL  :  A  revolving  link  in  a  chain,  consisting  of  a  ring  or 
hook  ending  in  a  headed  pin  which  turns  in  a  link. 

TAMP  :  To  compact  loose  earth  by  ramming  ;  to  fill  up  wilh 
sand,  etc.,  the  remainder  of  the  hole  in  which  an  explosive  has 
been  placed  for  blasting. 

TAP-BOLT  :  A  bolt  which  simply  passes  into  its  socket  without 
penetrating  it. 

TEMPLET  :  A  form  or  pattern  to  guide  workmen. 

TEMPERING  :  Lowering  the  degree  of  hardness  after  harden- 
ing, by  reheating  and  cooling  at  different  temperatures. 

TENSION  is  the  stress  produced  by  pulling.  It  elongates  the 
material  upon  which  it  acts,  und  tends  to  cause  rupture  by  tear- 
ing it.  asunder. 

THICKENING-  WASHERS  :  Additional  washers  used  when  the 
thread  is  not  cut  far  enough  on  a  bolt. 


512          DEFINITIONS  OF  TEKMS  USED. 

THIMBLE  :  A  short  piece  of  tube  slipped  over  a  rod  to  separate 
parts  of  a  structure,  ;is  a  post  or  chord. 

THROUGH  BIUDGE  .  One  in  which  the  roadway  is  carried  direct- 
ly at  the  bottom- chord  joints,  with  lateral  bracing  overhead  be- 
tween the  top-chord  joints,  thus  enclosing  a  space  through  which 
the  load  passes. 

TORSION  :  A  twisting  strain,  which  seldom  occurs  in  building 
construction,  though  quite  frequently  in  machinery. 

TRANSVERSE  STRESS  is  one  caused  by  bending  the  material  ou 
which  it  acts,  and  it  tends  lo  break  it  across. 

TRUSS. — A  framed  or  jointed  structure  designed  to  act  as 
a  beam.  It  is  composed  of  two  longitudinal  members  called 
the  upper  and  lower  chords.  The  members  which  join  the  chords 
are  called  the  web  members ;  these  comprise  struts,  ties,  and  counter- 
braces.  The  struts  are  sometimes  called  posts  or  columns.  The 
spaces  between  the  chord-joints  are  called  panels. 

TURNBUCKLE  :  A  small  fastening  turning  about  a  screw 
through  its  centre  ;  a  nut  with  a  right-  and  left-hand  screw  for 
tightening  up  rods. 

WASTE-WEIR  —  SPILLWAY:  An  overfall  provided  along  a 
canal,  reservoir,  etc.,  at  which  the  water  may  discharge  itself  in 
case  of  becoming  too  high  by  rain,  etc. 

WASTED  :  Thrown  away. 

WEB:  The  flat  metallic  surface  connecting  two  or  more  ribs 
or  flanges. 

WEIR  .  An  opening  in  the  breast  of  a  dam  or  an  embankment 
to  discharge  the  excess  of  water ;  also  an  opening  used  for 
measuring  the  quantity  of  water  discharged. 

WELD  :  The  junction  of  two  metals  made  by  heating  and  ham- 
mering them  together  in  connection  with  a  flux. 

WIND  .  Synonymous  with  twist,  warp,  etc. 

WING-WALLS  :  The  retaining  walls  which  flare  out  from  the 
ends  of  bridges,  etc. 

UNDERPINNING  :  Supports,  temporary  or  permanent,  intro- 
duced beneath  a  wall  already  constructed. 

UPSET  ;  Hammered  back  to  thicken  the  end  of  an  iron  bar,  as 
in  forming  an  eye  or  head  for  a  bolt. 

VALLEY  :  A  re-entrant  angle  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two 
parts  of  a  roof. 

WALKS  :  Longitudinal  timbers  placed  on  the  sides  of  piles, 

WARPED  :  Twisted  ;  out  of  line. 


DEFINITIONS    OF    TERMS    USED.  513 

WASHERS  :  Broad  pieces  of  metal  surrounding  a  bolt,  aud 
placed  between  the  faces  of  the  timbers  through  which  the  bolt 
passes  and  the  head  and  nut  of  the  bolt  so  as  to  distribute  the 
pressure  over  a  larger  surface,  and  prevent  the  timber  from  being 
crushed  when  the  bolt  is  tightly  screwed  up. 

YIELD-POINT  is  defined  as  that  point  at  which  the  rate  of 
stretch  (or  other  deformation)  begins  to  increase  rapidly.  The 
difference  between  the  elastic  limit,  defined  as  the  point  at  which 
the  rate  of  stretch  begins  to  increase,  and  the  yield-point,  at 
which  the  rate  of  stretch  increases  suddenly,  may  in  some  cases 
be  considerable. 


514  LIST   OF    AUTHORITIES    CONSULTED 

LIST   OF   AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED. 

Any  of  the  following  works  may  be  profitably  studied  by  those 
desiring  further  information  upon  the  subjects  treated  of : 

Allsop,  F.  0.:  Practical  Electric  light  Fitting. 

Baker,  I.  0.:  Masonrj'  Construction. 

Brande :  Encyclopaedia  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art. 

Barba,  R.  8.:  The  Use  of  Steel  for  Constructive  Purposes. 

Berg,  De  C.:  Safe  Buildings. 

Birkmire,  W.  H.:  Architectural  Iron  and  Steel. 

Bolland,  8.:  The  Iron-founder, 

Buchan,  W.  P.:  Plumbing. 

Bell 's  Carpentry. 

Byrne,  A.  T.:  Highway  Construction. 

Clark,  T.  M.:  Building  Superintendence. 

Carnegie's  Pocket  Companion. 

Campin,  F.:  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs. 

Church,  A.  II.:  Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Painting. 

Cameron,  K.:  Plasterer's  Manual. 

Dams,  G.  T. :  Bricks,  Tiles,  and  Terra-cotta. 

Drinker,  H.  S.:  Tunnelling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock- 
drills. 

Engineering  and  Building  Record. 

Engineering  Magazine. 

Engineering  News  and  American  Railway  Journal. 

Fanning,  /.  T :  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  and  Water-supply  En- 
gineering. 

Foster,  W.  C.:  Wooden  Trestle-bridges. 

Foster,  J.  G.:  Submarine  Blasting. 

Gould,  L.:  Carpenter's  and  Builder's  Assistant. 

Gilmore,  Gen.  Q.  A.:  Limes,  Hydraulic  Cements,  and  Mortars; 
Construction  of  Roads,  Streets,  and  Pavements. 

Gillespie,  W.  M. :  Principles  and  Practice  of  Road  making. 

Guttmann,  0.:  Blasting. 

Heath,  A.  H.:  Manual  on  Lime,  and  Cement. 

Hammond,  A.:  Brick  and  Tile  Book 

Hodgson,  F.  T.:  Practical  Carpentry. 

Haswell,  C.  H.:  Mechanics'  and  Engineers'  Pocket-book. 

Haupt,  L.  M.:  Engineering  Specifications  and  Contracts. 

Hoskins,  G.  G.:  Clerk  of  Works. 

Hurst,  J.  T.:  Architectural  Surveyors'  Handbook. 

Hicks,  I.  P.:  Builders'  Guide. 


LIST   OF    AUTHORITIES    CONSULTED.  515 

Johnson,  J.  B.:  Engineering  Contracts  and  Specifications. 

Johnson,    Bryan,    and    Turneaure :  Theory  and    Practice    of 
Modern  Framed  Structures. 

Jones,  II.  II.:  Asbestos. 

Joynson,  F.  II.:  The  Metals  used  in  Construction. 

Kent,  W.:  Mechanical  Engineers' Pocket-book. 

Kidder,    F.   E:  Building  Construction  and  Superintendence; 
The  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket-book. 

Kirk,  E.:  The  Founding  of  Metals. 

Knight,  E.  II. :  Mechanical  Dictionary. 

Kirk,  A.:  The  Quarryman  and  Contractor's  Guide. 

Lntham.  B.:  Sanitary  Engineering. 

Low,   E   O.:  Pavements  and  Roads:  Their  Construction  and 
Maintenance. 

Mahan-  Wood :  Civil  Engineering. 

Moncton,  J.:  Stair-building. 

Macfarlane,  J.  W.;  Notes  on  Pipe-founding. 

Merrill,  G.  P.:  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration. 

Metcalf,  Wm.:  Steel. 

Notes  on  Building  Construction. 

Newman,  J.:  Scamping  Tricks  ;  Notes  on  Concrete  and  Works 
in  Concrete. 

Ny strom,  J.  W.:  Pocket-book  of  Mechanics. 

Patton,  W.  M.:   Civil  Engineering;   A  Practical   Treatise  on 
Foundations. 

Powell,  O.  T.:  Foundations  and  Foundation  Walls. 

Pe n coy d Iron  Works:  Wrought  Iron  and  Steel. 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.:  Civil  Engineering. 

Reid,  II.:  Natural  and  Artificial  Concrete. 

Smcaton,  J.:  Plumbing  Drainage. 

Smith,  J.  B.:  Wire  Manufacture  and  Use. 

Spalding,  F.  P.:  Testing  and  Use  of  Hydraulic  Cement. 

Seddon,  H.  0.:  Builders'  Work  and  the  Building  Trades. 

Spon's  Dictionary  of  Engineering. 

Slaley  and  Pierson  :  Separate  System  of  Sewerage. 

Trautwine,  J.  C.:  Civil  Engineers'  Pocket-book. 

Thurston,  R.  H :  Materials  of  Engineering. 
Vodges,  F.  W.:  The  Architect  and  Builder's  Pocket  Companion. 
Walsh,  M.:  Brick-making. 

Webb,   T.    W.:  Guide  to  the  Testing  of  Insulated  Wires  and 
Cables. 

Warren,  W.  H :  Engineering  Construction  in  Iron,  Steel,  and 
Timber. 


INDEX. 


Absorptive  power  of  bricks,  24 
stones,  6 
wood,  75 

Abutment,  259-275 
Abutting1  joint.  281 

Acid    and    basic    processes    of    steel- 
making,  110 

Acid  tests  for  iron  and  steel,  124 
Activity  of  cement,  39 
Adulteration  of  cement,  35 

linseed  oil.  344 
red  lead,  342 
white  lead,  341 
Air-slaked  lime,  31,  32 
Alkalies  in  brick-clay,  18 
Alloys,  142 

of  steel,  114 
Altars,  499 
Aluminum  bronze,  142 

shrinkage  of,  148 
Angle  bead,  293 
rafter,  286 
staff,  293 
tie,  293 

Annealing  steel,  129 
Apron,  499 
Aqueduct,  499 
Arch- brick,  20 
Arches,  brick  floor,  301 
Arched  beam.  294 
Arches,  centring  for,  277 
concrete  floor,  305 
construction  of,  276 
definition  of  the  parts  of,  275 
description  of,  274 
flat  tile,  303 
Arch  sheeting,  275 

stone?,  cutting  of,  232 
Arches,  striking  centres,  277 
Architrave,  290 
Area    covered    by    a    cubic    yard    of 

broken  stone,  384 

Area  covered  by  a  cubic  foot  of  ce- 
ment, 335 

Argillaceous  stones,  5,  11 
Arris,  259-499 

gutter,  286 
Artificial  foundations,  211 

stone  pavements,  387 


Artificial  stones,  composition  of,  29 
Asbestos,  156 

felt,  158 
paper,  158 

Ash,  inspection  of,  87 
white,  56 
green,  56 
red,  56 

Ashlar  masonry,  248 
Ashlaring,  ",'93 
Asphalt,  43,  48 

Alcatraz,  50 
felt.  158 
mastic,  380 

paving  compositions,  prepa- 
ration and  laying,  381 
Pittsburg  flux,  51 
Utah  liquid,  50 
Asphalte,  46.  47 
Asphaltene.  45 
Asphaltic  cement,  49 

manufacture  of,  49 
concrete,  229 
paving  materials,  374 
Asphaltum,  43 

analysis  of,  52 
asphaltene,  45 
Bermudez,  378 
California,  379 
characteristics  of,  43 
coating  for  pipes.  356-364 
composition  of,  47 
crude,  48 
description  of,  43 
distribution  of,  46 
earthy,  43 
elastic,  44 
flux  for,  49 
gilsonite,  46 
hard,  44 
lithocarbon,  47 
maltha,  46 
nomenclature  of,  47 
occurrence  of,  46 
oiling  of,  49 
origin  of,  45 
petrolene,  44 
refined,  48 
refining  of,  48 
residuum  oil  for,  51 
retiue,  45 

517 


518 


INDEX. 


Asphaltum,  solvents  for,  44 

specific  gravity  of,  44 

tests  for,  52 

Trinidad,  376 

uintahite,  46 

varieties  of,  43 

wurtzilite,  46 
Astragal,  293 
Atmosphere,  effect  of,  on  stone,  7 

test  for  effect  on  stone,  7 
Axed  stone,  237 
Axles,  tests  for,  145 


Backing,  259 

Baluster,  288 

Balustrade,  288 

Ballast,  499 

Barff  's  process  of  coating  pipes,  356 

Barge  board,  286 

Barge  couple,  293 

Basalt,  9 

Base,  290,  499 

Basic  steel,  110 

Basil,  499 

Batter,  293 

Battlement,  499 

Bay,  283 

Bead,  293 

and  butt  panel,  290 
and  quirk  panel,  290 
butt  and  square,  290 
flush  panel,  290 
Beams,  293.  499 

anchorage  of,  283.  300 
bearing  of,  on  walls,  283,  299 
connecting,  299 
setting  parallel.  299 
Beard.  294 
Bearer,  294 
Bearing,  499 

blocks,  259 
pla;e,  499 
piles,  215 
power  of  soils,  211 


Bed,  natural,  of  stone  5 

plates,  499 
beetle,  499 
Belt,  course,  259 
Belted  timber,  74 
Berme,  499 

Bennuilez  asphaltum,  378 
Bessemer  pig  iron,  91 

steel,  110 

Bethell's  process  for  preserving  tim- 
ber, 07 
Bevel.  499 
Bevelling,  294 
Binders.  259 
Binding  joist,  283 
Bird's  mouth,  294 
Bitumen,  43,  48 

origin  of,  45 
Bituminous  limestone,  48 

rock,  test  for,  53 

sandstone,  48 


Black  walnut,  inspection  of,  87 
Blasting,  precautions  to  be  observed, 

206 

Blasting  rock.  204 
Blind  bond,  260 
Blister-steel.  109 
Block,  294,  500 

and  tackle,  500 
Blocking,  500 

course,  259,  262 
Block-and- cross  bond,  260 
Block-tin  pipe,  320 
Blue  sap,  76 
Board,  294 

measure,  72 

Boards,  fencing,  grade  of,  81 
roofing,  79 

rules  for  grading  common,  81 
Boiler-iron,  tests  for,  145 
Bolster,  294,500 
Bolts,  and  nuts,  183 

dummy,  184 

strength  of,  187 

tests  for,  145 

varieties  of,  183 
Bond  in  masonry.  249,  259 

stones  in  piers,  260 
Bonding  course,  262 
Boning,  500 
Bore,  500 
Borrow-pit,  500 
Boulder,  500 
Box  frame,  294 
Brace,  294 
Brash  in  timber,  74 
Brass,  142 

shrinkage  of,  148 

weight  of  sheet  (Table  16),  133 

wire,  weight  of  (Table  16),  133 
Break  joint,  500 
Breaking-load,  500 
Breakwater,  500 
Breast-summer,  294 

wall,  500 
Brick,  absorptive  power  of,  24 

arch,  20 

arches  for  floors,  301 

arches,  tie-rods  for,  302 

ashlar,  260 

body,  20 

character  of  clay  for,  18 

characteristics  of  good    build- 
ing, 24 

characteristics  of  good  paving, 
385 

cherry,  20 

classification  of,  19 

clinker,  20 

color  of,  19 

compass,  21 

crushing  strength  of  (Table  4), 
23 

definition  of,  18 

effect  of  frost  on,  25 

enamelled,  22 

feather-edge,  21 

face, 21 

front,  21 

glazed,  22 


INDEX. 


519 


Brick,  hard.  20 

hard  kiln-run,  21 
hollow,  weight  of,  23 
inspection  of,  24 
kiln-run,  21 
laying  paving,  386 
machine-made,  20 
manufacture  of,  18 
pale,  20 
pavement,  385 
pressed,  20 

properties  of  paving,  387 
rank  of,  21 
re-pressed.  20 
Roman,  23 
salmon,  20 
sanded.  20 
sewer,  21 

size  of  building,  23 
sizt?  of  paving,  387 
slop.  20 
soft,  20 
soft  miul,  20 

specific    gravity   of    (Table    4), 
23 

stiff  mud,  20 
tests  for  building,  24, 145 
tests  for  paving,  385 
transverse  strength  of,  24 
weight  of,  23 
weight  per  cubic  foot  (Table  4), 

23 

weight  of  paving,  387 
masonry,     amount    of  mortar 

required  for.  256 
masonry,  bond  of,  200 
masonry,  cleaning  down  front, 

257 

masonry,  effioresence  on,  258 
masonry  facework,  256 
masonry,    general  rules  to  be 

observed  in  laying,  254. 
masonry  impervious  to  water, 

257 

masomry,  laying  the  bricks,  254 
masonry,  running  bond,  256 
masonry,    Sylvester's     washes 

for,  257 
masonry,  thickness  of  joints  in, 

250 
masonry,    wetting    the    brick, 

255      ' 

masonry,    white  jointwork,  257 
Bridge  board.  295 
truss,  500 

Bridging  floors,  283 
Bright  sap,  77 
Brittleiu  ss.  500 
Broken  ashlar  masonry,  250 

stone,  area  covered  by  a  cubic 

yard,  384 
pavements,  383 
voids  in,  384 
weight  of,  384 
Bronze.  142 

Brownstone.    See  Sandstone. 
Build.  260 
Built  b*'am,  294 
Bulkhead,  500 


Burnefs  process  for  preserving  tim- 
ber. 66 

Bush-hammered  stone,  237 
Butt,  500 
Butt-joint,  281 
Buttress,  260 


Calcareous  stones,  5-11 

Calibre,  500 

California  asphaltum,  379 

Calipers,  500 

Calk.  501 

Calking  joints  of  cast-iron  pipe,  357 

cf  rivets,  193,196 
Camber,  275,  501 
Cant-hook,  501 
Cantilever,  501 
Carbon  in  steel,  112 
Carpentry,  architraves,  290 
base  board.  290 
beams,  anchorage  of  floor, 

283 
beams,   bearing    of    floor, 

283 

bevelling    ends    of    floor- 
beams,  283 
bridging  floors,  283 
doors,  289 

parts  of,  289 
floor-beams,  283 
flooring,  282 
inspection  of,  279 
joints  in,  280 
joining  beams,  280 
linings,  291 
mouldings,  291 
parts  of  floors,  283 
roof-framing,  286 
rules  governing  trimming, 

284 
stairs,  287 

parts  of,  288 
standing  finish,  290 
terms  used  in,  293 
trimmer-beams,  284 
trimming  floor-beams,  284 
wainscoting,  291 
wall-plates,  287 
windows,  292 
Cast-iron,  appearance  of,  98 

castings,  defects  of,  97 
columns,  inspection  hole,  98 
compression  of,  95 
contraction  of,  95 
description  of,  94 
effect  of  manganese  on,  92 
phosphorus  on,  92 
silicon  on,  93 
sulphur  on,  92 
elongation  of,  95 
examining  water-pipes,  98 
expansion  of,  95 
extension  of,  95 
inspection  of,  98 
melting-point,  95 


520 


INDEX. 


Cast  iron,  notes  on  founding.  97 
piles,  216 

pipe,  defects  of,  354 
pipe,  inspection  of,  354 
pipes,  coating  for,  355 
pipes,       dimensions       and 

weights  of,  360 
pipes,  Dr.  Smith's  coating 

for,  355 

pipes,  hydraulic  test  for,  356 
pipes,  test    for    quality    of 

metal,  355 
properiies  of,  95 
remelting,  94 
shrinkage  of,  96,  148 
size  of  test-pieces,  98 
soil-pipe,  320 
strength  of,  96 
tenacity  at  high  tempera- 
tures, 96 
test-bars,  98 
test  for  honeycomb,  98 
tests  for,  145 
varieties  of,  94 
weight  of,  95 

weight  of  plates,  round  and 
square  bars  (Table  10),  99 
Cast  steel,  111 

tests  for,  121 
Castings,  steel,  121 
Causeway,  501 
Cedar,  white,  56 

red,  56 
Ceiling  lumber,  dimensions  of  yellow 

pine, 83 
grade  of,  80 
Cement,  activity  of,  39 

adulteration  of  Portland,  35 
amount  of  mortar  made  from 

a  barrel,  38 
asphaltic,  49 

manufacture      of, 

49 

ball  test  for,  37 
blowing     and     swelling     of 

Portland,  35 
characteristics  of   Portland, 

34 

clay  in  Portland,  34 
color  of  Portland,  34 

Rosendale,  35 
cubic  feet  in  a  barrel,  38 
bushel,  39 

dimensions  of  a  barrel,  38 
excess  of  lime  in  Portland,  34 
expansion  and  contraction  of 

Portland,  34 
fineness  of,  39 

Portland,  34 
Rosendale,  35 

form  of  label  for  sample,  36 
gypsum  in  Portland,  41 
hydraulic  activity,  40 

energy  of,  40 
hydraulieity  of,  40 
increase  in  bulk,  38, 243 
inspection  of,  36 
Keene's.  326 
Lafarge,  43 


Cement,  length  of  sewer-pipe  one  bar- 
rel will  lay,  370 
manufacture  of  Portland,  34 

slag,  42 

market  forms,  38 
marking    rejected    packages 

of,  36 

measuring  of,  for  mortar,  243 
miscellaneous,  42 
mortar,  effect  of  frost  on,  40 
mixing  of,  243 
salt  in,  40 
natural,  35 

overtimed  Portland,  35 
pipe  test  for,  367 
Portland,  composition  of,  34 

quality  of,  34 
preservation  of,  38 
pozzuolana,  43 
quick  and  slow  setting,  40 
Roman,  43 
Rosendale,  35 

setting  of,  35 
underburned,  35 
sampling  of,  36 
setting  of,  41 

Portland,  34 
size  of  sieves  for  measuring 

fineness  of,  39 
slag,  42 

soundness  of,  41 
specific  gravity  of  Portland, 

34 

storing  of,  38 
strength  of,  41 
sulphate   of  lime   in   water 

used  in  mixing,  40 
temperature  of  water  used 

in  mixing,  41 
tensile  strength  of  Portland, 

34 

test  for  contraction,  37 
expansion,  37 
setting,  37 
slag,  43 
soundness,  37 
tests  for,  37,  145 
underburnt  Portland,  34 
variation  in  bulk  of,  38 
weight  of  a  barrel,  38 
bushel,  39 
cubic  foot,  39 
Portland,  34 
Rosendale,  35 
Cementing  materials,  30 
Centring  for  arches,  277 
Chain-bond,  259 
Chairs,  501 
Chamfer,  295,  501 
Chamfered  panel,  290 
Checks  in  timber,  74 
Chemical  classification  of  stones,  5 
numeration  of  steel,  115 
Cherry,  inspection  of,  87 
Cherty  limestone,  11 
Chilling  irons,  94 
Chipping-chisel,  501 
piece,  501 
Chock,  501 


INDEX. 


521 


Chrome  steel,  115 
Circle,  properties  of,  410 
Circles,  area  and  circumference,  411 
Clapboard,  294 
Classification  of  brick,  19 
of  stones,  4 

Clay,  character  of,  for  brick,  18 
composition  of,  153 
definition  of,  153 
in  Portland  cement,  34 
iron  in  brick,  18 
puddle,  '22-2 

puddling,  223 
quality  of  clay,  222 
test  for  quality  of,  223 
refractory,  153 
shite,  11 

Cleaning  down  masonry,  260 
Clearing,  501 
Cleat,  a«5 

Cleavage  lino  of  rocks,  4 
Clevis,  501 
Close  piles,  215 
Closers,  260 
Coal-tar,  156 

coating  for  pipes,  350 

steel  pipes,  364 
distillate,  373 

Coating  cast-iron  pipes,  355 
Coffer-dams,  212 
Collar-beam,  286 
Color  of  bricks,  19 
Column  castings,  96 

bearings,  298 
Columns?,  erection  ol,  298 
Common  boards,  rules  for  grading,  81 

rot  in  timber,  65 
Composition  of  pig-iron,  91 

wrought  iron     (Table 

11).  102 

Compressed  steel,  115 
Compression,  501 

of  cast  iron,  95 
Concrete,  appearance  of  well-mixed, 

226 

asphaltic,  229 
definition  of,  224 
depositing  under  water,  228 
floors,  305 
inspection  of,  226 
laitance,  229 
laying  of,  227 
mixing  of,  226 
necessity   of    constant   in- 
spection, 226 
pipes,  3C7 

precautions  to  be  observed 
when  depositing  in  layers, 

227 
proportions  of  materials  in, 

225 
qualities  essential  to  good, 

224 
quality    of    the   materials, 

224 

quantity  of    materials    re- 
quired for  1  cubic  yard, 
225 
ramming  of,  227 


Concrete,  strength  of,  224 

weight  of,  224 

Contraction  of  cast  iron,  95 
metals,  148 
Portland  cement,  34 
steel,  112 
wrought  iron,  103 
Conventional  signs  for  rivets,  192 
Copper  alloys,  tests  for,  145 

description  of,  132 

expansion  of,  132 

melting-point  of,  132 

nails,  174 

roofing,  314 

shrinkage  of,  148 

strength  of,  132 

tests  for,  132 

weight  of,  132 

round    (Table     15), 

132 
sheet.  (Table  16),  133 

wire,  weight  of  (Table  16),  133, 

(Table  27)  165 
Coping,  261 
Corbel,  261,295,  501 
Cornice,  261 
Corrugated  iron  313 
Counterbrace,  501 
Counterfort,  262 
Countersink,  501 
Course,  262 
Covering-stones,  501 
Crab,  501 

Cracks  in  timber,  74 
Cradle,  502 
Cramps,  262 
Crandalled  stone,  237 
Crane,  502 
Creosote, 157 
Creosoting  timber,  67 
Crest,  295.  502 

railing,  502 
Cribs,  212 

Crooks  in  timber,  76 
Cross-bond,  259 
Cross-strain,  502 
Crowbar,  502 
Crown,  275 
Cube  roots,  416 
Cubic  measure,  391 
Culls,  87 
Culled,  502 
Culvert,  502 

Cup-shake  in  timber,  74 
Curb,  502 
Curbstones,  388 
Curtain-wall,  502 
Cut  nails,  174 

Cut  stone,  inspection  of,  241 
Cut- water,  262,  442 
Cypress,  57 


Dado,  295 
Dam,  502 
Dead  load,  502 
Deadman,  502 


522 


INDEX. 


Decay  of  timber,  64 

Decimal  equivalents  for  fractions  of 

an  inch,  3!)4 
Deck-bridge,  502 
Defects  of  cast-iron  castings,  97 

pipes,  354 
granite,  16 
limestone,  16 
sandstone,  16 
steel  ingots,  118 
terra-cotta,  26 
timber,  74 
Deflection.  502 
Derrick,  502 

Destruction  of  timber  by  worms,  65 
Detection  of  dry  rot,  65 
Diagonals,  295 
Diary,  inspector's,  2 
Dike,  or  dyke,  503 
Disk-piles,  215 

Dismissal  of  incompetent  workmen,  2 
Distribution  of  asphultum,  46 
Dive-culvert,,  509 
Doatiness  in  timber,  74 
Dock,  503 
Dog-iron,  503 

Doors,  construction  of,  289 
hardwood,  289 
pine, 289 
panelled,  289 
Dots,  plastering,  325 
Dowels,  262,  295 
Dovetail,  295 
Drafted  stones,  231 
Dragon -beam.  286 
Draw-bore,  295 

Dredging,  duty  of  inspector,  207 
extra  allowance  in,  207 
increase  of  scow  over  place 

measurements,  207 
manner  of  performing,  207, 

503 

marking  limits  of,  207 
Drift-bolts,  183,  213 

holding  power  of,  184 
Drift-pin,  use  of,  126,  503 
Drilling,  rate  of  progress,  203 

rock, 203 
Dry  measure,  391 

rot,  detection  of,  65 

in  timber,  64 
stone  walls,  262 
Ductility,  502 
Dummy  bolts.  184 
Dump,  SOS 
Dump-scow,  503 
Durability  of  stone,  5 

timber,  64 
Dutchman.  503 
Duty  of  inspectors,  1 
Dynamite,  205 


Earth  excavation,  201 

removing  of,  202 
Earthwork,  definition  of,  198 

duty  of  inspector,  198 


Earthwork,  form  of  side-slopes,  200 

increase  and  shrinkage  of 
excavated  material,  200 
prosecution  of,  198 
slopes  of,  199 
Eaves,  286,  503 
Edge-grain  timber,  77 
Edge-nailed,  282 
Edge-shot,  294 

Efflorescence  on  brick  masonry,  258 
Elastic  limit.  503 
Elasticity,  503 

Electrical  conductivity  of  cast  iron,  95 
copper.  182 
lead,  134 
steel.  112 
tin,  136 
w;rt  Iron,  102 
zinc, 141 
Elm,  white,  57 
Elongation  of  cast  iron,  95 
measuring,  147 
of  wrought  iron,  103 
Embankments,  manner  of  forming, 208 
Enamelled  brick,  22 
Encaustic  tiles,  28 
English  bond,  260 
Escarpment,  503 

Excavation,  amount  of  material  loos- 
ened per  man,  201 
classification  of,  198 
earth,  201 
rock,  203 

Expansion  of  cast  iron,  95 
copper,  132 
lead,  134 

Portland  cement,  34 
steel,  112 
timber  by  heat,  64 

water,  63 
tin,  136 

wrought  iron,  102 
zipc,  141 
Explosives.  204 
Extension  of  cast  iron,  95 
steel,  112 
wrought  iron,  103 
Extrados,  275 
Eye,  503 


Face,  262 
Facine,  504 
Facing,  262 
Facia-board,  286 
Factor  of  safety,  504 
Fall,  504 

arid  tackle,  504 
False  pile,  216 

works,  504 
Fastenings,  174 
Feather-edged.  294,  504 
Felt  asbestos,  158 

asphalt,  158 

laying  on  roofs,  307 

sheathing,  158 

tar,  158 
Fencing,  grade  of  lumber  for,  81 


INDEX. 


523 


Fender,  504 

pile,  215,  504 
Fernoline,  157 
Ferrolithic  paving,  387 
Ferro-manganese,  92,  111 
Field-rivets.  192 
Filling-piles,  215 
Fine-pointed  stone.  237 
Fineness  of  cement,  39 

sieves  for  meas- 
uring, 39 

sand,  to  measure,  151 
Finishing-lumber,  dimensions  of  yel- 
low pine,  83 

Fire-clay,  composition  of,  25 
Fire-brick,  composition  of,  25 
laying,  26 
qualities  essential  to  good, 

26 

size  of,  26 
weight  of.  26 
Fire-proof  construction,  504 

floors,  301 
Fishing,  280,  504 
Flagging,  388 

dressing  of,  388 
Flange,  504 
Flash-boards,  504 
Flashing,  roofs,  315,  505 
Flat-grain  timber,  78 
Flat  panels,  289 
Flatted,  295 
Flemish  bond,  260 
Floor-beams,  anchorage  of,  283 

bearing  of,  283 
Floors,  brick  arches,  301 
concrete,  305 

construction  of  fire-proof,  305 
fire-proof,  301 
hardwood,  282 
hollow-tile,  303 
laying  tile,  305 
parts  of,  283 
tests  for  tile,  305 
Flooring,  centre-matched,  80 
common,  79 

dimensions  of  yellow-pine,83 
double,  282 
edge-grain.  79 
flat-grain,  79 
A-flat.  79 
B-flat,  79 

grade  of  common,  79 
laying,  282 

Flooring,  rough  yellow-pine,  82 
single,  282 
yellow-pine,  89 
Flume,  505 
Flush.  505 

joints,  265 
panels.  289 
tanks,  3i'i8 

Flux  for  asphaltum,  49 
Fluxes  for  soldering,  144 
Footings,  262 
Forge  pig  iron,  91 
Forging  of  iron  anA  steel,  130 
Foundations,  artificial,  211 
caissons,  211 


Foundations,  care    required  to  avoid 

fractures,  210 
clay,  210 
coffer  dams,  212 
compressed-air    process 

of  sinking,  212 
cribs,  212 

duty  of  inspectors,  209 
freezing     process       for 

sinking,  212 
grillage,  213 
loads  on,  211 
natural.  210 
pile,  214,  215 

plenum  process  of  sink- 
ing, 212 
in  rock,  210 
sand,  210 

vacuum  process  of  sink- 
ing, 212 

Foundry  pig  iron,  91 
Foxiness  in  timber,  74 
Foxtail,  505 

Fracture  of  cast  steel,  121 
rolled  steel,  119 
stones,  16 
Frame,  505 
Freestone,  11 

Freezing  process  for  sinking  founda- 
tions, 212 
Frost,  effect  of,  on  brick,  25 

cement  mortar,  40, 

247 

stone,  6 

test  for  effect  on  stone,  6 
Furrings,  505 
Fuse-blasting,  205 
Fusibility,  505 


G 


Gain,  295 
Galvanized  iron,  313 

manufacture  of,  141 
Gasket,  505 

weight  of,  for  pipe-joints,  363 
Gauge-pile,  215 
Gauge,  wire,  162 
Gauged-work,  264 

Geological  classification  of  stones,  4 
Giant  powder,  205 
Gilsonite,  46 
Girder,  505 
Gin- pole,  505 
Glass,  defects  of,  338 

first  and  second  quality,  338 

strength  of,  338 

thickness  and  weight  of,  339 
Glazed  brick,  22 
Glazing.  339 
Glue,  159 

preparation  of,  159 

test  for,  159 

quality  of,  159 
Gneiss,  9 

strength  of    (Table  2),  13 
weight  of    (Table  2),  13 


524 


IKDEX. 


Grade  of  ceiling-boards,  80 

flooring-boards,  T9 

moulded  casings  and  base, 

80 

timber,  77 

Grades  of  hardwood,  87 
Granite,  absorption  of.  6 

blocks,  manufacture  of,  371 

block  paving,  371 

color  of,  8 

decay  of,  8 

defects  of,  16 

dressing,  232 

description  of,  8 

durability  of,  8 

to  detect'  presence  of  iron  in, 
9 

inspection  of,  16 

polishing,  233 

strength  of    (Table  2),  13 

weight  of    (Table  2),  13 
Granolithic  paving,  387 
Gravel,  description  of,  152 
\viishing  of,  152 
weigh!  of,  152 
Greenstone,  9 
Grillage,  213 
Grit,  152 
Grout,  204 
Groove-joints,  266 
Grubbing,  500 
Guide-pile,  215 
Gum,  57 
Gussets,  506 
Gutters-roof,  315 
Guy,  506 

Gypsum,  adulterant  for  Portland  ce- 
ment, 41 

plaster  of  Paris,  154 


Halving,  280 

Hammer-beam,  286 

Hammer  inspectors,  122 

Handrail,  288 

Handspike.  506 

Hardness,  506 

Hardening,  506 

wrought  iron,  105 
of  steel,  114,  130 

Ha rd can,  1P8,  506 

Hardwood  doors,  298 
floors,  282 

I  In  n  i  ches,  275 

Head-bay.  507 

Head  gate.  507 

Header  in  masonry,  264 
beam,  284 

Heading  joint,  275 

Heart-bond,  259 

Heart-shake  in  timber,  74 

Heat  conductivity  of  cast  iron,  95 
copper,  132 
lead,  134 
steel.  112 
tin,  136 


Heat  conductivity  of  wrought  iron,  102 

zinc,  141 

temperature  of  welding,  103 
Hemlock.  57 
Hemp,  quality  of,  160 
Hickory,  57 
Hip-roof,  506 
Hoarding,  506 
Hollow  pile,  215 

quoin,  507 
Hornstone,  11 
Horse,  506 
Housing,  295 
Hydrants,  inspection  of,  365 

setting  of,  365 
Hydraulic  lime,  31 

limestone,  11 

proof  of  water-pipes,  356 
Hydraulicity  of  cement,  40 


Igneous  rocks,  4 

Impost.  506 

Impurities  in  pig  iron,  91 

Inches  and  equivalent  decimals  of  a 

foot,  394 

Incompetent  workmen,  dismissal  of,  2 
Increase  in  bulk  of  excavated  materi- 
als, 200 
Ingots,  inspection  of  steel,  117 

marking  steel,  118 
Inspection  of  asphalt  paving,  382 

bolts  and  nuts,  184 

brick,  24 

masonry,  254 

broken  stone  pavements. 
383 

carpentry,  279 

cast  iron,  98 

pipes,  98,  354 

cement,  36 

concrete,  226 

cut  stone,  241 

dredging,  207 

earthwork,  198 

foundations,  209 

granite  block  paving.,  372 

hardwood,  87 

hydrants,  365 

iron  and  steel,  shop,  125 

lead  pipes,  317 

lime,  31 

malleable  cast  iron,  100 

oak,  87,  88 

painting,  351 

piles.  221 

plastering,  336 

plumbing,  317 

riveting,  125, 194 

rolled  steel.  118 

roofing.  307 

rubble  masonry,  252 

sand,  151 

sewer  construction,  368 
pipes,  368 

spruce,  87 


INDEX. 


525 


Inspection  of  steel,  117 

ingots,  117 
pipe,  363 
stone,  Itt 

masonry,  253 
tiles,  28 
timber,  73 
treated  timber,  69 
valves,  365 
varnishing,  352 
vitrified  pipe,  366 
white  pine,  86 
wrought  iron,  104 
yellow-pine  lumber,  83 
Inspector,  duty  of,  1 
Inspector's  diary,  2 
report,  2 
shop  records,  127 
Interpretation  of  specifications,  2 
Intrados,  275 
Invert,  275 
Iron,  acid  test  for,  124 

appearance  of  good  wrought,  104 
badly  refined,  104 
bending  test,  cold,  105 
hot,  105 

blue-shortness,  131 
cast,  94 
checking  and  marking  accepted 

pieces,  122 
cold  rolling  of,  129 

short,  104 
double  refined,  101 
elongation  of  wrought,  103 
extraction  from  th>e  ore,  90 
forging  of,  130 
galvanized,  141 
hardening  wrought,  105 
in  brick-clay,  18 

granite,  9 
inspection  of  cast,  98 

malleable  cast,  100 
malleable  cast,  100 
mill  inspection  of  wrought,  104 
muck-bars,  101 

nicking  and  bending  tests,  105 
notes  on  working,  129 
painting  of,  352 
pig,  91 
piles,  216 
puddling,  101 
punching,  129 
red-short,  104 
refined,  101 
rivets,  195 

tests  for,  105 
shearing,  129 

sheets,  weight  of  (Table  19),  140 
shop  inspection  of,  125 
work  records,  127 
size  of  test-pieces,  105 
straighten  ing  of,  125 
structures,  erection  of,  298 
test  for  rivet,  105 

pieces  for  cast,  98 
upsetting  of,  131 
welding,  130 
wire,  weight  of,  165,  166 


Iron,  wrought,  composition  of  (Table 

11).  102 

contraction  of,  103 
elongation  of,  103 
expansion  by  heat,  102 
extension  of,  103 
manufacture  of,  101 
modulus  of  elasticity, 

103 

properties  of,  102 
reduction  of  area,  103 
specific  gravity,  102 
strength  of,  103 

welds,  103 

tenacity  at  high  tem- 
peratures, 103 
to    distinguish     from 

other  varieties,  102 
Ironstone,  11 


Jack,  506 
Jack-rafter,  286 
Jack-screw,  506 
Jag-bolts,  213 
Jam-nut,  506 
Jamb,  266 
Japanning,  350 
Jetty,  506 
Jib,  506 
Jim-crow,  506 
Joints  in  carpentry,  280 
masonry,  265 
Joists,  283 

bevelling  ends,  283 
Joggle,  266 


Kalsomine,  350 

Kaolin,  153 

Kerf,  506 

Kerfed  beam,  294 

Keys,  182 

Keyed  joints,  265 

Keystone,  275 

Kiln-checks  in  timber,  76 

King-post,  286 

Knee,  506 

Knots  in  stone,  16 

Knot,  standard,  in  timber,  77 

Knotty  timber,  74 

Kosmocrete  paving,  387 

Kyan's  process  for  preserving  timber, 


Lafarge  cement,  43 

Lag-screws,  180 

holding  power  of,  181 
size  and  weight  of,  181 


526 


INDEX. 


Laminations  in  n  lied  steel,  119 

Laminated  rocks,  5 

Lang-lay  rope,  168 

Lap,  506 

Laps  in  rolled  steel,  119 

Lapping,  280 

Lap- weld  ing,  506 

Latlw  for  plastering,  327 

Lead,  506 

cast,  134 

description  of,  134 
expansion  of,  134 
melting-point  of,  134 
milled,  134 
pipe,  135 

pipes,  inspection  of,  317 
properties  of,  134 
sheet.  134 
shrinkage  of,  148 
specific  gravity  of,  134 
strength  of,  134 
waste-pipes,  317 
weight  of,  184 

for    cast-iron     pipe- 
joints,  363 
sheet,  135 
Lift,  507 

wall,  507 
Lignum  vitae,  58 
Lime,  air-sl;iked,  31,  32 
in  brick-clay,  18 
cubic  feet  in  a  barrel,  33 
excess  in  Portland  cement,  34 
freshly  burned,  31 
for  plastering,  327 
hydrate  of,  32 
hydraulic,  31 
inspection  of.  31 
keeping  slaked,  31 
market  form  of,  33 
poor,  31 
precautions  to  be  observed  in 

slaking,  32 
preservation  of,  31 
properties  of  pure,  33 
putty,  328 
quality  of,  31 
quick,'  33 
rich.  30 
slaking  of,  32 

sulphate  of,  plaster  of  Paris,  329 
stearate  of,  331 
weight  of,  33 
Limestone,  11 

bituminous,  48 
cherty,  11 
color  of,  11 
compact,  12 
defects  of,  16 
dolomitic,  12 
dressing,  234 
granular,  12 
hydraulic,  11 
inspection  of,  16 
magnesian,  12 
oolitic,  12 
silicious,  11 

s(re?)gth  of  (Table  2),  15 
weight  of  (Table  2),  15 


Limestones,  absorption  of,  6 
Limnoria    terebrans,    destruction    of 

timber  by,  (i(J 
Line  of  cleavage,  4 
Lineal  measure,  390 
Linings,  291,  506 

joints  in,  291 
Linseed  oil,  843 
Lintels,  length  of  bearing  on  walls,  300 

stone,  266 

Liquid  measure,  391 
Listed,  294 
Lilhocarbon,  47 
I  iveload,  507 
Load,  507 

Loam,  composition  of,  153 
Lock  canal,  507 
Locks,  setting  door,  279 
Locust,  58 
Loose  rock, 198 
Louvre,  507 
Lumber,  507 

centre-matched  flooring,  80 
first  and  second  clear  finish, 

78 
grade  of  fencing,  81 

floori  n  g,  ed  ge-g  rai  n , 

flat-grain,    B  flat, 

common  flooring, 

79 

moulded        casings 

and  base,  80 
rough     yellow-pine 

flooring.  8%2 
siding  and  grooved 

roofing,  79 
grades  of  ceiling,  80 
hardwood  grades,  87 
oak  flooring,  £8 
partition,  grade  of,  80 
quality  of  dimension,  81 
rules  for  classifying,  76 

grading,  common 

boards,  81 
grading,  finished, 

78 

siding,  grade  of.  80 
standard  dimensions  of  (floor- 
ing,   ceiling,    finishing, 
boards,     fencing,     dimen- 
sion), 83 

standard  lengths  of,  77 
third  clear  finish,  78 
Lycoris  f  ucata,  66 


M 

Macadam  pavement,  383 

Machine-made  brick,  20 

Magnesia  in  brick-clay,  18 

Mahogany,  58 

Malleability,  507 

Malleable  cast  iron,  100 

inspection  of,  100 
strength  of,  100 
iron,  shrinkage  of,  148 

Maltha,  46 

analysis  of,  50 


INDEX. 


527 


Manganese,  antidote  for  sulphur,  92 
bronze, 142 
effect  on  cast  iron,  92 
steel,  93 

wrought  iron,  93 
in  Bessemer  steel,  93 

brick-clay,  18 
steel,  114 

Manila  hemp,  test  for,  160 
Manufacture,  imperfect,  of  timber,  77 
right  to  require  special 

methods,  2 
Maple,  hard,  58 
white,  58 
Marble,  12 

dressing,  234 
dust  for  plastering,  328 
polishiug,  235 
strength  of    (Table  2).  15 
weight  of    (Table  2),  15 
Marbles,  absorption  of,  6 
Marking  rejected  material,  1 
Marl,  composition  of,  153 
Masonry  abutment,  259 

amount  of  mortar  required 

for  ashlar,  249 
amount  of  mortar  required 

for  broken  ashlar,  250 
amount  of  mortar  required 

for  rubble,  251 
amount  of  mortar  required 

for  square  stone,  250 
ashlar,  248 

backed  with  rubble, 

253 

facing,  242 
axed  stones,  237 
batter,  259 
bond  of,  259 

rubble,  251 
ashlar,  249 

brick  (see  Brick  Masonry).254 
broken  ashlar,  250 
bush-hammered  stone,  237 
classification  of,  230 

the  stones, 

230 

cleaning  down,  260 
consistency  of    mortar  for, 

246 

coping,  261 
coursed  rubble,  251 
crandalled  stone,  231 
cut  stones,  237 
definition  of  courses,  262 

the  terms  used 

in.  259 

description  of  joints,  265 
detection  of  empty  spaces  in 

rubble.  252 

diamond-panel  stone,  238 
drafted  stones,  l'3l 
dressing  the  stones.  231 
granite,  232 
limestone,  234 
marble.  234 
sandstone,  234 
effect  of  re-tempering  mor 
tar,  247 


Masonry,  fine-pointed  stone,  237 

finishing  faces  of  cut  stone, 

237 

flushed  joints,  242 
footing,  262 
general  rules  to  be  observed 

in  laying  all  classes  of,  253 
grout.  2(54 
header,  2C4 
inspection  of  rubble,  252 

Joints  in  rubble,  251 
aying  ashlar,  248 
lintels,  266 
methods    of  preparing  the 

stones,  230 
mixing  mortar,  243 
open  joints,  242 
patched  stones,  242 
pitched-faced  stones,  231 
peau-hammered  stone,  237 
pointing,  267 
proportions    of   ingredients 

for  mortar,  245 
quality  of  mortar,  24:5 
quarry-faced  stones,  231 
random-coursed  rubble,  251 
repairs  of,  258 
rip- rap,  268 
rock-faced  stones,  231 
rough  stones,  230 

pointed  stones,  237 
rubbed  stone,  238 
rubble,  251 

safe  working  loads  for,  272 
sand  for  mortar,  245 
slope  wall,  268 
stone-cutting,  231 
paving,  268 
stretchers  in,  269 
squared  stones,  230 
stone,  250 

tooth-axed  stone,  237 
uncoursed  rubble,  251 
unsquared  stones,  230 
use  of  nigger-heads  in  rub 

ble,  252 

spalls  in  rubble,  252 
Matched  boarding,  296 
Maul,  507 
Material,  marking  rejected,  1 

removal  of  rejected,  2 
Materials  produced  from  pig  iron,  93 
tests  for,  145 
testing  strength  of,  146 
Measures,  389 

comparing.  126 
miscellaneous.  392 
Measurement  of  timber,  73 
Melting-point  of  cast  iron,  95 
copper,  132 
lead, 134 
steel,  112 
wrought  iron,  102 
zinc,  141 

Mensuration,  408 
Metals,  extraction  from  ores,  90 
Metallilhic  paving,  387 
Metammphic  rocks.  4 
Metric  measures,  392 


528 


INDEX. 


Mica  slate,  9 
Mill  construction,  507 
Mineral  tar,  46,  157 
wool,  154 

weight  of,  154 
Mitre,  281 

sill,  507 

Modulus  of  elasticity,  507 
Moisture,    to    determine    amount    in 

timber,  75 

Mortar,  amount  of  cement  and  sand 
required  for  one  cubic  yard, 
249 
amount  required  for  ashlar 

masonry,  '249 
amount    required    for   brick 

masonry,  256 
amount  required  for  broken 

ashlar  masonry,  250 
amount   required  for  rubble 

masonry,  251 

amount  required  for  square- 
stone  masonry,  250 
colored,  257 
consistency  of,  246 
effect  of  frost  on,  247 

re-tempering,  247 
grout,  264 

lime  for  plastering,  327 
measuring  the  cement,  243 
mixing  of,  243 
pointing,  267 
quality  of,  243 
quantity  of  salt  used,  248 
sand  for,  245 
test  for,  145,  246 
thickness   of,  in    ashlar  ma- 
sonry, 246 
thickness  of,  joints  in  brick 

masonry,  256 
use  of  salt  in,  248 
water  for,  245 
Mortise  and  tenon,  281 
Moulded  panels,  289 
Mouldings,  machine-wrought,  291 
planted,  290 
stuck,  291 
splicing  of,  291 
Muck,  508 
Mucking,  508 
Muck-bars,  iron,  101 


N 

Nails,  174 

composition,  174 

copper,  174 

cut,  174 

holding  power,  174 

for  plaster  laths,  327 

wire,  174 

wrought,  174 
Natural  stones,  4 

bed  of  stones,  5 
Neat  lines,  508 

work,  508 
Newel,  288 
Nickel  steel,  114 


Nicking  and  bending  tests  for  iron,  105 
Nitroglycerine,  204 
Nomenclature  of  asphaltum,  47 
Nosing,  288,  508 
Notching,  281 
Nuts,  184 


Oak,  chestnut,  59 

live,  59 

red  and  black,  59 

white,  59 

inspection  of,  87,  ! 

quartered,  88 

rift-sawed,  88 
One-man  stone,  266 
Open-hearth  steel,  110 
Origin  of  bitumen,  45 
Out  of  square,  508 
wind,  508 


Paints,  asphalt,  346 

bituminous,  346 
coal-tar,  346 
graphite,  347 
metallic,  347 
special,  346 

test  for  water-proof,  352 
Putty,  350 
Painting,  340 

adulteration  of  red  lead,  342 
white   lead, 

341 

bases,  340 
benzine  in,  344 
fillers,  353 
inspection  of,  351 
iron,  352 
Joplin  lead,  341 
knotting,  351 
linseed-oil,  boiled,  343 
raw,  343 
adulteration  of, 

344 
substitutes    for, 

344 

materials  employed  for,  340 
naphtha.  344 
oxide  of  iron,  343 
oxysulphide  of  zinc,  342 
pigments,  344 
black  pigments,  344 
blue  pigments,  345 
brown  pigments,  345 
green  pigments,  345 
red  pigments,  345 
yellow  pigments,  316 
plaster,  351 
priming-coat,  351 
proportion    of   ingredients, 

346 

red  lead,  342 
solvents,  344 
stainers,  344 


INDEX. 


529 


Painting,  sublimed  lead,  341 

sulphate  of  baryta,  341 
tin,  3.r)2 

turpentine,  344 
vehicles  for,  343 
vermillion,  343 
white  lead,  340 

adulterations  of, 

341 

tests  for,  341 
wood,  351 
zinc  white,  342 
Pallets,  268 
Palmetto,  59 
Panelling,  289 

varieties  of,  28S 
Pan-tiles,  28 
Paper  sheathing,  158 
Parapet  wall,  266 
Paving,  asphalt,  374 

laying  of,  381 
preparation  of,  381 
artificial  stone,  387 
bituminous  limestone,  375 

sandstones,  375 
brick  pavement,  385 
characteristics  of  brick,  385 
curbstones,  388 
flagging,  388 
granite  blocks,  371 
inspection  of  asphalt,  382 
brick,  385 
granite-block, 

872 

macadam,  383 
Telford,  383 
laying  brick.  386 
macadam,  383 
materials  employed  for,  371 
paving-pitch,  156,  373 
properties  of  brick,  387 
size  of  brick,  387 
Telford,  383 
tests  for  brick,  145,  385 
tiles,  28 

Trinidad  asphaltum,  376 
wood  paving,  374 
Pean-hammered  stone,  237 
Perpend  bond,  259 
Petrolene,  44 
Phosphor  bronze,  142 
Phosphorus,  effect  of,  on  cast  iron,  92 
on  steel,  92 

wrought  iron, 92 

Physical  classification  of  stones,  4 
Piers,  bond-stones  in,  260 
Pig,  508 

iron,  classification  of,  91 

composition  of  (Table  8),  91 
impurities  in,  91 
materials  produced  from,  93 
Pile,  508 

caps,  213 
close,  215 
driving,  218 

excessive  hammering,  218 
heavy   or  flight  hammer 

for,  218 
machines,  2J9 


Pile  driving,  record,  221 

steam-hammer  for,  2i9 
use  of  follower,  219 
water- jet  for,  2J9 
Piles,  anchor,  215 

bands  tor.  218 
bearing,  215 
bouncing  of,  218 
broom  ing  of,  218 
cast-iron,  216 
description  of,  215 
disk,  215 
false,  215 
fender,  215 
filling,  215 
gauge,  215 
guide,  215 
hollow,  215 
inspection  of,  221 
iron  and  steel,  216 
pneumatic,  216 
pointing  of,  214 
sand,  216 
screw,  216 
sheet,  216 
short,  217 
splicing  of,  221 
steel,  216 
test,  217 
timber  for,  214 
Pilot-nut,  508 
Pins,  182 

tests  for,  145 
Pipes,  inspection  of  cast-iron,  9fe 
Pine,  white,  inspection  of,  86 
white,  59 
red,  60 
yellow,  60 
Oregon,  60 
long-leafed,  60 
short-leafed,  60 
Pitch-streaks,  76 
Pitched  faced  stones,  231 
Pitch  of  rivets,  190 
Plant,  508 

Planted  moulding,  291 
Plaster  of  Paris,  154,  329 

painting  of,  351 
Plastering,    area    covered    with    one 
cubic    foot    of    cement    and    sand, 
335 

Plastering,  brown  coat,  324 
classes  of,  323 
coarse  stuff,  324 
cornice,  325 
dots,  325 
dubbing  out,  325 
fine  stuff,  325 
finishing   coat,  first  coat, 

325 

floated  lath   and    plaster, 
floated     work,    floating- 
screeds,  325 
furring,  325 
gauge-stuff,  325 
grounds,  326 
hair  for,  326 
hand  floating,  326 
hard  finish,  326 


530 


INDEX. 


Plastering,  inspection  of,  336 

Keene's  cement,  326 
laid  and  set,  ^26 
laths  for,  327 
wood.  327 
metallic,  327 
laying,  327 

(see   Scratch-coat), 

3:30 

lime  for,  327 
mortar,  327 
putty,  328 

marble-dust  for,  328 
material  used  for,  323 
mixing  lime  mortar,  328 
nails  for  laths,  327 
one-coat  work,  329 
parqetting,  329 
plaster  of  Paris,  329 
pugging,  329 

quantity  of  materials  re- 
quired per  square  yard, 

rendering,  329 
roughcast,  329 
rule,  329 
sand  for,  329 

finish,  330 
Scagliola,  330 
scratch-coat,  324,  330 
screeds,  331 
screed- coat,  324 

and  set,  331 
skim-coat,  331 
slipped-coat,  324,  331 

stucco,  common, 

332 

bastard,  332 
trowelled,  332 
tile  arches,  337 
tools  used  in,  333 
two-coat  work,  333 
three-coat  work,  333 
weight  of  hair,  326 
white  coating,  333 
Plate,  296 
Pliability,  508 
Plinth-course,  262 
Plough-groove,  296 
Plumbing,  air  test,  322 

inspection  of,  317 
peppermint  test,  321 
smoke  test,  321 
tests  for,  321 
water  test,  321 
Pneumatic  piles,  216 
Point,  steel  working,  116 
Pointing  masonry,  267 
Polishing  granite,  233 
marble,  235 
Pony-truss,  448 
Poplar,  61 

inspection  of,  87 
Portland  cement,  34 

adulteration  of,  35 
blowing  and   swell- 
ing of,  35 
clay  in,  34 
color  of,  34 


Portland  cement,  characteristics  of,  34 
composition  of,  34 
excess  of  lime  in,  34 
expansion  and  con- 
traction of,  34 
fineness  of,  34 
overtimed,  35 
quality  of,  34 
underburnt,  34 
setting  of,  34 
specific  gravity  of  ,34 
tensile  strength  of  ,34 
weight  of,  34 
Pozzuolana,  43 
Pressed  brick,  20 
Preservation  of  cement,  38 
stone,  7 
timber,  66 

process      for, 

67,  68 

Preserving  timber,  form  of  report,  70 
Primed,  508 

Processes  for  preserving  stone,  7 
Processes    for    preserving     timber — 
Kyan's,  Burnett's,  Brucheris',  Beth- 
el's, Payne's,  Seeley's,  Wellshouse's, 
Thilmany's,  vulcanizing,  67,  68 
Profile,  508 
Proof  load,  508 
Properties  of  steel,  112 

timber  (Table  7),  56 
zinc,  141 

Puddled  steel,  109 
Puddling  clay,  223 
iron, 101 
Purlin,  286 


Q 

Quartered  oak,  88 
Juarry-faced  stones,  231 
Quarrying,  17 

leen-post,  286 
juicksand,  508 
Juoin,  268 


Rabbet,  296 
Racked-back,  508 
Rafter,  286 
Rails,  tests  for,  145 

door,  289 
Raked  out,  508 
Ramp,  508 
Ransome's     process    for    preserving 

stone,  7 
Rebate,  296 

Recalescence  of  steel,  116 
Red  lead,  342 

adulteration  of,  342 
heart,  77 
Redwood.  61 
Refuse,  timber,  87 
Refined  iron,  101 
Rejected  material,  marking,  1 


INDEX. 


531 


Rejected  material,  removal  of,  2 
Repairs  of  masonry,  258 
Report  of  inspectors,  2 
Repressed  brick,  20 
Residuum  oil,  51 

specifications  for,  51 
test  for,  51 
Resilience,  509 

Requisites  for  good  building  stone,  5 
Retine,  45 
Return,  508 
Reveal,  208,  509 
Ribs  in  slate,  II 
Ridge,  286 
Ridge- beam,  286 
Rift-line  in  rocks  4 
Rift-sawed  oak,  88 
Ring  course,  276 
Ring-heart  in  timber,  76 
Rind-gall  in  timber,  74 
Rip  rap,  268 
Rise,  268,  276 

of  stairs,  288 
Riser,  288 
Rivet-holes,  194 
Rivet-iron,  test  for,  105 
Rivet  signs,  192 
Rivets,  button-headed,  190 
calking  of,  193,  196 
cold,  196 

countersunk,  190 
cup-ended.  190 
description  of,  188 
detection  of  loose,  196 
field,  192 
form  of,  190 
hammered,  190 
heating  of,  195 
iron,  195 
length  of,  188 

required  to  form  head, 

188 

loose,  196 

marking  defective,  197 
pitch  of,  190 
precautions    to    be    observed 

with  steel,  195 
red  riving.  196 
size  of,  188 
Rivets,  steel,  195 

tests  for,  145,  194 
weight  of,  191 
Riveting,  192 

chain,  190 
cold.  193 
double,  190 

essentials  of  good,  194 
field.  126 
hand,  192 

inspection  of,  125,  194 
machine,  193 

pressure  required  for,  193 
quadruple,  190 
single,  190 
staggered,  190 
triple,  190 
use  of  drift-pin,  126 
zigzag.  190 
Rock-blasting,  204 


Rock-drilling,  203 

hand,  203 
machine,  203 
Rock  excavation,  203 

foundations  on,  210 
Rocks,  cleavage  line  or  rift  of,  4 
dikes  in,  5 
igenous,  4 
laminated,  5 
metamorphic,  4 
sedimentary,  4 
stratified,  4 
unstratified,  4 
Rock-faced  stones,  231 
Rolled  steel,  inspection  of,  118 
Roman  brick,  23 

cement,  43 
Roof-flashing,  315 
Roof-framing.  286 
Roof -gut  tens,  315 
Roof,  parts  of,  286 
valleys,  315 
Roofing-boards,  79 
Roofing,  copper.  314 

galvanized  iron,  313 
inspection  of,  307 
laying  shingle,  309 
slate,  309 
tile,  308 
tin,  308 

materials,  weight  of,  314 
sheath  ing-boards,  307 
slate,  309 

manufacture  of,  235 
tiles,  28 
tin,  307 
Roofs,  286 
Rope,  160 

hemp,  160 
manila,  160 
strength  of,  161 
Rosendale  cement,  35 

characteristics   of, 

35 

color  of,  35 
specific  gravity  of, 

35 

strength  of,  35 
underburnt,  35 
weight  of,  35 
Rosin-paper,  158 
Rot  in  stone,  16 
Rotten-.-tone,  11 
Rotten-streaks  in  timber,  76 
Rough-pointed  stone,  237 
Rowlock  course,  262 
Rubbed  stone,  238 
Rubble  masonry,  251 
Rules  for  grading  finished  lumber,  78 


Saddle-heads,  509 

Salt  in  cement-mortar,  40 

Salt,  quantity  used  in  mortar,  248 

Sampling  cement,  :!6 


532 


INDEX. 


Sand,  argillaceous,  150 
calcareous,  150 
coarse.  151 
definition  of,  150 
fine,  151 
for  plastering,  329 

mortar,  245 
in  brick-clay,  18 
measuring  fin  en  ess  of,  151 
method  of  drying,  152 
method  of  washing,  152 
mixed,  151 
piles.  216 
pit,  150 
river,  150 
sea,  150 

screening  of,  152 
sharp,  245 

sieves  for  measuring  fineness,  151 
siliceous,  150 
size  of,  151 

testing  cleanness  of,  151 
for  clay,  151 
salt,  151 

sharpness  of,  151 
use  of,  150 
voids  in,  151 
weight  of,  151 
Sandstones,  10 

absorption  of,  6 
bituminous,  48 
color  of,  10 
decay  of.  10 
defects  of,  10 
dressing,  234 
durability  of,  10' 
inspection  of,  16 
scaling  of,  10 
seasoning  of,  10 
setting  on  natural  bed,  10 
strength  of  (Table  2),  14 
weight  of  (Table  2),  14 
Sap  in  stone,  16 
Scaffold.  509 
Scagliola,  .330 
Scantling,  296 
Scarf,  296 
Scarfing,  280 
Scow,  509 
Screw-piles,  216 
Screws,  description  of,  180 
lag, 180 
for  metal,  182 
size  of  wood,  180 
Scribe,  509 
Scribing,  296 
Seasoned,  206 

Seasoning  checks  in  timber,  76 
of  store,  17 
of  timber,  62 

time  required  for, 

62 

Secants  (Table  83),  472 
Secret-nailed,  282, 296 
Sedimentary  rocks,  4 
Segregation  of  steel,  117 
Separators,  509 
Set,  509 
Setting  of  cement,  41 


Sewer-pipe,  length  that  one  barrel  of 

cement  will  lay,  370 
Sewerage,  brick  sewers,  369 

concrete  or  cement  pipes, 

367 

flush  tanks,  368 
inspection  of  construction, 
368 

pipes,  368 
vitrified  pipe, 

366 

lamp-holes,  368 
laying  vitrified  pipe,  367 
manholes,  368 
materials  employed  for,  366 
pipe  sewers,  368 
tests  for  pipe,  367 
vitrified  pipe,  366 

weight     of, 

370 

Shaft,  509 
Shakes  in  stone,  16 
Shake  in  timber,  76 
Shackle,  509 
Shear-steel,  109 
Shearing  stress,  509 
Sheathing-felts,  158 

papers,  158 
Sheet-piling,  216,  217 
Shim,  509 
Shingle,  152 

roofs,  309 

Shingles,  number  per  square,  309 
requisites  for  good,  309 
weight  of,  309 
Ship  lap,  grade  of,  81 

material,  tests  for,  145 
Shop  records,  127 
Shoes,  509 
Shoot,  509 
Shore,  509 
Shot,  296 
Shrinkage  of  cast  iron,  96 

excavated  materials,  200 
metals,  148 
steel  castings,  121 
timber,  63 
Siding,  grade  of,  80 
Siemens-Martin  steel,  110 
Sieves,  size  of,  for  measuring  fineness 

of  cement,  39 

Silicon,  effect  on  cast  iron,  93 
steel,  93 

wrought  iron,  93 
Silicious  stones,  5,  8 
Sill,  268,  296 
Silt,  509 

Sines,  tangents,  secants    (Table  83)  463 
Sinking,  509 
Siphon  culvert,  509 
Sisal  hemp,  test  for,  161 
Size  of  bricks,  23 

tin  roofing-plate,  137-139 
wire,  162 

Skeleton  construction,  510 
Skew-back,  276 

backs,  cutting  of,  232 
Skid, r>09 
Slug  eminent,  43 


INDEX. 


533 


Slaking  lime,  32 
Slate,  1 1 

Slate,  color  of,  11 
dressing  ,235 

manufacture  of  roofing,  235 
number  per  square,  312 
ribs  in.  11 
roofing,  309 
tests  for  roofing,  311 
veins  in,  11 

weight  of    (Table  2),  14 
Slates,  characteristics  of  good  roofing, 

311 

gauge  of,  310 
notes  on  roofing,  311 
Slings,  510 
Slips,  268,  510 
Slip-joint,  258 
Slopes  of  earthwork,  199 
Slope-wall,  2(58 
Sluice,  510 
Smith's  coating  for   cast-iron    pipes, 

355 

Sodding,  510 
Soffit,  275 

Soft  metals,  tests  for,  145 
Soils,  bearing  power  of,  211 
Soil-pipe,  cast-iron,  320 
Solders,  144 
Solid  rock,  198 
Solvents  for  asphaltum,  44 
Soundness  of  cement,  41 

stone,  to  test,  16 
Spall.  268,  252 
Span,  276 
Spandrel,  276 

beam,  510 
Special     methods     of    manufacture, 

right  to  require,  2 
Specific  gravity,  396 

of  asphaltum,  44 
brick     (Table  4), 

23 

lead, 134 
materials,  396 
Portland    cement, 

34 
Rosendale  cement, 

35 

steel,  112 
Specific  gravity  of  tin,  136 

wrought  iron,  102 
zinc,  141 
Specifications  for  cast  steel,  121 

failure  to  comply  with, 

3 

interpretation  of,  2 
Spiegel,  92 
Spiegeleisen,  92,  111 
Spile,  510 
Spillway,  512 
Splay,  510 
Splice,  296,  510 
Spline.  296 
Splits  in  timber,  74 
Springing,  278 

course,  262 
Spruce,  black,  61 
white,  61 


Spruce,  inspection  of,  87 
Square  measure,  390 

roots,  416 
Stage,  510 
Stains,  350 

Stall's,  construction  of,  287 
Standard  knot  in  timber,  77 
Standing  finish  (carpentry),  290 
Star-shake  in  timber,  74 
Starling,  262 
Steel,  acid  process,  110 
test  for,  124 
alloys,  114 
annealing,  129 
appearance  and  characteristics 

of  good,  117 
of    fracture    of 

rolled,  Ii9 
basic  process,  110 
bending  test,  cold,  123 

hot,  122 
Bessemer  and  open-hearth,  111 

process,  1 10 
bled  ingots,  115 
blister,  109 
blowholes  in,  117 

rolled,  118 
blue-shortness,  131 
burned,  115 
calking  of  joints,  131 
carbon  in,  112 
cast,  111 

appearance  of  fracture,  121 
tests  for,  121 
castings,  121 
checks  in,  115 
checking  and  marking  accepted 

pieces,  122 

chemical  numeration  of,  115 
chrome,  115 

cinder-spots  in  rolled,  119 
classification  of,  1 11 
cobbles  in  rolled,  119 
cold-short,  116 

rolling  of,  129 
color  of  rolled,  119 
composition  of,  109 
compressed,  115 
contraction  of,  112 
cracks  in  rolled,  119 
dead  melting,  115 
drifting  test,  123 
dry,  118 

effect  of  manganese  on,  93 
phosphorus  on,  92 
silicon  on,  93 
sulphur  on,  92 
expansion  of,  112 
external  cracks  in,  117 
extension  of,  112 
facing  and  boring,  126 
fire-box,  112 
fiery,  118 
flange,  111 
for  boilers,  120 
forging  of,  130 
forging,  test  for,  123 
form    of    inspector's  marking- 
tool,  122 


534 


INDEX. 


Steel,  form  of  test-billet,  118 
fracture  of  burued,  120 
grade  of,  115 
hard,  111 

strength  of  (Table  14),  113 
hardening  of,  114, 130 

soft,  129 
tests  for,  123 
heat  or  blow  tests,  118 
homogeneity  test,  124 
hot-short,  116 
inspection  of  ingots,  117 

riveting,  125 
internal  cracks  in, 117 
laminations  in,  119 
laps  in  rolled,  119 
loading  on  cars,  128 
manganese,  114 
manufacture  of,  109 
marking  of  ingots,  118 
medium,  111 

strength  of  (Table  14), 

113 

melting-point,  112 
melt  records,  118 
mild,  111 

mill  inspection  of,  117 
nickel,  114 

notes  on  working,  129 
overblown,  115 
overheated,  115 
overmelted,  116 
piles,  216 
pipe  in,  117 

rolled,  118 

pipe,  coating  for,  364 
pipe,  inspection  of,  363 
pits  in  rolled,  119 
point,  term  in  working,  116 
properties  of,  112 
puddled,  109 
punching,  129 
quenching  test,  124 
recaleseence  of ,  116 
red  short,  116 
restoring  of,  116 
rivets,  195 

rolled,  inspection  of,  118 
rough  handling  of,  129 
sappy,  117 
segregation  of,  117 
seams  in  rolled,  119 
shear,  109 
shearing,  129 
shell,  111 
shop  inspection  of,  125 

records,  127 
shrinkage  of,  148 

castings,  121 

Siemens-Martin's  process,  110 
Siemens    or    open-hearth    pro- 
cess, 110 
soft,  111 

strength     of      (Table    14), 

113 

snakes  in  rolled,  119 
specific  gravity,  112 
specifications  for  cast,  121 
stars  in  rolled,  118 


Steel,  straightening  of,  125 
strength  of,  112 

welds,  114 

structures,  erection  of,  298 
tank,  111 
temper  of,  11 G 

temperature  of  working  indica- 
ted by  fracture,  1!9 
tempering  of,  130 
tenacity  at  high  temperatures, 

113 

tensile  tests,  122 
terms  used  in  working,  115 
tests  for,  122 

to  distinguish  from  iron,  109 
tungsten.  115 
upsetting  of,  131 
use  of  di  ift-pin  in  riveting,  126 
varieties  of,  109 
water-cracks  in,  116 
weight  of,  112 
welding  of,  130 

test  for,  123 
wild,  116 

wire,  weight  of,  165,  166 
Stiffness,  510 
Stiles.  289 
Stirrup,  511 
Stone,   absorptive  power  of,  6 

argillaceous,  5,  11 

artificial,  composition  of  29 

basalt,  9 

boat,  510 

calcareous,  5,  11 

cavities  in,  16 

chemical  classification,  5 

classification  of,  4 

crowfoots  in,  16 

cut,  231 

drafted,  231 

drysin,  16 

durability  of,  5 

effect  ot  atmosphere  on,  7 
frost  on,  6 

fracture  of,  16 

freestone,  11 

geological  classification,  4 

gneiss,  9 

granite,  8 

greenstone,  9 

inspection  of,  16 

knots  in,  16 

laminae  or  beds  of,  5 

limestone,  11 

marble,  12 

mica-slate,  9 

natural,  4 

bed  of,  5 

paving,  268 

physical  classification;  4 

pitched -faced,  231 

powder-cracks  in,  17 

preservation  of,  7 

quarry-faced,  231 

quarrying,  17 

Ransome's    process    for     pre- 
serving, 7 

requisites  for  good  building,  5 

rock-faced,  231 


INDEX. 


535 


Stone,  rot  in.  16 

rough-v>ointed,  237 
rubbed,  238 
sandstones,  10 
sap  in,  16 
seams  in,  16 
seasoning  of,  17 
shakes  in,  16 
siliceous.  5,  8 
squared,  230 
test  for,  6,  145 

effect  of    atmosphere 

on,  7 
frost,  6 

soundness  of,  16 
tooth-axed,  ','37 
trap, 9 

unsqtiared,  230 
veins  in,  16 
weather-worn,  17 
syenite,  9 
Stone-cutting,  231 

arch-stones,  232 
ashlar  facing,  '-.'42 
axed  stone,  237 
beds  and  joints,  231 
bush-hammered  stone, 

237 

chisel  draught,  231 
concave  beds,  241 
crandalled  stone,  237 
diamond-panel     stone, 

238 

fine-pointed  stone,  237 
granite.  232 
inspection  of,  241 
limestone,  234 
marble,  234 
method     of     finishing 

the  face,  237 
patched  stones.  242 
patent     hammered 

stone,  237 
pean-hammered  stone, 

237 
rough  -  pointed    stone, 

237 

rubbed  stone,  238 
sandstone,  234 
slack  beds,  241 
slate,  235 

terms  used  in,  240 
tooth-axed  stone,  237 
tools  used  in,  238 
Storing  cement,  38 
Strain.  450 
Straining-beam,  287 
Stratified  rocks,  4 
Strength,  510 

of  bolts,  187 

brick  (Table  4),  23 
cable  chains,  173 
cast  iron,  96 
cement.  41 
concrete,  224 
copper,  132 
flat  wire  ropes,  171 
tile  arches,  304 
galvanized  wire  rope,  171 


Strength,  of  granite  (Table  2),  13 
iron  wire  rope,  169 
glass.  338 
lead, 131 

limestone  (Table  2),  15 
malleable  cast  iron,  100 
man i la  rope,  162 
marble  (Table  2),  15 
Portland  cement,  31 
Rosendale  cement,  35 
sandstone  (Table  2),  14 
steel,  112 

cables,  172 
rope,  170 

terra  cot  fa  (Table  5),  27 
timber  (Table  7),  57 
tin,  136 

trap    (Table  2),  13 
welds,  wrought-iron,  103 
wire,  167 

wrought  iron,  103 
zinc,  141 

Stress,  510 

Stretching  course,  262 

String  course,  262,  269,  276 

Strings,  288 

Stringer,  296,  511 

Struck  joints,  265 

Struts,  287.  511 

Stuck-moulding,  291 

Stud.  296,  511 

Stud-bolt,  511 

Sulphur,  effect  on  cast  iron,  92 
steel,  92 
wrought  iron,  92 

Sump,  511 

Swedged,  511 

Swivel,  511 

Syenite,  9 

strength  of  (Table  2),  13 
weight  of  (Table  2),  13 

Sylvester's  washes  for  brick  masonry, 


Tail-bay,  283,  507 
gate,  507 

Tamp,  511 

Tangents  (Table  85),  487 

Tap-bolt,  511 

Tar-felt,  158 

Tarred  paper,  158 

Telford  paving,  3S3 

Temperature  of  welding  heat,  103 

Tempering,  511 

asphaltum,  49 
steel,  130 

Temper,  term  in  steel  working,  116 

Templets,  269,511 

Tenacity  of  cast  iron  at  high  tempera- 
tures, 96 

Tenacity  of  steel  at  high  temperatures, 
113 

Tenacity  of  wrought  iron  at  high  tem- 
peratures, 103 

Tension.  511 

Teredo  navalis,  65 


536 


INDEX. 


Teredo  navalis,  destruction  of  timber 

by,  65 

Terms  used  in  carpentry,  293 
masonry,  259 
stone-cutting,  240 
steel  working,  115 
Terra-cotta,  defects  of,  26 

description  of,  26 
porous,  28 
specimens : 
for  compression    tests, 

impact  tests  148, 
tension  tests,  146 
transverse  tests,  148 
size  of,  146 

strength  of  (Table  5),  27 
weight  of,  27 
Test-pieces,  proportions  of,  146 

piles,  217 
Tests  for  asphaltum,  52 

bituminous  rock,  53 
brick,  24 
cast-iron  pipe,  355 

steel,  121 
cement,  37 
copper,  132 
effect     of     atmosphere    on 

stone, 7 

frost  on  stone,  6 
glaze  of  vitrified  pipe,  366 
glue,  159 

hydraulic,  for  pipes,  356 
for  iron  in  granite,  9 

rivets,  105 
Manila  hemp,  160 
materials,  145 
mortar,  246 
paving-brick,  385 
pipe-coatings,  364 
plumbing,  321 
puddle  clay,  223 
residuum  oil,  51 
rivets,  194 
roofing-slate,  311 
sand,  151 
sewer-pipe,  367 
sisal  hemp,  161 
slag  cement,  43 
soundness  of  stone,  16 
steel,  122 
stone,  6 
tile  floor,  305 
timber,  74 

treated     with      zinc 

chloride,  69 
tin,  136 

roofing-plate,  137 
water-proof  paint,  352 
water-pipes  when  laid,  358 
white  lead,  341 
wrought  iron,  105 
speed  for  applying  tensile,  146 
tensile,  precautions    to    be    ob- 
served in,  146 
Testing-machine,  146 

strength  of  materials,  146 
Tie-beam,  287 

rods  for  brick  arches,  302 


Tile  floors,  303 
Tiles,  description  of,  28 
encaustic,  28 
flat,  28 

inspection  of,  28 
pan,  28 
paving,  28 
roofing,  28,  308 
weight  of.  28 

Timber,  absorptive  power  of,  75 
appearance  of  good,  73 
artificial  seasoning  of,  62 
ash,  description  of,  56 
blue  sap  in  yellow  pine,  76 
bright  sap  in  yellow  pine,  77 
cedar,  description  of,  56 
common  rot  in,  65 
creosoting  of,  67 
culls,  87 

cypress,  description  of,  57 
defects      of :       wind-shakes, 
•    splits,       checks,       cracks, 
brash,       belted,        knotty, 
twisted,   heart-shake,   cup- 
shake,     rind    gall,    upset, 
foxiness,  d  oat  in  ess,  74 
defects  in  rough  stock,  77 
destroyed  by  Teredo  navalis, 

65 
Limnoria   tere- 

brans,  66 

dressed  yellow  pine,  82 
dry  rot  in,  64 

detection  of,  65 
durability  and  decay  of,  64 
edge-grain,  77 
elm,  description  of,  57 
expansion  by  heat,  64 

of,  by  water,  63 
flat-grain,  78 
flat-sawed,  88 
for  piles,  214 
grade  of,  77 
gum,  description  of,  57 
hemlock,  description  of,  57 
hickory,  description  of,  57 
imperfect  manufacture,  77 
inspection  of,  73 

hardwood,  87 
spruce,  87 
treated,  69 
white  pine.  86 
yellow  pine,  83 
kiln-checks  in,  76 
kinds  of,  55 
lignum  vitse,  description  of, 

58 

locust,  description  of,  58 
(lumber)    first     and     second 

clear  finish,  78 
rules    for     classify- 
ing, 76 
rules    for     grading 

finished.  78 
standard  lengths,  77 
mahogany,  description  of,  58 
maple,  description  of,  58 
measurement  of,  73 
natural  seasoning  of,  62 


INDEX. 


537 


Timber,  oak,  description  of,  59 

palmetto,  description  of,  59 
piiie,  description  of,  59 
pitch-streaks  in  yellow  pine, 

76 

poplar,  description  of,  61 
preservation  of,  0(5 
preservative     processes    for  : 
Kyanizing,        Burnettizing, 
Bi-ueheri's,         Bethel's, 
Payne's,     Seeley's,     Wells- 
house's,    Thilmany's,    vul- 
canizing1, 67,  68 
preserving,  form  of  report,  70 
properties  of  (Table  'i),  56 
quarter-sawed,  88 
redwood,  description  of,  61 
resistance  to  cross-breaking, 

crushing,  57 
shearing,  57 
tension,  57 
rift-sawed,  88 
rotten-streaks  in,  76 
rough  yellow  pine,  82 
seasoning  of,  62 

checks  in, 76 
shrinkage  of,  63 
spruce,  description  of,  61 
standard  knot,  77 
strength  of  (Table  7),  57 
strip  count,  78 
structure  of,  55 
test  of,  74 

for.    treated    with     zinc 

chloride,  69 
time  required  for  seasoning, 

63 
to     determine     amount     of 

moisture  in,  75 
walnut,  description  of,  Gl 
wane  in,  76 
water-seasoning  of,  62 
weight  of,  57 
wet,  rot  in.  65 
worms  in,  65 

(yellow  pine)  defects  of,  76 
Tin,  bright,  137 

description  of,  136 

expansion  of,  136 

painting  of,  352 

poperrties  of,  136 

roofing,  307 

specific  gravity  of,  136 

strength  of.  136 

terne  plate,  137 

tests  for,  136 

weight,  136 

plate,  manufacture  of,  137 

roofing-plate,  137 

quality  of,  137 
size  of  sheets,  137 
thickness  of,  137 
weight  of,  139 
shrinkage  of,  148 
Tires,  tests  for,  145 
Thickening  washers,  511 
Thilmany's    process    for    preserving 
timber,  67 


Thimble,  512 

Through  bond,  259 
bridge,  512 

Tongue,  296 

Tools  used  in  stone-cutting,  238 

Tooth-axed  stone,  237 

Toothing,  269 

Torsion,  512 

Transom,  297 

Transverse  strength  of  timber,  57 
stress,  512 

Trap,  9 

strength  of  (Table  2),  12 
weight  of  (Table  2),  13 

Tread,  289 

Trenails,  182 

Trigonometrical  functions,  461 

Trim  (carpentry),  290 

Trimmer-beams,  284 

Trimming,  284-287 

rules  governing,  284 

Trinidad  asphaltum,  376 

cheese  pitch,  376 
fipuree,  376 
iron  pitch,  376 
land  pitch,  376 

Truss,  512 

beam,  294 

Tuck  pointing,  267 

Tungsten  steel,  115 

Turnbuckle,  512 

Twisted  timber,  74 

Two-men  stone,  269 


Uintahite,  46 
Underpinning,  512 
Uustratified  rocks,  4 
Upright,  297 
Upset,  512 

in  timber,  74 
Upsetting,  steel  and  iron,  131 


Valley,  512 
Valleys,  roof,  315 
Varieties  of  cast  iron,  94 

steel,  109 
Varnish,  348 

asphalt,  349 
quality  of,  348 
Varnishes,  oil,  348 

spirit,  349 
water,  349 

Varnishing,  inspection  of,  352 
Veins  in  slate,  11 
Veneered,  297 
Vitrified  pipe,  366 

inspection  of,  366 
salt  glaze,  366 
slip  glaze.  366 
test  for  glaze,  366 
tests  for.  367 
Voids  in  broken  stone,  384 

sand,  151 
Voussoirs,  276 


538 


INDEX. 


Vulcanizing  timber,  68 


W 


Wainscoting,  291 
Wales,  512 

Walls,  anchoring,  269 
bracing,  270 
curtain,  270 
furred,  270 
plates,  287 
recesses  in,  270 
thickness  of,  271 
Walnut,  black,  61 
white,  61 

Wane  in  timber,  76 
Warp  in  timber,  76 
Warped,  512 
Washers,  513 

size  and  weight  of,  184-187 
Washboards,  297 
Waste-weir,  512 
Wasted,  512 
Water  for  mortar,  245 

jet  for  driving  piles,  219 
pipes,  examining  cast-iron,  98 
supply,baek -filling  treuches,359 
cast-iron  pipes,  calking 

joints  of,  357 
cast-iron  pipes,  coating 

of,  355 
cast-iron  pipe,   Barff's 

coating  for,  356 
cast-iron   pipe,  Doctor 
Smith's  coating  for, 
355 
cast-iron  pipes,  defects 

of,  354 
cast-iron  pipes,  gasket 

for  joints  of,  357 
cast-iron  pipes,  inspec- 
tion of,  354 
cast-iron  pipes,  laying 

of,  357 
cast-iron     pipes,    lead 

for  joints,  363 
en  *t.  iron    pipes,    tests 

for,  355 
cist  iron  pipes,  weight 

o;'.  :A)0 
hydrants,      inspection 

of,  36) 
hydrants,    setting    of, 

365 
hydraulic      proof     of, 

pipes.  356 
materials        employed 

for,  354 
st  -el  pipe,  363 

coating  for, 

364 
inspection 

of,  363 
steel    pipe,   laying  of, 

364 

test    for  pipe-coating, 
364 


Water-supply,  testing  pipes  after  lay- 
tools  used   in   calking, 

358 
valves,   inspection    of, 

365 

setting  of,  365 

weight    of    lead    and 

gasket   for  cast-iron 

pipes,  363 

weight     of     standard 

specials,  362 
Water-table,  26> 
Weather-boarding,  297 

joint,  265 
Wedges,  182 
Weight  of  brass  sheets  (Table  16).  133 

wire  (Table  16),  133 
bricks,  23 

percu.ft.(Table4),23 
broken  stone,  384 
cast  iron,  95 

soil-pipe,  320 

casting  from  weight  of  pat- 
tern, 149 
cements,  38 
concrete,  224 
copper,  132 

sheets  (Tablel3),133 
wire  (Table  16),  133, 

165 

flat  tile  arches,  304 
fire-brick.  26 
galvanized  iron,  313 
gasket  for  pipe- joints,  363 
glass.  339 

gneiss  (Table  2),  13 
granite  (Table  2),  13 
gravel.  152 
hair,  326 
hollow.brick,  23 
iron  wire,  165 
lag-screws,  181 
lead, 134 

waste  pipe,  317 
lime,  33 

limestone  (Table  2),  15 
marble  (Table  2),  15 
materials  (Table  80),  396 
mineral  wool,  154 
paving-briek,  387 
Portland  cement,  34 
rivets,  191 

roofing  materials.  314 
round  copper  (Table  15),  132 
Rosendale  cement,  35 
salt  glazed  sewer-pipe,  370 
sand, 151 

sandstone  (Table  2),  14 
sheet  iron  (Table  19),  140 

lead.  135 
shingles.  309 
slate  (Table  2),  14 
steel,  112 

wire,  165 
terra-cotta,  27 
tiles,  28 
timber,  57 
tin,  136 


INDEX. 


539 


Weight  of  tin  roofing-plate,  139 
trap  (Table  2),  13 
washers,  187 
wood.  56 

wrought-iron  nails,  175 
zinc,  141 

Weights  and  measures,  389 
Weir,  51 8 
Weld,  513 

strength  of  steel,  114 

wrought  iron,  103 
Welding  heat,  temperature  of,  103 
iron. 130 
steel,  130 
wrought  iron,  102 

Wellshouse  process  for  preserving  tim- 
ber, 07 

Wet,  rot  in  timber,  65 
Whitewood,  61 
White  lead,  adulteration  of,  341 

tests  for,  341 
skate-joint,  266 
Whitewash,  350 
Whiting,  350 
Wind,  512 
Winder,  289 

Windows,  construction  of,  292 
Wind-shakes  in  timber,  74 
Wing-walls,  512 
Wire,  163 

gauge,  U.  S.  standard,  164 
gauges,  162 

compared,  163 
nails,  174 

number  of  yards  of,  to  the  bun- 
dle, 167 

strength  of,  167 
rope,  168 

tests  for,  145 
tests  for,  145 
weight  of,  165 

brass  (Table  16),  133 
copper  (Table  16),  133 
Workmen,  dismissal  of  incompetent,  2 
Wood,  absorptive  power  of,  75 
bricks,  2(59-297 
creosote,  157 

description  of  (Table  7),  56 
painting  of,  351 
paving,  374 
screws,  size  of,  180 
tar,  157 
tests  for,  145 
weight  of,  56 
Woodiline.  157 
Worms  in  timber,  65 
Wrought  iron,  composition  of  (Table 

II).  102 
distinguished       from 

other  varieties,  102 
effect   of    manganese 

on,  93 

effect  of    phosphorus 
on,  92 


Wrought  iron,  effect  of  silicon  on,  93 
sulphur  on, 92 
expansion  by  heat,  102 
extension  of.  103 
nails,  weight  of,  175 
properties  of,  102 
strength  of.  103 
tests  for,  105 
welding,  102 

Wurtzilite,  46 


Yellow  pine,  blue  sap  in,  76 

bright  sap  in,  77 
pitch-streaks  in,  76 
clear  inspection,  85 
defects  in    rough  stock, 

76,  77 

dimension  stock,  83 
dimensions    of.   flooring, 

ceiling,  finishing,  83 
dressed  timber,  82 
edge-grain,  77 
flat-grain,  78 
flooring,  83,  89 
lumber,  inspection  of,  83 
merchantable  boards  and 
plank,  85 
flooring,  85 
inspection, 

84 

siding,  86 
plank,  83 

prime  inspection,  84 
quarter-sawed,  89 
rift  sawed,  89 
rough  edge,  84 

timber,  82 
scantling,  83 
stepping,  83 
square-edged  inspection, 

84 

trade  designations,  85 
Yield-point,  513 


Zinc  chloride  process  for  preserving 

timber,  66 
description  of,  141 
expansion  of,  141 
melting-point  of,  141 
paint,  342 
precautions    to    be  observed  in 

the  use  of,  141 
properties  of,  141 
shrinkage  of,  148 
specific  gravity  of,  141 
strength  of,  141 
weight  of,  141 


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